DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Course Name: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

Course Code: BESCK104C

MODULE-4 NOTES

Embedded Systems – Definition, Embedded systems vs general computing systems, Classification

of Embedded Systems, Major application areas of Embedded Systems, Elements of an Embedded
System, Core of the Embedded System, Microprocessor vs Microcontroller, RISC vs CISC
Sensors and Interfacing – Instrumentation and control systems, Transducers, Sensors, Actuators,
LED, 7-Segment LED Display. (Text 3)

Suggested Learning Resources:

Books (Title of the Book/Name of the author/Name of the publisher/Edition and Year)
1.Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’,4thEdition, Elsevier, 2015. DOI
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980. eBook ISBN9781315737980
2. Digital Logic and Computer Design, M. Morris Mano, PHI Learning, 2008 ISBN-978-81-203- 0417-84.
3. K V Shibu, ‘Introduction to Embedded Systems’, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill Education (India), Private
Limited, 2016
4. S L Kakani and Priyanka Punglia, ‘Communication Systems’, New Age International Publisher, 2017
 Embedded Systems & Sensors and Interfacing

4.1 Definition: -

• An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor-based system which is designed to

perform a specific task in combination of both hardware and software.

• An embedded system is a combination of 3 types of components: a. Hardware b. Software c.

Mechanical Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only.
• E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners,
• Automotive Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

• For example, a fire alarm; it will sense only smoke. Laser printers; it only prints

• Firmware: programming instructions, referred to as firmware, are stored in read-only memory

(ROM).

Example1: Washing Machine

• A washing machine from an embedded system point of viewed as:

• Hardware: Buttons, Display & buzzer, electronic circuitry.

• Software: as a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives controls & monitors the
various operations possible.

• Mechanical Components: the internals of a washing machine which actually wash the clothes
control the input and output of water, the chassis itself.

Example2: Air Conditioner

• An Air Conditioner from an embedded systems point of view has:

• Hardware: Remote, Display & buzzer, Infrared Sensors, electronic circuitry.

• Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives controls & monitors the
various operations possible. The software monitors the external temperature through the sensors
and then releases the coolant or suppresses it.

• Mechanical Components: the internals of an air conditioner the motor, the chassis, the outlet, etc.
an embedded system is designed to do a specific job only.

4.2. Embedded Systems

An embedded system is an electronic slash, elector-mechanic system designed to perform specific function and
in a combination of both hardware and software
 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems: -
• The Embedded System and the General-purpose computer are at two extremes. The embedded
system is designed to perform a specific task whereas as per definition the general-purpose
computer is meant for general use.
• It can be used for playing games, watching movies, creating software, work on documents or
spreadsheets etc. Following are certain specific points that differentiates between embedded systems
and general-purpose computers: -
Table 4.1 Compare Embedded Systems and General Computing Systems

General Computing Systems Embedded Systems

It is combination of generic hardware and general- It is combination of special purpose hardware and
purpose OS for executing a variety of applications. embedded OS for executing specific set of
applications.

It contains general purpose operating system. It may or may not contain operating system

It is microprocessor-based system It is microcontroller-based system

A computer needs human interaction to perform tasks. Embedded device does not need human interaction
to perform tasks.
Architecture examples: Analog / Digital computer, Architecture examples: Small Scale Embedded
Hybrid computer, Harvard /Von Neumann architecture, System, Medium Scale Embedded Systems,
Reduced instruction set computer Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems

It has 2 parts: Hardware and Software. It has 3 parts: Hardware, Firmware and Software.

It can perform many tasks. It performs specific tasks

(End user programmable) can be (Not end user programmable) only for a specific
reprogrammed to for a new purpose. set of purposes.

Power consumption is high Power consumption is less

Computers are usually bigger in size with larger Embedded Devices are smaller in size than
hardware and input output devices attached to it Computers, with limited hardware.

Response time is not critical Response time is critical for some applications

4.3. Classification of Embedded Systems

The classification of embedded system is based on following criteria's:

➢ On generation
➢ On complexity & performance
 ➢ On deterministic behavior
➢ On triggering

4.3.1. On generation:-

First generation(1G):

• Built around 8-bit microprocessor &4-bit microcontroller. Such embedded system possesses
Simple hardware circuit & firmware developed using assembly code. Examples: Digital
telephone keypads and stepper motor control units.

Second generation(2G):

• After the evolution of the second-generation embedded systems, 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit
microcontrollers are used.
• They are more powerful, and complex compared to previous generation processors. Ex: Data
acquisition systems, SCADA systems.

Third generation(3G):

• Embedded Systems built around high performance 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit
microcontrollers.
• Hence, its operation has become much more powerful and complex than these generation.
• During this period, domain-specific processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors (DSP),
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and the concept of
instructionpipelining,embeddedreal-
timeoperatingsystemevolvedintotheembeddedsystemindustry.Ex:Robotics,industrialprocesscontr
ol, embedded networking.

Fourth generation(4G):

• Fourth Generation Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoCs), Re-configurable
processors and multi-core processors, coprocessors also emerged into the embedded market to
add more powerful performance
• These systems also make use of the high-performance real-time operating system for their
operation. Ex: Smart devices, digital cameras, etc.

4.3.2. Based on Complexity and Performance Requirements

Small Scale Embedded Systems: -

• Small Scale Embedded Systems are built with a single 8 or 16-bit microprocessor or controller.
• The main programming tools used are an editor, assembler, cross assembler and integrated
 development environment (IDE).
• The hardware and software complexities in small-scale embedded system are very low. It may or
may not contain an operating system for its functioning.
• An electronic toy is an example for a small-scale embedded system.

Medium Scale Embedded Systems: -

• The Embedded system with medium performance 16-bit or 32-bit microprocessor or controller,
ASICs or DSPs fall under the medium scale embedded systems. They have both hardware and
software complexities.
• The main programming tools used are C, C++, JAVA, Visual C++, RTOS, debugger, source
code engineering tool, simulator and IDE.

Large scale Embedded Systems: -

• The embedded systems have highly complex hardware and software, built around 32-bit or 64-bit
processors/controllers, RISC processors, SoC, scalable and configurable processors.
• They are also called sophisticated embedded systems. They are used for cutting-edge applications
that need hardware and software co-design, where components have to be assembled din to the final
system.
• They also contain a high-performance real-time operating system for task scheduling, prioritization
and management

4.3.3 On deterministic behavior

• This classification is applicable for “Real Time” systems. The task execution behavior for an
embedded system may be deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on execution behavior Real Time embedded systems are divided into Hard and Soft.
• Soft Real Time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical & can be
• Tolerated to a certain degree
• 2.Hard Real Time Systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can have catastrophic
consequences

4.3.4. On triggering:

• Embedded systems which are “Reactive” in nature can be based on triggering. Reactive
systems can be:

➢ Event triggered

➢ Time triggered

➢ Event triggered: Activities within the system (e.g.,taskrun-times) are dynamic

And depend upon occurrence of different events.
➢ Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed

4.4. Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

• Consumer Electronics: Cam-orders, Digital Cameras, Laptop, CCTV etc.

• Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven
etc.
• Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection
alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
• Automotive Industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems,
Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
• Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
• Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
• Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
• HealthCare: X-ray, Scanners, EEG, ECG, BP monitor, pulse monitor etc.
• Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC
systems etc.
• Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters,
• Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Handheld Devices etc

4.5. Elements of an Embedded System: -

Figure 4.1 Typical Embedded System Element

⚫ A Typical embedded system contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of the
system. The controller can be microprocessor or microcontroller or a FPGA device or DSP or
ASIC/ASSP (application specific standard product).
⚫ Embedded hardware/software systems are basically designed to regulate physical variable or to
manipulate the state of some devices by sending some control signals to actuators or devices
connected to the output ports of the system, in response to the input signals provides by the end
users or sensors which are connected to the input ports. Hence embedded system can acts as are
 active system.
⚫ The control is achieved by the processing the information coming from the sensors and user inter
face and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
⚫ Keyboards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common user interface input devices
whereas LED’s, LCD, piezoelectric buzzers etc. are examples for common user inter face output
devices typical embedded system.
⚫ The memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm or other important
configuration details.
⚫ The most common types of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash etc.,

4.6. The Core of the Embedded Systems

⚫ Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a central core. The core
of the embedded system falls into any of the following categories:
➢ General purpose and Domain Specific Processors
➢ Application Specific Integrated Circuits. (ASIC)
➢ Programmable logic devices (PLD’s)
➢ Commercial off-the-shelf components (COTs)
4.6.1 General Purpose and Domain Specific Processor.

⚫ Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/controller based.

⚫ The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor, depending on

the domain and application.

Microprocessors

⚫ A microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central processing unit.

⚫ A microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of other hardware like
memory, timer unit, and interrupts controller, etc. for proper functioning.

Microcontrollers

⚫ A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, special and
general-purpose register arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer and
interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports.
⚫ Texas Instrument’sTMS1000 is considered as the world’s first microcontroller.
⚫ Some embedded system application require only 8 bit controllers whereas some requiring superior
performance and computational needs demand 16/32 bit controllers.
⚫ The instruction set of a microcontroller can be RISC or CISC.
⚫ Microcontrollers are designed for either general purpose application requirement or domain specific
application requirement.

Digital Signal Processors

⚫ DSP are powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessor designed to meet the computational
demands and power constraints of today’s embedded audio, video and communication applications.
DSP are 2to3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing applications.

⚫ This is because of the architectural difference between DSP and general purpose microprocessors.
⚫ DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general purpose
processor implement the algorithm in software and the speed of execution depends primarily on the
clock for the processors.

Table 4.2 difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Microprocessor Micro controller

Consists of a CPU, performs arithmetic and Highly integrated chip contains cpu ram, on
logical operations chip ROM flash memory I/O ports
It is mainly used in personal computers It is mainly used in embedded system
Complex and expensive with a large number of Simple and inexpensive with a smaller number
instructions to process of instructions to process
Dependent unit Self-contained unit
Consumes more power Consumes less power
Limited power saving options Includes lot of power saving features
Architecture is based on Von Neumann model Architecture is based on Harvard architecture
Uses an external bus to interface to interface to Uses an internal controlling bus
RAM ROM and other Peripherals
Clock in GHz Clock in MHz

Access time for memory and input Access time for memory and input
Devices are more. Devices are less.

Table 4.3difference between RISC and CISC

RISC CISC
Reduced instruction set computer Complex instruction set computer
Software centric design Hardware centric design
Low power consumption High power consumption
Requires more RAM Requires minimum amount of RAM
 Simple decoding of instruction Complex decoding of instruction
Processor are highly pipelined Processor are not pipe lined
Execution time is very less Execution time is very high
Uses multiple registers Uses single registers
It does not require external memory for calculation It requires external memory for calculation
Compound addressing mode limited addressing mode
RISC architecture can be used with high end CISC architecture can be used with ow end
application like telecommunication image application like home automation, security
processing system
Small code size large code size
Fixed instruction format Varying instruction format
Examples: ARM PIC Power Architecture, Alpha, Examples: VAX, AMD, Motorola
AVR, ARC

4.6.2 Application Specific Integrated Circuits. (ASIC)

• ASICs is a microchip design to perform a specific and unique applications.

• Because of using single chip for integrates several functions there by reduces the system
development cost.
• Most of the ASICs are proprietary (which having some trade name) products, it is referred as
Application Specific Standard Products (ASSP).
• As a single chip ASIC consumes a very small area in the total system.
• There by helps in the design of smaller system with high capabilities or functionalities.
• The developers of such chips may not be interested in revealing the internal detail of it.

4.6.3 Programmable logic devices (PLD’s)

• APLD is an electronic component. It used to build digital circuits which are reconfigurable.
• A logic gate has a fixed function but a PLD does not have a defined function at the time of
Manufacture.
• PLDs offer customers a wide range of logic capacity, features, speed, and voltage characteristics.
PLDs can be reconfigured toper for many number of functions at any time.
• A variety of tools are available for the designers of PLDs which are inexpensive and help to
develop, simulate and test the designs.
• PLDs having following two major types.
➢ CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Device): CPLDs offer much smaller amount of logic up
to 1000 gates.
 ➢ FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays): It offers highest amount of performance as well as
highest logic density, the most features.

Advantages of PLDs:-

• PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during the design cycle.
• PLDs do not require long lead times for prototypes or production parts because PLDs are
already on a distributor’s shelf and ready for shipment.
• PLDs can be reprogrammed even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.

4.6.4 Commercial off-the-shelf components (COTs)

• The COTS components itself may be develop around a general purpose or domain specific
processor or an ASICs or a PLDs.
• The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market, are chip and
a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extent.
• The major drawback of using COTS components in embedded design is that the manufacturer of
the COTS component may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of the COTS at
any time if rapid change in technology occurs.

Advantages of COTS:

• Ready to use
• Easy to integrate
• Reduces development time

Disadvantages of COTS:

• No operational or manufacturing standard (all proprietary).

• Vendor or manufacturer may discontinue production of a particular COTS product.

Sensors and Interfacing

4.7. Instrumentation and control systems

4.7.1. Instrumentation:
Technology of measurement
⚫ An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates process physical variables such as flow,
temperature, level, or pressure etc.
 • Figure 4.2: Instrumentation System
• Figure 4.2. shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system. The physical quantity to be
measured (e.g. temperature) acts upon a sensor that produces an electrical output signal.
• This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but there may not be a linear
relationship between the physical quantity and its electrical equivalent.
• Also, the output produced by the sensor may be small or may suffer from the presence of
noise(i.e. unwanted signals).
• Therefore, further signal conditioning will be required be fore the signal will be at an acceptable
level and in an acceptable form for signal processing, display and recording.
• The signal processing may use digital rather than analog signals for this purpose ADC may be
required.

4.7.2. Control systems: -

• As seen from the figure 4.3, it uses negative feedback in order to regulate and stabilize the
output.

• It thus becomes possible to set the input or demand (i.e. what we desire the output to be) and
leave the system to regulate itself by comparing it with a signal derived from the output (via a
sensor and appropriate signal conditioning).

• A comparator is used to sense the difference in these two signals and where any changes
detected, then input to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly. This signal is referred to as
an error signal (it should be zero when the output exactly matches the demand).

• The input (demand) is often derived from a simple potentiometer connected across a stable DC
voltage source while the controlled device can take many forms (Ex: a DC motor, linear actuator,
heater ,etc.).
 Figure 4.3: Arrangement Control System

4.8. Transducers

⚫ Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form (sound, light, heat, etc.,) into an equivalent
electrical signal, or vice versa.

Energy of Transducer Energy of

one form other form

Figure 4.4: Transducer

Examples:

• A microphone is a transducer converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current.

• A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low frequency electric current into audible sounds

4.9. Sensor

• A sensor is a transducer which converts energy from physical form to electrical form for any
measurement or control purpose. Sensors acts input device.

Example1:

• Physical quantity: sound

• Input transducer: Microphone
• Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive.
• An active sensor generates a current or voltage output.
• A passive sensor requires a source of current or voltage and it modifies this by virtue of a change in
the sensor’s resistance.
• The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on its own. Sensors
can also be classified as either digital or analog.
• The output of a digital sensor can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘ON’ or
‘OFF’,‘LOW’or‘HIGH’,‘logic1’or‘logic0’,etc.
• The output of an analogue sensor can take of voltage or current levels. It is thus said to be
 continuously variable
• Transducers are also known as Input-Output subsystems. The I/O subsystem facilitates the
interaction of the embedded system with external world.
• The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the input and output ports of
the embedded system.
• The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the input ports, instead they may be interfaced through
signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, Opto-couplers etc.

4.10. Actuator
• Actuator is a transducer which converts electrical signals to corresponding physical
action(motion). Actuator acts as an output device.

• Example:1

• Physical Quantity: Sound (pressure change) Output transducer: Loudspeaker

Table 4.4: difference between Sensor and Actuator

sensor actuator
It converts physical quantity into electrical signals It converts electrical signal into physical quantity
It takes input from environment It takes input from the electric or electronic system
It is placed at input port of the system It is placed at output port of the system
Example: photo voltaic cell Example: stepper motor
It is used to measure the physical quantity It is used to measure the continuous and discrete
process parameters
4.11. LED (Light Emitting Diode)

• LED is a p-n junction diode and contains a CATHODE and ANODE for functioning the anode is
connected to +ve end of power supply and cathode is connected to –ve end of power supply.
• The maximum current flowing through the LED is limited by connecting a RESISTOR in series
between the power supply and LED as shown in the figure4.5.

Figure 4.5: LED

• There are two ways to interface an LED to a microprocessor/microcontroller:
• Method: 1 (current sourcing) Anode of LED is connected to port pin. Cathode is connected to
ground (0V) through resistor. When port pin of microprocessor goes logic 1, the LED is forward
biased and emits light. When the port pin goes 0, LED is off. That means port pin sources current to
LED.
• Method: 2 (current sinking) Cathode of LED is connected to port pin. Anode is connected to external
supply through resistor. LED turns on when the port pin is at logic 0. Here port pin sinks current, such
that the brightness of LED can be increased to the required level.

Figure 4.6: LED interfacing to the port pin of microcontroller

Explain 7 Segment display with a neat diagram, state its applications

• The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric (0–9 and A–F)
characters.
• It contains eight LED segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8 LED segments,7 are used
for displaying alpha numeric characters.
• The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as DP.
• The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and characters.
• The 7–segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
• Common anode and common cathode
• In the common anode configuration, the anodes of all LEDs connected together to +Vcc, and in the
common cathode configuration, the cathodes of all LEDs connected together to ground as shown in the
fig.4.7
 Figure 4.7: 7 segment LED interfacing with microcontroller

• Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or cathode is
connected to the port of microcontroller in the order.
• A segment to the least significant port pin and DP segment to the most significant port pin or
vice versa.
• The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a resistor. In order to display the
required numbers (0-9)or HEX characters (A-F), the correct combination of LED segments need
to be illuminated based on the type of configuration.
• An "eighth segment", referred to as DP is used for the display of non-integer
numbers.
 Question Bank

1. What is an embedded system? Compare embedded system with general computer system?

2. Mention the classification of embedded system based on complexity and performance?

3. Discuss the typical embedded system elements?

4. What is the difference between microcontroller and microprocessor?

5. What is the difference between RISC and CISC?

6. Write a short note on i) Transducer ii) Sensor iii) Actuator.

7. Write a short note on 7 segment LED display?