Radiation: Processes and

Properties
-Basic Principles and Definitions-
Chapter 12
Sections 12.1 through 12.4
General Considerations

General Considerations
• Attention is focused on thermal radiation, whose origins are associated
with emission from matter at an absolute temperature T  0.

• Emission is due to oscillations and transitions of the many electrons that comprise
matter, which are, in turn, sustained by the thermal energy of the matter.

• Emission corresponds to heat transfer from the matter and hence to a reduction
in its thermal energy.

• Radiation may also be intercepted and absorbed by matter, resulting in its increase
in thermal energy.

• Consider a solid of temperature Ts

in an evacuated enclosure whose walls
are at a fixed temperature Tsur :

 What changes occur if Ts  Tsur ? Why?

 What changes occur if Ts  Tsur ? Why?

General Considerations (cont.)

• Emission from a gas or a semitransparent solid or liquid is a volumetric

phenomenon. Emission from an opaque solid or liquid is treated as a surface phenomenon.

For an opaque solid or liquid, emission originates from atoms and molecules
within 1  m of the surface.
• The dual nature of radiation:
– In some cases, the physical manifestations of radiation may be explained
by viewing it as particles (aka photons or quanta).
– In other cases, radiation behaves as an electromagnetic wave.
General Considerations (cont.)

– In all cases, radiation can be characterized by a wavelength  and frequency  ,

which are related through the speed at which radiation propagates in the
medium of interest:
c

For propagation in a vacuum,
c  co  2.998 x 108 m/s
The EM Spectrum

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Thermal radiation is confined to the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
spectrum  01
.    100  m  .
• The amount of radiation emitted by an opaque
surface varies with wavelength, and we may
speak of the spectral distribution over all
wavelengths or of monochromatic/spectral
components associated with particular wavelengths.
Radiation Heat Fluxes: Definitions

Radiation Heat Fluxes and Material Properties

 → reflectivity → fraction of irradiation (G) reflected.

a → absorptivity → fraction of irradiation absorbed.
t → transmissivity → fraction of irradiation transmitted through the medium.

r + a + t = 1 for any medium. r + a = 1 for an opaque medium.

Directional Considerations

Directional Considerations and Radiation Intensity

• In general, radiation fluxes can be determined
only from knowledge of the directional and
spectral nature of the radiation.
• Radiation emitted by a surface will be in all
directions associated with a hypothetical
hemisphere about the surface and is
characterized by a directional distribution.
• Direction may be represented in a spherical
coordinate system characterized by the zenith
or polar angle  and the azimuthal angle  .

• The amount of radiation emitted from a surface,

dA1 , and propagating in a particular direction,
 , ,is quantified in terms of a differential
solid angle associated with the direction.
dA
d   2n
r
dAn  unit element of surface on a hypothetical sphere and normal to
the  , direction.
Directional Considerations (cont.)

dAn  r 2sin d d 
dAn
d  2
 sin d d 
r
– The solid angle  has units of steradians (sr).
– The solid angle associated with a complete hemisphere is
2 /2
hemi   0 0 sin d d   2 sr

 
• Spectral Intensity: A quantity used to specify the radiant heat flux W/m 2 within
 
a unit solid angle about a prescribed direction W/m 2  sr and within a unit
wavelength interval about a prescribed wavelength  W/m 2  sr   m  .
Directional Considerations (cont.)

• The spectral intensity I  ,e associated with emission from a surface element dA1
in the solid angle d  about  , and the wavelength interval d  about 
is defined as:
dq
I  ,e   , ,  
 dA1cos   d   d 
• The rationale for defining the radiation flux in terms of the projected surface area
 dA1cos  stems from the existence of surfaces for which, to a good approximation,
I  ,e is independent of direction. Such surfaces are termed diffuse, and the radiation is
said to be isotropic.

 The projected area is how dA1 would

appear if observed along  , .

– What is the projected area for   0 ?

– What is the projected area for    / 2 ?
• The spectral heat rate and heat flux associated with emission from dA1
are, respectively,
dq
dq   I  ,e   , ,  dA1cos d 
d
dq  I  ,e   , ,  cos d   I  ,e   , ,  cos sin d d
Radiation Fluxes
Relation of Intensity to Emissive Power,
Irradiation, and Radiosity
• The spectral emissive power  W/m   m  corresponds to spectral emission
2

over all possible directions.

2 /2
E      0 0 I  ,e   , ,  cos sin d d

 
• The total emissive power W/m 2 corresponds to emission over all directions
and wavelengths.

E   0 E    d 

• For a diffuse surface, emission is isotropic and

E      I  ,e    E   Ie
• The spectral intensity of radiation incident on
a surface, I  ,i , is defined in terms of the unit
solid angle about the direction of incidence,
the wavelength interval d  about  ,
and the projected area of the receiving
surface, dA1cos .
Radiation Fluxes (cont.)


• The spectral irradiation W/m 2   m is then: 
2 /2
G      0 0 I  ,i   , ,  cos sin d d 

and the total irradiation W/m 2 is 

G   0 G    d 

 How may G and G be expressed if the incident radiation is diffuse?

• The radiosity of an opaque surface accounts for all of the radiation leaving the
surface in all directions and may include contributions from both reflection and
emission.
Radiation Fluxes (cont.)

• With I  ,e  r designating the spectral intensity associated with radiation

emitted by the surface and the reflection of incident radiation, the spectral

radiosity W/m 2   m is: 
2 /2
J     0 0 I  ,e  r   , ,  cos sin d d


and the total radiosity W/m 2 is


J  0 J    d 
 How may J  and J be expressed if the surface emits and reflects
diffusely?

 How can the intensities that appear in the preceding equations be quantified?
The Blackbody

Blackbody Radiation and Its Intensity

• The Blackbody
 An idealization providing limits on radiation emission and absorption by matter.
– For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit
more radiation than a blackbody: the ideal emitter.
– A blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
– A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation: the ideal absorber.

• The Isothermal Cavity (Hohlraum).

(a) After multiple reflections, virtually all radiation entering the cavity is absorbed.

(b) Emission from the aperture is the maximum possible emission achievable for
the temperature associated with the cavity and is diffuse.
The Blackbody (cont.)

(c) The cumulative effect of radiation emission from and reflection off
the cavity wall is to provide diffuse irradiation corresponding to
emission from a blackbody  G  E ,b  for any surface in the cavity.

– Does this condition depend on whether the cavity surface is highly

reflecting or absorbing?
Planck Distribution

The Spectral (Planck) Distribution of Blackbody Radiation

• The spectral distribution of the blackbody emissive power (determined
theoretically and confirmed experimentally) is
C1
E ,b   ,T    I  ,b   ,T  
 5 exp  C2 / T   1
First radiation constant: C1  3.742 x 108 W   m 4 / m 2
Second radiation constant: C2  1.439 x 104  m  K
Planck Distribution (cont.)

 E ,b (and Il,b) varies continuously with  and increases with T.

 The distribution is characterized by a maximum for which max is given

by Wien’s displacement law:
maxT  C3  2898  m  K
 The fractional amount of total blackbody emission appearing at lower
wavelengths increases with increasing T.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Band Emission

• The total emissive power of a blackbody is obtained by integrating the Planck
distribution over all wavelengths.

Eb   I b   0 E ,b d    T 4

the Stefan-Boltzmann law, where

  5.670 x 10 8 W/m 2  K 4  the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• The fraction of total blackbody emission that is in a prescribed wavelength
interval or band  1    2  is
 
 02 E ,b d    o1 E ,b d 
F 1  2   F 0  2   F0  1  
T 4
where, in general,

 0 E ,b d 
F 0      f  T 
T
and numerical results are given in Table 12.2.
Band Emission

• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
Band Emission (cont.)

Note ability to readily determine I  ,b and its relation to the maximum intensity from
the 3rd and 4th columns, respectively.
 If emission from the sun may be approximated as that from a blackbody at
5800 K, at what wavelength does peak emission occur?
 Would you expect radiation emitted by a blackbody at 800 K to be discernible
by the naked eye?
 As the temperature of a blackbody is increased, what color would be
the first to be discerned by the naked eye?
Problem: Solar Irradiation

Problem 12.9: Evaluation of total solar irradiation at the earth’s surface

from knowledge of the direct and diffuse components of
the incident radiation.

KNOWN: Flux and intensity of direct and diffuse components, respectively, of solar
irradiation.

FIND: Total irradiation.

Problem: Solar Irradiation (cont.)

ANALYSIS: Since the irradiation is based on the actual surface area, the contribution due to
the direct solar radiation is
  cos  .
Gdir  qdir

For the contribution due to the diffuse radiation

Gdif   I dif .

Hence
  cos    I dif
G  Gdir  Gdif  qdir
Problem: Solar Irradiation (cont.)

or

G  1000 W/m 2  0.866   sr  70 W/m2  sr

G   866  220  W/m2

G  1086 W/m2 . <

COMMENTS: Although a diffuse approximation is often made for the non-direct

component of solar radiation, the actual directional distribution deviates from this condition,
providing larger intensities at angles close to the direct beam.
Problem: Solar/Earth Temperatures

Problem 12.20: Determination of the sun’s emissive power, temperature

and wavelength of maximum emission, as well as the
earth’s temperature, from knowledge of the sun/earth
geometry and the solar flux at the outer edge of the earth’s
atmosphere.

KNOWN: Solar flux at outer edge of earth’s atmosphere, 1368 W/m2.

FIND: (a) Emissive power of sun, (b) Surface temperature of sun, (c) Wavelength of
maximum solar emission, (d) Earth equilibrium temperature.

1.27 x107m
Problem: Solar/Earth Temperatures (cont.)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Sun and earth emit as blackbodies, (2) No attenuation of solar
radiation enroute to earth, (3) Earth atmosphere has no effect on earth energy balance.

ANALYSIS: (a) Applying conservation of energy to the solar energy crossing two concentric
spheres, one having the radius of the sun and the other having the radial distance from the edge
of the earth’s atmosphere to the center of the sun, it follows that

 
2
2  De 
Es  Ds  4  Rs  e   qs . <
 2 
Hence

 
2
4 1.5  10 m  0.65  10 m  1368 W / m 2
11 7
Es   6.37  107 W / m 2 .
1.39  10 
9m 2

(b) From the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the temperature of the sun is

1/4
E 
1/4  6.37  107 W / m 2 
Ts   s     5790 K. <
   5.67  10 8 W / m 2  K 4 
 

(c) From Wien’s displacement law, the wavelength of maximum emission is

C 2898  m  K
max  3   0.50  m. <
T 5790 K
Problem: Solar/Earth Temperatures (cont.)

(d) From an energy balance on the earth’s surface

  
Ee  De2  qS  De2 / 4 . 
Hence, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
1/4 1/4
 q   1368 W / m 2 
Te   S     279 K. <
 4  4  5.67  108 W / m 2  K 4 
   

COMMENTS: The average earth temperature is higher than 279 K due to the shielding
effect of the earth’s atmosphere (transparent to solar radiation but not to longer wavelength
earth emission).