GROUP 3 2025

INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHS VIBRATIONS
 The Earth vibrates continuously, with vibrations occurring at
periods ranging from milliseconds to days and amplitudes
ranging from nanometers to meters.
Microseismic Activity: Most of these vibrations are so weak
that they are undetectable without specialized equipment.
Seismologists focus on these weak vibrations, while
earthquake engineers are more concerned with strong ground
motion— those vibrations that can impact people and their
environment.

MEASURING STRONG-
GROUND MOTION
Acceleration-Time Histories: Ground motion records like acceleration-time histories (shown in Figure
3.1) contain detailed information about the earthquake’s effects.
Each plot can include a large number of data points, such as 2000 acceleration values measured at

0.02-second intervals.
 STRONG-MOTION
MEASUREMENT
''The recording of strong ground motion provides the
basic data for earthquake engineering. Without a
knowledge of the ground shaking generated by
earthquakes, it is not possible to assess hazards
rationally or to develop appropriate methods of seismic
design."

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL COMMITTEE ON

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING RESEARCH
(HOUSNER, 1982):

SEISMOGRAPH
SEISMOGRAPHS ARE USED TO MEASURE RELATIVELY WEAK GROUND
MOTION.
 SEISMOGRAMS- RECORDS GENERATED BY SEISMOGRAPHS THAT SHOW GROUND MOTION.
THE FIRST ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS OF DESTRUCTIVE
GROUND MOTION WERE MADE DURING THE 1933 LONG BEACH EARTHQUAKE.
SEISMOGRAPHS USE A MASS-SPRING-DAMPER SYSTEM, WHERE
THE MASS MOVES RELATIVE TO THE GROUND DURING AN
EARTHQUAKE, MARKING A TRACE ON A ROTATING DRUM.

TYPES OF SEISMOGRAPH

ACCELEROGRAPHS
ACCELEROGRAPHS ARE USED FOR MEASURING STRONG
GROUND MOTIONS AND ARE GENERALLY EXPRESSED AS ACCELEROGRAMS.
 ACCELEROMETERS
SERVO (FORCE

TRIAXIAL
BALANCE) PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETERS ACCELEROMETERS ACCELEROMETERS

MODERN SEISMIC INSTRUMENTATION

 Seismographs and accelerographs are often protected by an
instrument shelter to shield them from
environmental factors. Modern instruments rely on
accurate time synchronization, often through radio
time signals or Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), to
ensure precise measurement of ground motion.

SEISMOSCOPE: A SIMPLE
GROUND MOTION
INSTRUMENT

A seismoscope (Hudson, 1958) is a relatively

inexpensive device for recording ground motion. It
consists of a conical pendulum, where a metal stylus
attached to a suspended mass inscribes ground motion
records onto a smoked glass plate.
EARLY GROUND MOTION
INSTRUMENTS

Instruments used a pen, stylus, or reflective mirror to record

the motion analogously on paper or photographic film attached
to a rotating drum.
Triggering Mechanism: Instruments were activated when
acceleration thresholds were exceeded, often missing vibrations
that occurred prior to triggering, leading to baseline errors in
the record.

TRANSITION TO
ELECTRONIC RECORDING
 Later instruments recorded ground motion electronically on
magnetic tape in analog form.
The instruments still relied on triggering mechanisms to begin
recording once a threshold acceleration was exceeded.
Drawback: Pre-trigger vibrations were not recorded, which
impacted the accuracy of the acceleration records.
MANUAL AND SEMI-
AUTOMATIC DIGITIZATION
Manual Digitization: Initially, digitization was done manually
using paper, pencil, and an engineering scale.
Semi-Automatic Digitizers: In the 1960s and 1970s, digitization
became easier with semi-automatic digitizers that used
 crosshairs to trace the accelerogram mounted on a digitizing
table.

However, these methods required precision and were time-consuming;

operator accuracy and fatigue were significant considerations.
FULLY AUTOMATIC
DIGITIZATION

Today, fully automatic digitization is common, with sampling

rates of 200 or more samples per second.
The process is computer-based, providing faster and more
accurate digitization.
 This method eliminates the operator-dependent errors seen in
earlier systems.
DIGITAL SEISMOGRAPHS

Digital Seismographs: Modern digital instruments are more

prevalent and convert analog signals to digital form directly in
the field.
Sampling Rates: Typically record 200 to 1000 samples/sec with
12- to 16-bit resolution.
Continuous Recording: Digital systems record continuously,
preserving data from before, during, and after the earthquake,
unlike older systems that lost pre-trigger data.
Memory: Digital systems can store 4 to 6 MB of data, covering a
more complete portion of the seismic event.
 DIGITAL SYSTEMS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Preserves Full Data- Digital systems preserve data data with more robust memory capabilities.
from the entire earthquake
Complexity- Digital systems are more complex
event, including the initial vibrations that are
than analog systems.
missed by triggered analog systems.
Cost- Digital systems are more expensive,
Higher Accuracy- Continuous and precise
which can limit their adoption in some areas.
sampling provides more accurate ground motion
Maintenance- They require more
records.
maintenance, especially in the field, due to
Improved Field Performance- Digital systems are
their complexity.
designed to handle larger amounts of

STRONG-MOTION PROCESSING
The raw data from strong-motion instruments may include errors caused by
various sources, which must be carefully evaluated and corrected to obtain an
accurate record of actual ground motion.
 Main Goal from Strong-Motion Processing is to remove
background noise and correct for instrument response in
order to isolate the earthquake-induced ground motion.

SOURCES OF BACKGROUND
NOISE
Microseisms from ocean waves detected by sensitive
instruments.
Other noise sources include:
Traffic
Construction activity
Wind (transmitted through buildings, trees, etc.)
Atmospheric pressure changes

THESE SOURCES CAN INTRODUCE NON-SEISMIC NOISE AT BOTH LOW AND HIGH FREQUENCIES, REQUIRING SUPPRESSION OR REMOVAL.
 INSTRUMENT RESPONSE
AND CORRECTIONS
All accelerographs have their own dynamic response characteristics
(instrument response), which can affect the recorded motion.
Correction Method: The instrument response is usually corrected by modeling
the accelerograph as a Single-Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) system and
decoupling its response from the actual ground motion.
Frequency Considerations: Instrument corrections are usually not necessary
for frequencies below 12-13 Hz, which are of primary interest in engineering.

INFLUENCE OF SURROUNDING STRUCTURES

Some accelerographs are located in buildings, near dam abutments, or
bridges.
These structures can affect the recorded motion, especially at
frequencies that fall within the range of interest (typically engineering
frequencies). Even free-field accelerographs (away from large structures)
 may be influenced by their instrument shelter—although this effect is
usually small and only important at high frequencies.

STRONG-MOTION
INSTRUMENT ARRAYS
LARGE EARTHQUAKES PRODUCE GROUND MOTIONS WITH VARYING
CHARACTERISTICS AT DIFFERENT POINTS ON THE GROUND SURFACE.
THE SPATIAL VARIATION OF GROUND MOTION IS CRUCIAL FOR BOTH
SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING.
ARRAYS OF STRONG-MOTION INSTRUMENTS HELP DETERMINE HOW
GROUND MOTION VARIES OVER DIFFERENT REGIONS AND LOCAL AREAS.
WORLDWIDE AND
REGIONAL ARRAYS
 The establishment of the Worldwide Standard Seismograph Network (WWSSN)
in 1961 dramatically improved the understanding of earthquake and tectonic
processes.
WWSSN was originally developed to monitor compliance with nuclear
weapons testing bans.
Global Digital Seismometer Network (GDSN) and Global Seismographic
Network (GSN) replaced WWSSN stations, using digital instruments for more
accurate data collection.
IRIS (Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology) manages these
networks and deploys portable instruments to monitor aftershocks.

WORLDWIDE AND
REGIONAL ARRAYS
Regional Arrays: Seismically active countries now operate
regional arrays of seismographs.
In the United States, the USGS operates regional arrays, and
the California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program (CSMIP)
runs an extensive network of free-field seismographs and
those installed in buildings and bridges.
Figure 3.6: Shows locations of strong-motion instruments
operated by the USGS in California.

WORLDWIDE AND
REGIONAL ARRAYS
This figure shows locations of strong-motion instruments operated by the USGS in California.
 LOCAL AND DENSE
ARRAYS

While global and regional networks give us the big picture of earthquake activity, local
and dense arrays focus on specific areas. These are especially important in cities and
critical infrastructure zones, where ground motion can vary significantly between
neighborhoods.

LOCAL AND DENSE

ARRAYS
HERE ARE SOME PLACES THAT HAVE LOCAL AND Chiba, Japan
DENSE ARRAYS
 A dense accelerometer array with 44 three-component accelerometers (some installed at depths of 40 meters).
SMART-1 near Lotung, Taiwan
Central accelerometer surrounded by three rings of accelerometers (200 m, 1 km, 2 km).
Downhole instrumentation measures motion at depths up to 47 meters.
This array is used for studying nuclear containment structures with scale models.
El Centro Array in the United States
El Centro Array: A 45-km-long array of 13 stations crossing the Imperial and Brawley Faults in southern
California.
The El Centro Differential Array consists of six three-component accelerometers along a 305-meter line.
This array recorded the 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake (M6.9), providing useful data on near-field ground motions.

LOCAL AND DENSE

ARRAYS
HERE ARE SOME PLACES THAT HAVE LOCAL AND
DENSE ARRAYS

Anza, California
An array of ten three-component stations along a 30-km stretch of the San Jacinto Fault.

Data is transmitted via digital VHF radio to a mountain peak station and then forwarded to La Jolla, California.
These arrays contribute to a better understanding of local earthquake characteristics.

WHERE CAN WE GET STRONG-

MOTION DATA?
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (USGS):
PUBLISHED A CD IN 1992 (SEEKINS ET AL.)
CONTAINING 4000+ RECORDS FROM NORTH AMERICAN
EARTHQUAKES (1933–1986).

LAMONT-DOHERTY EARTH OBSERVATORY (COLUMBIA

UNIVERSITY)
WORKS WITH THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING RESEARCH (SUNY
BUFFALO).
1.UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON WEBSITE URL: 🔗
HTTP://WWW.GEOPHYS.WASHINGTON.EDU/SEISMOSURFING.HTML
 OFFERS LINKS TO VARIOUS GROUND MOTION AND EARTHQUAKE DATA SOURCES.
2.UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA (USC) URL: 🔗 HTTP://RCCG01.USC.EDU/EQDATA/HOME.HTML
HOSTS GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING DATA.