CLIMATE RELATED MITIGATION

TITLE PAGE

Chapter one

Abstract

Introduction

1.1 Definition of climate-related mitigation

1.2 Importance of mitigation in addressing climate change

Chapter two

Understanding Climate Change

2.1 Definition of climate change

2.2 Causes of climate change (greenhouse gases, deforestation, etc.)

2.3 Impacts of climate change (rising sea levels, extreme weather events, etc.)

Chapter three

Climate-Related Mitigation Strategies

3.1 Energy efficiency and conservation measures

Chapter four

Mitigation in Key Sectors

4.1Energy sector: transition to renewable energy sources, energy efficiency measures

Chapter five

Climate Change Mitigation and Sustainable Development

5.1 The role of climate change mitigation in achieving sustainable development

5.2 Challenges and opportunities for integrating climate change mitigation and sustainable
development
Chapter six

Implementation and Financing of Mitigation Strategies

6.1 Policy and regulatory frameworks for supporting mitigation strategies

Chapter seven

Conclusion

Recommendations

References
 CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT

Climate change poses significant threats to global sustainability, human health, and economic
development. Mitigation strategies are thereby essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and limit the worst impacts of climate change. This research examines the effectiveness of
various climate-related mitigation strategies, including the transition to renewable energy
sources, energy efficiency measures, and sustainable land use practices.

The study also explores the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing these
strategies, including the role of policy and regulatory frameworks, financing mechanisms,
and international cooperation. The findings of this research highlight the need for urgent and
collective action to mitigate the impacts of climate change and promote sustainable
development. The study provides recommendations for policymakers, practitioners, and
researchers seeking to develop and implement effective climate-related mitigation strategies

INTRODUCTION

Climate change is impacting communities in every country, across every continent. From
rising sea levels and extreme weather events, to energy, food and water insecurity – the
consequences are clear, and they are tragic. Developing countries and vulnerable populations
who are on the front lines of climate change need support. Yet global efforts to combat
climate change and achieve sustainable development are falling short.

The Intergovernmental Panels on Climate Change (IPCC) and the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have identified climate change as the greatest
threat of the century and reported that the earth’s average temperature has risen by 0.74°C.
Also, the present atmospheric concentration of carbon-dioxide (CO2 ) is 385 ppm 1 far more
than at any time in the last 650,000 years resulting in climate change or global warming. 2

Climate change is caused by both natural and human factors including the earth’s orbital
changes, solar variations, ocean currents, volcanic eruptions. These various causes have
resulted in rising sea levels, melting of ice at the world’s poles and on its mountains and

1
Parts Per Million
2
U. S. ONOJA, U.M.E. DIBUA AND A. A. ENETE; “CLIMATE CHANGE: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES-A
REVIEW”, VOL. 17, NO. 4, 2011: 469-479
violent downpours resulting in over flooding and submerging of coastal areas and consequent
migration of animal species; heat waves leading to desertification, depletion of water
availability, reduced animal metabolism and agricultural food production, loss of biodiversity,
food insecurity, decreased animal health etc.

Some measures identified to have potentials to bring about climate change mitigation
including the use of carbon capture & storage (CCS) technology and trading plants for carbon
as carbon tracking devises; breeding of fuzzy-leaved crops and irrigation as techniques for
cooling the atmosphere. Strategies for climate change adaptation through a multi-dimensional
and multi-sectoral approach have become imperative as a result of inequalities between the
developed and the developing nations in terms of limited capital resources and expertise.

The successes recorded so far through these efforts are encouraging but they have not been
able to drastically reduce the rise in atmospheric temperature, hence the consequences
abound, especially in the developing countries like Nigeria.

DEFINITION OF CLIMATE-RELATED MITIGATION

Climate related mitigation involves actions to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions
from human activities. It refers to any action taken by governments, businesses or people to
reduce or prevent greenhouse gases, or to enhance carbon sinks that remove them from the
atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun in our planet’s atmosphere, keeping it warm.

Mitigation efforts include transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing energy

efficiency, adopting regenerative agricultural practices and protecting and restoring forests
and critical ecosystems.

IMPORTANCE OF MITIGATION IN ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE

Mitigation is devoted to the reduction of the rate of increase, and scale of changes, in
greenhouse gases (GHG). Adaptation aims to improve the capacity of defense and resilience,
which reduces the passive influence of climate change. 3 Mitigation action lowers the GHG

3
Gehrke, Gretchen E; Blum, Joel D; Meyers, Philip A (2009): Geochemistry and Hg isotopic composition of mid-
Pleistocene sapropel of ODP Hole 161-974C [dataset publication series]. PANGAEA,
https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.783370, Supplement to: Gehrke, GE et al. (2009): The geochemical behavior
and isotopic composition of Hg in a mid-Pleistocene western Mediterranean sapropel. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 73(6), 1651-1665, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.12.012
concentrations via reducing GHG emissions and adding carbon sinks, to meet the objective of
reducing the pace of climate change and frequency of extreme events.4

Although mitigation of climate change is a global process that will take centuries to effect, it
is valuable to take certain mitigation steps now. Reducing the production of greenhouse gases
in the region will result in immediate improvements in the regional environment and con-
tribute to better health and well-being and to economic efficiencies in households and
businesses.

At first glance, the most immediately useful and least economically disruptive response to
climate change and climate variability is to develop strategies for adapting to and moderating
those impacts of climate change and variability that affect us most directly. Because climate
change is a global phenomenon, this argument goes, and because it takes decades and even
centuries for some greenhouse gases to disappear from the atmosphere, we should seek ways
to deal with the local impacts of climate change and variability rather than trying to reduce it
at the global level. Attempts to mitigate climate change could involve efforts that will take
years and require concerted and expensive international cooperation.

For example, one of the principal means of mitigating cli mate change is reducing the
production of greenhouse gases. Since mitigation strategies will only indirectly affect our
local climate, many reasonable people assume that mitigation should not be a priority for the
region. One problem with this approach is that if every city and country decides to give low
priority to the mitigation of greenhouse gases, current trends in the global climate will
continue and may even accelerate, causing more severe direct and indirect impacts in local
areas.

A related problem is that focusing on adaptation to local impacts of climate change without
attempting to reduce future changes to Earth’s climate is not a responsible position for a city
or region, a state, or a country. This is an issue of good governance and responsible
stewardship of the Earth, not an issue that speaks to the self interest of local governments or
even the nation.5

4
Lu, L. 2013. “Policies and Technologies for the Mitigation of Climate Change.” Chinese Journal of Agricultural
Resources and Regional Planning 1 (34): 71–75.
5
New York Metropolitan Region: Climate Change Information Resources
 Chapter 2

UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is “a systematic change in the long-term state of the atmosphere over
multiple decades or longer.” Scientists use statistical tests to determine the probability that
changes in the climate are within the range of natural variability similar to the statistical tests
used in clinical trials to determine whether a positive response to treatment is likely to have
occurred by chance.6

For example, there is a less than 1% chance that the warming of the atmosphere since 1950
could be the result of natural climate variability. From a sociological standpoint, the present
output of GHG emissions stems from the current organization of social, political and
economic systems and the social and cultural practices that reinforce those systems.
Therefore, efforts to mitigate GHG emissions will require a better understanding of the
working of these systems and the various components that make them up as well as an
understanding of the relationships among these components.

At its most basic, climate change is caused by a change in the earth’s energy balance, how
much of the energy from the sun that enters the earth (and its atmosphere) is released back
into space. The earth is gaining energy as we reduce the amount of solar energy that is
reflected out to space, just like people gain weight if there is an imbalance between calories
in and calories out.

Since the Industrial Revolution started over 200 years ago, human activities have added very
large quantities of greenhouse gases (GHG) into Earth’s atmosphere. These GHG act like a
greenhouse (or a blanket or car windshield) to trap the sun’s energy and heat, rather than
letting it reflect back into space. When the concentration of GHG is too high, too much heat
is trapped, and the earth’s temperature rises outside the range of natural variability. There are
many GHG, each with a different ability to trap heat (known as its “global warming
potential”) and a different half-life in the atmosphere. GHG are sometimes called “climate
active pollutants” because most have additional effects, most notably on human health. 7

6
Uejio, C.K., Tamerius, J.D., Wertz, K. & Konchar, K.M. (2015). Primer on climate science. In G Luber & J Lemery
(Eds.), Global Climate Change and Human Health (p. 5), San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
7
United States Environmental Protection Agency: Climate Change
DEFINITION OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is defined as the shift in climate patterns mainly caused by greenhouse gas
emissions from natural systems and human activities. Greenhouse gas emissions cause heat to
be trapped by the earth’s atmosphere, and this has been the main driving force behind global
warming. The main sources of such emissions are natural systems and human activities.
Natural systems include forest fires, earthquakes, oceans, permafrost, wetlands, mud
volcanoes and volcanoes,8 while human activities are predominantly related to energy
production, industrial activities and those related to forestry, land use and land-use change.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE (GREENHOUSE GASES, DEFORESTATION,

ETC.)

The natural variability and climate change fluctuations of the climate system have been part
of the Earth’s history however, there have been changes in concentrations of GHGs in the
atmosphere growing at an unprecedented rate and magnitudes in recent years. The causes of
climate change can be categorized into two; natural and man-made causes. 9 The earth’s
climate is grossly influenced and changed through natural causes such as; ocean currents,
volcanic eruptions, the earth orbital changes and solar variations.

The oceans have been shown to be the major component of the climate system. Ocean
currents move vast amounts of heat across the world. Wind push horizontally against the sea
surface and drive ocean current patterns. Interactions between the ocean and atmosphere can
also produce phenomena called El- Nino which occurs every 2 to 6 years. It has been shown
that deep ocean circulation of cold water move from the poles towards the equator and warm
water from the equator back towards the poles. Without this movement the poles would be
colder and the equator warmer. The oceans play an important role in determining the
atmospheric concentration of CO2. Changes in ocean circulation may affect the climate
through the movement of CO2 into or out of the atmosphere.10

Volcanic eruptions on the other hand are known to throw out large volumes of sulphur
dioxide(SO2), water vapour, dust and ash into the atmosphere. It is known that large volumes

8
Yue and Gao 2018
9
Crowley 2000; Paeler 2007
10
Brown, 2010; Hoffman, et al.,2010; Shanta Barley, 2010
of gases and ash can influence climate patterns for years by increasing planetary reflectivity,
causing atmospheric cooling Tiny particles called aerosols are produced by volcanoes.
Because these reflect solar energy back into space, they have a cooling effect on the earth’s
surface.11

The earth makes one revolution around the sun once a year, tilted at an angle of 23.5 to the
perpendicular plane of its orbital path. Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but
climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons, more tilt means warmer
summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters. Slow
changes in the earth’s orbit lead to small but climatically important changes in strength of the
seasons over tens of thousands of years. Climate feedbacks have been shown to amplify these
small changes, thereby producing ice ages.12

As regards Solar variation, the sun is known to be the source of energy for the planet’s
climate system. Although the sun’s energy output appears constant from an everyday point of
view, small changes over an extended period of time can lead to climate changes. It has been
speculated that a portion of the warming in the first half of the 20th Century was due to an
increase in the output of solar energy. As the sun is the fundamental source of energy that is
instrumental in our climate system, it would be reasonable to assume that changes in the sun’s
energy output would cause climate to change.

But studies by Crowley (2000) and Paehler (2007) have shown that if this were so it would be
expected to see warmer temperatures in all layers of the atmosphere. On the contrary, the
cooling was observed in the upper atmosphere, a warming at the surface and in the lower
parts of the atmosphere. This was shown to be due to greenhouse gases capturing heat in the
lower atmosphere.13

On the other hand, It has been shown that climate is also changing due to human causes such
as man-made greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels for electricity, cars, trains, aircrafts,

11
Ammann, Washington, Meehl, Buja,. & Teng, 2010; Bowen, 2010; Paehler, 2007; Satellite Imagery of Volcanic Eruption

12
Crowley, 2000; Paehler, 2007; Perkins, 2010

13
U.S. ONOJA, U.M.E. DIBUA AND A. A. ENETE; “CLIMATE CHANGE: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES-A
REVIEW”, VOL. 17, NO. 4, 2011, pp 470
homes, flaring of gas at the oil fields like in Nigeria et cetera. Furthermore, land-use and
deforestation add pressure to greenhouse gases.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE (RISING SEA LEVELS, EXTREME WEATHER

EVENTS, ETC.)

The ever increasing emission of greenhouse gases from various sources has led to
catastrophic climate changes including the well pronounced global warming. An overview of
the expected change of climate extremes was given 14 due to greenhouse gases and aerosol
anthropogenic emissions like decreasing number of days of frost, increasing growing season
length, trends for drought duration and change of wind-related extremes.15

The dramatic change that the arctic has undergone during the past decade including
atmospheric sea-level pressure, wind fields, sea-ice drift, ice cover, length of melt season,
change in precipitation patterns, change in hydrology, change in ocean currents and water
mass distribution were studied.16 The near-surface thermal regime in permafrost regions could
change significantly in response to anthropogenic climate warming.17

Hirst examined the response of the southern ocean to global warming, for a transient
greenhouse gas integration using the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization (CSIRO) coupled with ocean-atmosphere model.18

Global warming caused by enhanced greenhouse effect is likely to have significant effects on
the hydrology and water resources of the GBM 19 basins and might ultimately lead to more
serious floods in Bangladesh, India. 20 Also, Mohammad Fazlul Karin and Nobuo Mimura
used a calibrated numerical hydrodynamic model to stimulate surge wave propagation
through the rivers and overland flooding, to describe the impacts of climate change namely

14
Serge P., Michel D., Fabrice C., Laurent T.; “Expected Impacts of Climate Change on Extreme Climate Events”
2007
15
Ibid.
16
McDonald RW, Harner T, Fyfe J, Recent climate changes in the Arctic and its impacts on contaminant
pathways and interpretation of temporal trend data. Science of the Total Environment 2005;342(1-3):5-86
17
Anisimov OA, Shiklomanov NL, Nelson FE; Global Warming and active-layer thickness: results from transient
general circulation models. Global and Planetary Chang 1997;15(3-4):61-77
18
Hirst AC, The Southern Ocean response to global warming in the CSIRO coupled ocean-atmosphere model.
Environmental Modeling and Software 1999;14(4):227-41
19
Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna
20
Monirul Qader Mirza M.; Global warming and changes in the probability of occurrence of floods in
Bangladesh and implications. Global Environmental Change 2002;12(2):127-38
the sea surface temperature and sea level rise on cyclonic storm surge flooding in the western
Bangladesh, India.21

The Asian Pacific Integrated Model (AIM) is a large-scale model for scenario analysis of
greenhouse gas emissions and impacts of global warming in the Asian Pacific region.22

CHAPTER 3

CLIMATE-RELATED MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Everyone has a role to play in climate change mitigation, from individuals adopting
sustainable habits and advocating for change to governments implementing regulations,
providing incentives and facilitating investments. The private sector, particularly those
businesses and companies responsible for causing high emissions, should take a leading role
in innovating, funding and driving climate change mitigation solutions.

International collaboration and technology transfer is also crucial given the global nature and
size of the challenge. As the main platform for international cooperation on climate action,
the Paris Agreement has set forth a series of responsibilities and policy tools for its
signatories.23

There are three main climate change mitigation approaches discussed. First, conventional
mitigation efforts employ decarbonization technologies and techniques that reduce CO2
emissions, such as renewable energy, fuel switching, efficiency gains, nuclear power, and
carbon capture storage and utilization. Most of these technologies are well established and
carry an acceptable level of man- aged risk.24

A second route constitutes a new set of technologies and methods that have been recently
proposed. These techniques are potentially deployed to capture and sequester CO2 from the
atmosphere and are termed negative emissions technologies, also referred to as carbon
21
Mohammad Fazlul Karim, Nobuo Mimura; Impact of climate change and sea level rise on cyclonic storm
surge floods in Bangladesh, Global Environmental Change, 2008, pp 490-500
22
Yuzuru Matsuoka, Mikiko Kainuma, Tsuneyuki Morita; Scenario analysis of global warming using the Asia
Pacific Integrated Model(AIM), Energy Policy 1995
23
www.climatepromise.undp.org Last accessed: 28/11/2024
24
Ricke et al. 2017; Victor et al. 2018; Bataille et al. 2018; Mathy et al. 2018; Shinnar and Citro 2008; Bustreo et al. 2019
dioxide removal methods.25 The main negative emissions techniques include bioenergy
carbon capture and storage, biochar, enhanced weathering, direct air carbon capture and
storage, ocean fertilization, ocean alkalinity enhancement, soil carbon sequestration,
afforestation and reforestation, wetland construction and restoration, as well as alternative
negative emissions utilization and storage methods such as mineral carbonation and using
biomass in construction.26

Finally, a third route revolves around the principle of altering the earth’s radiation balance
through the management of solar and terrestrial radiation. Such techniques are termed
radiative forcing geo-engineering technologies, and the main objective is temperature
stabilization or reduction. Unlike negative emissions technologies, this is achieved without
altering greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.27

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION MEASURES

Energy is an essential ingredient for socio-economic development and economic growth. The
objective of the energy system is to provide energy services. Energy services are the desired
and useful products, processes or indeed services that result from the use of energy, such as
for lighting, provision of air-conditioned indoor climate, refrigerated storage, transportation,
appropriate temperatures for cooking, industrial processes such as conversion of raw
materials to final products, etc. The energy chain to deliver these cited services begins with
the collection or extraction of primary energy, which is then converted into energy carriers
suitable for various end-uses. These energy carriers are used in energy end-use technologies
to provide the desired energy services.28

Energy is intrinsically linked with sustainable development at the local, national, and regional
levels. At the local level, modern energy is required to improve the overall quality of life
(especially, that of the poor) by enhancing productive activities and enterprise, which will

25
Ricke et al 2017; Impact of combined selective internal radiation therapy and sorafenib on survival in
advanced hepatocellular carcinoma, Vol. 71, 2019
26
Lawrence et al. 2018; Palmer 2019; McLaren 2012; Yan et al. 2019; McGlashan et al. 2012; Goglio et al. 2020; Lin 2019;
Pires 2019; RoyalSociety 2018; Lenzi 2018

27
Samer Fawzy, Ahmad I. Osman, John Doran, David W. Rooney; “Strategies for mitigation of climate change: A
Review” 2020
28
Sambo, A.S (2005), Renewable Energy for Rural Development: The
Nigerian Perspective‘, ISESCO Science and Technology Vision, Vol.1,
pp 12 – 22.
result in increased incomes. At national and regional levels, adequate modern energy leads to
stable economic development, promotion of trade, and enhancement of participation in global
markets, besides the added benefits of better social and economic linkages.29

Energy efficiency does not mean that energy should not be used, but it should be used in a
manner that will minimize the amount of energy needed to provide services. This is possible
if there’s an improvement in practices and products that are used. For instance, energy is used
wastefully in virtually all sectors in Nigeria. Excessive waste is a sign of an unsustainable
technology. In Nigeria a lot of energy is wasted because households, public and private
offices and industries make use of more energy than is actually necessary to fulfill their
needs. One of the reasons is that they use old and inefficient equipment and production
processes. The other reasons are unwholesome practices that lead to energy wastage.30

CHAPTER 4

MITIGATION IN KEY SECTORS

Certain sectors and paths along supply chains play a critical role in climate change
mitigation. Climate change mitigation in urban areas requires a portfolio of policies and
practices that are implemented across a range of scales and sectors. Cities concentrate people,
buildings and infrastructure, consequently they are drivers of climate change through their
greenhouse gas emissions and also focal points for the impacts of climate change.31

ENERGY SECTOR: TRANSITION TO RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES,

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES

Climate change has been driving the sustainability agenda in cities, including the
incorporation of novel policies to meet low carbon objectives. Environmental, social and
economic aspects and interactions of sustainable development need to be considered together,
since with an integrated approach, efforts and costs are minimized and trade-offs more likely
29
National Technical Working Group on Energy Sector (2009), Report of
the Vision 2020.
30
Oyedepo S.O. “Energy Efficiency and Conservation Measures” IJEE, Vol.2, 2012, pp 86-98
31
Harriet Bulkeyly, Heike Schroeder, Kathryn B. Janda, Jimin Zhao; “Cities and Climate Change: The role of
institutions, governance and urban planning” 2009
to be avoided.32 In addition, the need to recognize and promote synergies between sectors is
more evident if both spatial and temporal scales and complexities of urban systems are taken
into consideration.33

Cities play a key role in contributing to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the atmosphere,
while at the same time being vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Conversely, cities
have the opportunity to implement mitigation strategies, which, in the context of urban
planning, require an integrated approach across a range of sectors, and over multiple temporal
and spatial scales.34

Buildings, transport and industry are typically the most energy intensive sectors in urban
areas, responsible for the consumption of about 75% of primary energy and about 60% of
CO2 emissions globally.35

Tackling these sectors is therefore a global priority to meet the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change Paris Agreement to keep a global temperature rise this
century well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels. Investigation of energy use and reduction
measures in these sectors have traditionally been investigated independently, neglecting the
potential for working towards urban sustainability by considering them in an integrated
manner. In particular, there has been particular interest in analyzing the building sector and
residential energy consumption. A number of bottom-up and a top-down approaches have
been developed.

In their review, Swan and Ugursal36 described bottom-up models and classified them
according to the methods and data used to model the energy consumption in buildings. A
flexible tool, combining engineering and statistical bottom-up approaches that enables design
of suitable energy-conservation interventions on building stocks in Greek cities was also
provided.37
32
Swart et al., 2003, Caparros-Midwood et al., 2015, Caparros-Midwood et al., 2017
33
Dawson TP, Jackson ST, House JI, Prentice IC, Mace GM. Beyond predictions: Biodiversity conservation in a
changing climate. Science, 2011
34
Maria R. Pasimeni, Donatella Valente, Giovanni Zurlini, Irene Petrosillo; “The interplay between urban
mitigation and adaptation strategies to face climate change in two European countries”, 2019
35
United Nations Human Settlements Programme; “A framework for addressing urban challenges in Africa”,
UN-Habitat 2008
36
Lukas G. Swan, V. Ismet Ugursal; “Modeling of end-use energy consumption in the residential sector: A
review of modeling techniques”, 2009
37
Theodoridou A, Schlatter F, Ajdacic V, Rössler W, Jäger M. Therapeutic relationship in the context of perceived
coercion in a psychiatric population. Psychiatry Res. 2012 Dec 30;200(2-3):939-44. doi:
10.1016/j.psychres.2012.04.012. Epub 2012 May 8. PMID: 22575342.
Fracastoro and Serraino38 later provided an analytical methodology that defines a statistical
distribution of residential buildings according to their energy consumption for heating at a
regional or national scale. The procedure enables evaluation of the energy saving potential of
large-scale actions on buildings which aims to support policymakers to develop energy
policies. A dynamic statistical model was also developed to assess Europe-wide changes to
residential building stock.39

A methodology to analyze energy performance of the building stock and to assess the
implementation of several energy policies in Italian cities was also developed. 40 The
procedure includes the collection of both statistical and general data on the built environment,
the characterization of the building stock and the arrangement of archetypal buildings to
estimate energy consumption and appropriate retrofit strategies. Jorge Rodríguez-Álvarez
(2016) presented a tool (Urban Energy Index for Buildings - UEIB) to assess the energy
performance of buildings at a larger scale. The model allows morphological aspects to be
considered independently from other factors. To this end, a notional grid is performed to
simplify the main spatial parameters regarding the energy performance of the analyzed urban
areas. This easy-to-use tool aims at helping the incorporation of energy aspects into urban and
spatial policies.

Alongside these energy models developed at the building scale, integrated assessment
methods (IAM) and frameworks enable linkages across several scales (global, regional and
local) and interactions between sectors from an urban planning perspective. Through this
multidisciplinary approach, trade-offs and combined effects that a single disciplinary
approach would miss can be identified. However, IAM is more complex than individual
sectoral assessment and often leads to bespoke or site-specific applications. A range of urban
IAMs were reviewed.41 One example the Urban Integrated Assessment Facility developed for
London. This is a quantified integrated assessment framework which combines economy,
land use and carbon emissions from energy use and transport and assesses several climate
impacts.42
38
G.V Fracastoro, Matteo Serraino; “A methodology for assessing the energy performance of large scale
building stocks and possible applications”, 43(4):844-852
39
Klas Sandberg, Marie Kleist, Lars Falk; “Sandberg 2016 Effects of Twice-Weekly Intense Aerobic Exercise in
Early Subacute Stroke: A Randomized Controlled Trial”, 2016
40
Vincenzina Caputo, Rodolfo Nayga, Riccardo Scarpa; “Food Miles or Carbon Emissions? Exploring Labelling
Preference for Food Transport Footprint with a Stated Choice Study” 2013
41
Kohler S. et al; “The Human Phenotype Ontology project: linking molecular biology and disease through
phenotype data”, 2014
42
Hall et al., 2009, Walsh et al., 2011, Walsh et al., 2013
The London study involved stakeholders throughout the whole development process and was
developed by an interdisciplinary team to address the multiplicity of topics and skills needed
(Walsh et al., 2013). Other models, such as Linz (Köhler et al., 2014), consider energy
demand and emission levels over a shorter time horizon, to suggest guidelines for
development of new towns. In Paris, (Viguie and Hallegatte, 2012) used an integrated city
model to quantify trade-offs and synergies of policies. In particular, a multicriteria analysis
was undertaken for three urban policies: a greenbelt policy, a zoning policy to reduce flood
risk and a transportation subsidy, showing that in a policy mix, the consequences of each
policy were not simply additive. This nonlinearity permitted building policy combinations.
IAMs allow the relationships between different sectors to be explored in a consistent manner,
and climate change processes to be linked to urban planning and policy processes.

CHAPTER 5

CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development needs to be understood in its many dimensions. There is the

temporal aspect in which development today cannot be at the expense of development
tomorrow. Sustainability also needs to be envisaged in its composite whole, as a dynamic
system of interdependent forces economic, social, and environmental.43

Climate change can be seen as a part of the larger challenge of sustainable development
through a two-fold link:

1. The impacts of climate change can severely hamper development efforts in key
sectors, e.g. increased threat of natural disasters and growing water stress will have to
be factored into plans for public health infrastructure.
2. Development choices will themselves influence the capacity to mitigate and adapt to
climate change, e.g. policies for forest conservation and sustainable energy will, if
correctly targeted and implemented, enhance the resilience of communities and
thereby reduce the vulnerability of their livelihoods to climate change.

43
Tata Energy Research Institute; “Sustainable Wnergy Perspective for Asia”, and AEI 2002
The links between climate change and sustainable development are strong. Poor and
developing countries, particularly least developed countries, will be among those most
adversely affected and least able to cope with the anticipated shocks to their social, economic
and natural systems.

Equity issues have been at the heart of climate change negotiations especially so in the
context of mitigation. The cost/burden associated with mitigation measures, the ostensible
greater scope for low-cost emission reductions in developing countries, the historically low
contribution of developing countries to the creation of the greenhouse problem are the issues
related to this aspect.44

In accordance with the principles of "common but differentiated responsibilities" and

"respective capabilities", the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change) states that, owing to their historical contributions to the accumulated stock of GHGs,
and their greater financial and technical capacities, "developed country Parties should take
the lead in combating climate change".

The participation of developing countries is contingent on the provision of incremental costs.

Further, it emphasizes that “all countries, especially developing countries, need access to
resources required to achieve sustainable social and economic development and that in order
for developing countries to progress toward that goal, their energy consumption will need to
grow taking into account possibilities for achieving greater energy efficiency and for
controlling greenhouse gas emissions in general, including through the application of new
technologies on terms which make such an application economically and socially beneficial”.

THE ROLE OF CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION IN ACHIEVING

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Climate change mitigation can contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) in many ways. The 17 goals, adopted by all UN member states in 2015, cover
a wide range of global challenges ranging from poverty to peace and justice. Although the
SDGs cover different areas, climate action has the ability to positively influence many of
them.

44
IEA World Energy Outlook 2002
It is estimated that actions to mitigate climate change could contribute up to 80% to the
achievement of the SDG targets. A clear example is the promotion of sustainable agricultural
practices that not only reduce emissions, but also improve food security45 and support poverty
eradication.46 In addition, biodiversity conservation47 plays a crucial role in mitigating climate
impacts by reducing deforestation and preserving carbon sinks.

The international political response to climate change began at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992,
where the ‘Rio Convention’ included the adoption of the UN Framework on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). This convention set out a framework for action aimed at stabilizing atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) to avoid “dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system.” The UNFCCC which entered into force on 21 March 1994, now
has a near-universal membership of 197 parties. In December 2015, the 21st Session of the
Conference of the Parties (COP21/CMP1) convened in Paris, France, and adopted the Paris
Agreement, a universal agreement which aims to keep a global temperature rise for this
century well below 2 degrees Celsius, with the goal of driving efforts to limit the temperature
rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.

In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Member States express their commitment
to protect the planet from degradation and take urgent action on climate change. The Agenda
also identifies climate change as “one of the greatest challenges of our time” and worries
about “its adverse impacts undermine the ability of all countries to achieve sustainable
development.48 Increases in global temperature, sea level rise, ocean acidification and other
climate change impacts are seriously affecting coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries,
including many least developed countries and Small Island Developing States. The survival
of many societies, and of the biological support systems of the planet, is at risk”.

Sustainable Development49 aims to “take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impact”, while acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global
response to climate change.

45
SDG 2: Zero Hunger
46
SDG 1: No Poverty
47
SDG 15: Life on Land
48
Paragraph 14 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
49
SDG 13
More specifically, the associated targets of SDG 13 focus on the integration of climate change
measures into national policies, the improvement of education, awareness-raising and
institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early
warnings. SDG 13’s alphabetical targets also call for the implementation of the commitment
undertaken at the UNFCCC and for the promotion of mechanisms able to increase capacity
for effective climate –change related planning and management in least developed countries
and Small Island Developing States.50

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTEGRATING CLIMATE CHANGE

MITIGATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

However, integrating climate action with other development goals is not without its
challenges.51 It is a complex process that requires careful planning and a strategic approach.
For example, biodiversity conservation may conflict with agricultural production,
highlighting the need for policies that balance these priorities without compromising either
economic development or environmental preservation.52

“There has been a lot of talk about how climate action, and specifically climate change
mitigation, can have negative effects on some aspects of sustainable development. This is
possible. However, there are also many opportunities for synergies,” explains Augusto
Castro, Senior Scientist in the Alliance's 'Low-Emissions Food Systems' research team.

Climate change mitigation is not an isolated or exclusively technical task; it is a cross-cutting

axis that cuts across aspects of sustainable development and can accelerate the achievement
of the SDGs. While integrating diverse priorities presents challenges, it also offers
opportunities to create synergies that promote global well-being.53

50
Katowice Climate Change Conference – December 2018,
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/climatechange
51
Lisset Perez-Marulanda, Martin Rudbeck Jepsen, Katharina Lohr, Augusto Carlos Castro-Nunez; “Measuring
quantitively peacebuilding co-benefits of cocoa agroforestry systems in the Colombian Amazon”, 2024
52
Karoll Valentina Yomayuza; “How Does Climate Change Mitigation Drive the Achievement of the SDGs?”,
2024
53
AgriLAC Resiliente and Mitigate+: Research for Low Emissions Food Systems, and the project
18_III_106_COL_A_Sustainable Production Strategies, "Implementation of Sustainable Agriculture and
Livestock Systems for Simultaneous Targeting of Forest Conservation for Climate Change Mitigation (REDD+)
and Peace Building in Colombia", which is part of the International Climate Initiative (IKI). The German Federal
Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) supports this initiative on the
basis of a decision adopted by the German Bundestag.
 CHAPTER 6

IMPLEMENTATION AND FINANCING OF MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Governments need a funding strategy to be proactive in building their capacity to implement

mitigation actions and protect lives, property and investments from the catastrophic impacts
of natural disasters. For instance, Colorado’s county and municipal jurisdictions are affected
by a host of natural hazards that require varying levels of investment depending on the
projects and programs identified to mitigate risk. Some activities require significant capital
investment to implement effective and sustainable mitigation solutions, while others are
feasible with less capital. Insufficient funding and the lack of a strategic financing plan are
often major barriers to implementing hazard mitigation projects.54

How financing strategies are prepared and implemented can significantly influence their
effectiveness and potential to help close the adaptation finance gap. Like the adaptation
planning process, the approach taken to prepare and implement a financing strategy for
adaptation should be determined by a country based on its needs, priorities, capacities, and
desired outcomes. For many countries, a critical foundation for a financing strategy for
adaptation is the NAP.55 These plans set out governments’ adaptation goals and can provide
guidance for the priorities to be articulated in the financing strategies.56

The strategy also should be fit for purpose. Some are high-level strategies that aim to build
awareness and high-level political buy-in, such as the Melanesian Climate Finance Strategy
2019–2021. It set out broad actions and next steps and helped to secure support for the
“design of a financing vehicle to catalyze and mobilize private sector investment together
with partners”.57 Others, such as Cambodia’s NAP financing framework and implementation
plan, included a detailed costing of adaptation actions the costs of inaction, identified the size
of potential investment, and estimated economic returns to identify priority adaptation actions
to inform its climate adaptation investment plan.58

For example, Peru’s approach to a strategy for financing adaptation is comprised of many
elements, including the NAP, NDC, NDC financing strategy, and Climate. Increasingly,
54
https://www.planningforhazards.com/funding-strategy-mitigation-projects
55
National Adaptation Plan
56
Forty-five countries (including 20 least developed countries) had prepared their NAPs and submitted them to
the UNFCCC as of May 2023 (United Nations Climate Change, 2023a).
57
Melanesian Spearhead Group, 2019; UNFCCC, 2021, p. 11
58
World Bank Europe and Central Asia, 2016.
financing strategies for adaptation are moving beyond a stand-alone project-based approach
by encouraging a move toward transformational adaptation that involves “larger system-wide
change (as compared with in-system change)”.59

Such a financing strategy could consider the policy context, institutional capabilities and
needed capacity building, alignment with national development plans, priorities for domestic
budget allocation, and opportunities for co-investment through international finance (climate
and development) and private investment. For example, the Government of Egypt is
developing a climate investment plan that moves from a project-by-project basis toward a
systemic model to scale up finance for climate priorities, including adaptation. 60

A country-driven and fit-for-purpose approach should be prepared in a manner that is mindful

of available resources and responds to a stated need of the government. Funders and
development partners need to be flexible to ensure that the financing strategy is relevant, will
be of use, and is based on the needs, perspectives, and priorities of the developing country.

Local sources of revenue are funds typically generated by activities or constituents within a
jurisdiction. The range of local funding sources available to communities depends on state
and local context and legal environment. When determining which revenue sources to use in
your community, it is important to recognize the conditions in your jurisdiction and identify if
other limiting factors and/or opportunities exist. Consulting an attorney about the legality of
any new funding source is recommended.61

The most common source of funding for local governments is tax revenues. These include
property tax, sales and excise tax, income tax, and an assortment of other taxing structures,
such as a lodging tax.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

Mitigating climate change is fraught with complexities, including the global economy's deep-
rooted dependency on fossil fuels and the accompanying challenge of eliminating fossil fuel
59
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022, p. 2,619)
60
Green Climate Fund [GCF], 2022
61
World Bank Europe and Central Asia, 2016, Ibid.
subsidies. This reliance – and the vested interests that have a stake in maintaining it –
presents a significant barrier to transitioning to sustainable energy sources.

The shift towards decarbonization and renewable energy is driving increased demand for
critical minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth metals. Since new
mining projects can take up to 15 years to yield output, mineral supply chains could become a
bottleneck for decarbonization efforts. In addition, these minerals are predominantly found in
a few, mostly low-income countries, which could heighten supply chain vulnerabilities and
geopolitical tensions.

Furthermore, due to the significant demand for these minerals and the urgency of the energy
transition, the scaled-up investment in the sector has the potential to exacerbate
environmental degradation, economic and governance risks, and social inequalities, affecting
the rights of Indigenous Peoples, local communities, and workers. Addressing these concerns
necessitates implementing social and environmental safeguards, embracing circular economy
principles, and establishing and enforcing responsible policies and regulations.

Agriculture is currently the largest driver of deforestation worldwide. A transformation in our

food systems to reverse the impact that agriculture has on forests and biodiversity is
undoubtedly a complex challenge. But it is also an important opportunity. The latest IPCC
report highlights that adaptation and mitigation options related to land, water and food offer
the greatest potential in responding to the climate crisis. Shifting to regenerative agricultural
practices will not only ensure a healthy, fair and stable food supply for the world’s
population, but also help to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

RECOMMENDATIONS

For policymakers, it is crucial to develop and implement comprehensive climate policies that
prioritize mitigation and adaptation strategies. This includes setting ambitious greenhouse gas
reduction targets, investing in renewable energy and energy efficiency measures, and
promoting sustainable land use practices. Policymakers should also provide incentives for
businesses and individuals to adopt climate-friendly technologies and practices.
Businesses and industries also have a critical role to play in mitigating the impacts of climate
change. They should develop and implement climate-resilient business strategies that
prioritize mitigation and adaptation. This includes investing in climate-friendly technologies,
promoting sustainable supply chain practices, and disclosing climate-related risks and
opportunities to investors and stakeholders.

Individuals and communities can also contribute to climate-related mitigation efforts. They
should reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions by using energy-efficient
appliances and renewable energy sources. Individuals and communities should also promote
sustainable land use practices, such as reforestation and agroforestry, and support climate-
resilient infrastructure, such as sea walls and green roofs.

Finally, future research should focus on investigating the effectiveness of different climate-
related mitigation and adaptation strategies. This includes conducting further research on
climate-related mitigation and adaptation strategies, investigating the impacts of climate
change on vulnerable populations, developing and testing climate-resilient infrastructure, and
investigating the economic benefits of climate-related mitigation and adaptation strategies.
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