STEEL DESIGN

1 – Introduction to Steel Design

2 – Design of Members for Tension
3 – Design of Members for Compression
4 – Design of Members for Flexure
5 – Design of Members for Shear
6 – Design of Composite Members
7 – Design of Connections
Outline
1 Introduction
2 Column Theory
3 Effective Length
4 Compressive Strength
5 Limit States
6 Local Stability
7 Flexural Buckling (Sec 505.3)
8 Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)
9 Built-up Members (Sec 505.6)
10 Members with Slender Elements (Sec 505.7)

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Introduction

Ref: https://www.georgeralston.com/onshore.html

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Introduction

Compression members are structural elements subjected

to pure compressive forces.

This ideal state is never achieved in reality because some

eccentricity of load is inevitable.

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Column Theory

Consider the long, slender compression member shown.

When P is applied gradually, it will become large enough
to cause the member to ”buckle”.
The corresponding load just before buckling (member is
still elastic) is called the critical buckling load.
The critical buckling load, Pcr is given by:

π 2 EI
Pcr =
L2

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Column Theory
Consider the compression member shown.

The governing differential equation for a deflected member subjected

to bending is given by:

d 2y M
2
=−
dx EI

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Column Theory

When the beam is about to buckle, the bending moment is M = Pcr y .

Then the D.E. can be rewritten as:
Pcr
y 00 + y =0
EI
The resulting O.D.E. with constant coefficients has the following so-
lution:
y = Acos(cx ) + Bsin(cx )
where: s
Pcr
c=
EI

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Column Theory

Applying the boundary conditions:

at x = 0, y = 0; 0 = Acos(0) + Bsin(0) A=0

at x = L, y = 0; 0 = Bsin(cL)
The last condition requires that sin(cL) = 0 otherwise if B is zero,
then the solution is trivial. Thus,

cL = 0, π, 2π, 3π, ... = nπ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

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Column Theory
Then, s 
Pcr 
cL =  L = nπ
EI
Pcr 2 n2 π 2 EI
L = n2 π 2 and Pcr =
EI L2

The values of n correspond to different buckling modes; n = 1 repre-

sents the first mode, n = 2 the second, and so on.

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Column Theory
For the fundamental buckling mode, n = 1;

π 2 EI
Pcr =
L2
But, I = Ar 2 . Hence,
π 2 EAr 2
Pcr =
L2
Rearranging to obtain the critical buckling stress Fcr = Pcr /A,

π2E
Fcr =
(L/r )2

L/r is called as the slenderness ratio. A column will buckle about the
principal axis corresponding to the largest slenderness ratio.

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Effective Length

To account for the different types of end conditions, the slenderness

ratio is modified by an effective length factor, K . Thus, the ef-
fective length of a member becomes KL. Then, the critical buckling
load can be written as:

π 2 EA
Pcr =
(KL/r )2

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Effective Length

Values of the effective length factor, K are taken from AISC Table
C-A-7.1 or by using the alignment charts (AISC Figure C-A-7.1 & 2).

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Effective Length

Note:
Theoretical K values rarely match actual conditions. Hence, the
recommended design K values are used for design purposes.
However majority of the time, theoretical K values are used in the
board exams.
For this class, we will use theoretical K values.

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Effective Length for Frames

Braced Frame

is one in which lateral stability is provided by diagonal bracing

shear wall or additional means.
also referred to as sidesway inhibited frames.

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Effective Length for Frames
Moment Frame

is one in which lateral stability depends upon the bending stiffness

of rigidly connected beams and columns.
Also referred to as sidesway uninhibited frames.

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Effective Length for Frames

AISC Fig. C-A-7.1 Alignment Chart Sidesway Inhibited

(Braced Frame)

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Effective Length for Frames

AISC Fig. C-A-7.2 Alignment Chart Sidesway Uninhibited

(Moment Frame)

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Effective Length for Frames
Where alignment charts are used, G is given by:

(ΣEI/L)c
G=
(ΣEI/L)g
where the Σ indicates a summation of all members rigidly connected
to the joint in consideration and located in the plane in which buckling
of a column is being considered.

where:
E = elastic modulus of column or girder
I = moment of inertia of column or girder
L = length of column or girder

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Effective Length for Frames
Adjustments for Columns with Differing End Conditions:
Columns with fixed base, G = 1.0
Columns with pinned base, G = 10.0

Adjustments for Girders with Differing End Conditions:

For sideway inhibited frames (braced frames):

Far end of girder is fixed, multiply (EI/L)g by 2.0
Far end of girder is pinned, multiply (EI/L)g by 1.5

For sideway uninhibited frames (moment frames):

Far end of girder is fixed, multiply (EI/L)g by 2/3
Far end of girder is pinned, multiply (EI/L)g by 0.5

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Sample Problem 1

The moment frame shown consist of columns oriented so that the webs
are in the plane of the frame. Determine the effective length factor K
for columns AB and BC .

Section Properties:

W610x155: Ix = 1290x 106 mm4

W610x101: Ix = 762x 106 mm4
W360x551: Ix = 2260x 106 mm4
W360x216: Ix = 712x 106 mm4

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Compressive Strength (Sec 505.1)
The design compressive strength, φc Pn , and the allowable com-
pressive strength, Pn /Ωc , are determined as follows:

The nominal compressive strength, Pn shall be the lowest value ob-

tained according to the limit states of flexural buckling, torsional
buckling and flexural-torsional buckling.

For doubly symmetric and singly symmetric members the limit

state of flexural buckling is applicable.
For singly symmetric and unsymmetric members, and certain dou-
ble symmetric members, such as cruciform or built-up columns,
the limit states of torsional or flexural-torsional buckling are also
applicable.

Φc = 0.90 LRFD Ωc = 1.67 ASD

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Compressive Strength (Sec 505.1)

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Limit States

Flexural Buckling
Deflection caused by bending about the axis with the largest slen-
derness ratio. Compression members with any type of cross sec-
tion can fail this way.

Torsional Buckling
Caused by twisting about the longitudinal axis of a member. It
can occur only with doubly symmetrical shapes with very slender
cross-sectional elements. Standard hot-rolled shapes are usually
not susceptible to this.

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Limit States

Flexural-Torsional Buckling
The member bends and twists simultaneously. Can occur only
with unsymmetrical cross sections, both with one axis of symmetry
and those with no axis of symmetry.

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Limit States

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Limit States

Slenderness Limitations:

For members designed on the basis of compression, the slenderness

ratio KL/r preferably should not exceed 200.

where:
K = effective length factor
L = unbraced length
r = radius of gyration

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Local Stability

Aside from the overall buckling mode of a compression member,

it may also fail due to localized buckling. That is the wrinkling at
isolated locations of a compression member. I-shapes, for example,
with thin webs and flanges are susceptible to this.

The measure of this susceptibility is the width-to-thickness ratio, λ, of

each cross sectional element.

λ values are determined using NSCP Tables 502.4.1 and 502.4.2.

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Local Stability

Two types of elements to be considered:

Unstiffened Elements:
unsupported along one edge parallel to the direction of load
Stiffened Elements:
supported along both edges

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Limiting λ Values for Unstiffened Elements

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Limiting λ Values for Stiffened Elements

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Limiting λ Values for Stiffened Elements

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Limiting λ Values (AISC)

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Limiting λ Values

Note:

For compression members, shapes are classified as slender or

non-slender.
For beams, shapes are classified as compact, non-compact or
slender.

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Flexural Buckling (Sec 505.3)
505.3 Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of Members
without Slender Elements

This section applies to compression members with compact and non-

compact sections for uniformly compressed elements.

The nominal strength, Pn , shall be determined based on the limit state

of Flexural Buckling.
Pn = Fcr Ag (505.3-1)
The flexural buckling stress, Fcr , is determined as follows:
q
1) when KL
r
≤ 4.71 E
Fy
(or Fe ≥ 0.44Fy );
 Fy

Fcr = 0.658 Fe Fy (505.3-2)

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Flexural Buckling (Sec 505.3)

q
2) when KL
r
> 4.71 E
Fy
(or Fe < 0.44Fy );

Fcr = 0.877Fe (505.3-3)

where:
Fe = elastic buckling stress, MPa
π2E
F e =  2 (505.3-4)
KL
r

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Sample Problem 2

A W300x75 is used as a column with unsupported length, L. The

column is fixed at the bottom and pinned at the top. Calculate the
LRFD and ASD compressive capacities of the column when (a) L = 3m
and (b) L = 8.5m. Use Fy = 345MPa.

Section Properties:
A = 9420mm2 , rx = 132mm, ry = 49.8mm
bf = 205mm, d = 310mm, tf = 16.3mm, tw =9.4mm

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Sample Problem 2

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Sample Problem 3
Verify if W360x134 is adequate to carry the loading as shown in the
figure. The column is pinned top and bottom in both axes and braced
at the midpoint about the y-y axis. Use ASTM A992 (Fy = 345MPa).
Use LRFD.
Section Properties:
A = 17100mm2 , rx = 156mm, ry = 94mm
bf = 368mm, d = 356mm, tf = 18.0mm, tw =11.2mm

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

505.4 Compressive Strength for Torsional and Flexural-Torsional

Buckling of Members without Slender Elements

This section applies to singly symmetric and unsymmetric mem-

bers and certain doubly symmetric members with compact and non-
compact sections for uniformly compressed elements.

The nominal strength, Pn , shall be determined based on the limit states

of Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling.

Pn = Fcr Ag (505.4-1)

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

1) For double-angle and tee-shaped compression members:

! v 
Fcry + Fcrz 4Fcry Fcrz H 
u
Fcr = 1 − t1 − (505.4-2)
u
2H (Fcry + Fcrz )2

where Fcry is taken as Fcr from Eq. 505.3-2 or 505.3-3 for flexural
buckling about the y-axis of symmetry and KL
r
= KL
ry
and

GJ
Fcrz = (505.4-3)
Ag r̄o2

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

2) For all other cases, Fcr , shall be determined according to Eq.

505.3-2 or 505.3-3, using the torsional or flexural-torsional elastic buck-
ling stress, Fe , determined as follows:

a) For doubly symmetric members:

π 2 ECw 1
" #
Fe = + GJ (505.4-4)
(Kz L)2 Ix + Iy
b) For singly symmetric members where y is the axis of symmetry:
! v 
Fey + Fez 4Fey Fez H 
u
Fe = 1 − t1 − (505.4-5)
u
2H (Fey + Fez )2

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

c) For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of the cubic

equation:

(Fe − Fex )(Fe − Fey )(Fe − Fez )

xo 2
 
− Fe2 (Fe− Fey )
r̄o
 2
y o
− Fe2 (Fe − Fex ) =0 (505.4-6)
r̄o

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

where:
Ix + Iy
r̄o2 = xo2 + yo2 + (505.4-7)
Ag
x +y
2 2
H =1− o 2 o (505.4-8)
r̄o
2
π E
Fex =  2 (505.4-9)
Kx L
rx
2
π E
Fey =  2 (505.4-10)
K L y
ry
2
1
" #
π ECw
Fez = + GJ (505.4-11)
(Kz L)2 Ag r̄o2

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

where:
Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Cw = warping constant, mm6
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel
= 77200MPa
Ix , Iy = moment of inertia about the principal axes, mm4
J = torsional constant, mm4
Kx = effective length factor for flexural buckling about the x-axis
Ky = effective length factor for flexural buckling about the y-axis
Kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling

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Torsional Buckling and Flexural-Torsional Buckling (Sec 505.4)

where:
xo , yo = coordinates of shear center with respect to the centroid, mm
r̄o = polar radius of gyration about the shear center, mm
rx = radius of gyration about the x-axis, mm
ry = radius of gyration about the y-axis, mm

Note:

For doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, Cw may be taken as Iy ho2 /4

where ho is the distance between the flange centroids, in lieu of a more
precise analysis. For tees and double angles, omit term with Cw when
computing Fez and take xo as 0.

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Sample Problem 4

Compute the compressive strength of a WT305 × 120.5 of A992 steel

(Fy = 345 MPa). The effective length with respect to the x-axis is
7.7m, the effective length with respect to the y-axis is 6.0m. Use LRFD
and ASD.

Hint: The shear center for tee-shapes is the intersection of the center-
lines of the flange and web.

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Sample Problem 5

Compute the compressive strength of a C380 × 74 of A36 steel. The

effective lengths with respect to the x, y and z axes are each 4.0m.

Note: Lz is the effective length against torsional buckling (twisting).

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Built-up Members (Sec 505.6)

505.6.1 Compressive Strength

The nominal compressive strength of built-up members composed of

two or more shapes that are interconnected by bolts or welds shall be
determined in accordance with Sections 505.3, 505.4, or 505.7 subject
to the modifications in Section 505.6.1.

Note: For simplicity, we will assume that built-up sections are connec-
tions are connected all throughout the member length.

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Sample Problem 6

The built-up column shown consist of two C380x74 welded to a plate

12mmx400mm. The column is 4.5m long and is hinged at both ends.
Determine the available capacity of the column. Use ASD and LRFD.
Fy = 345 MPa. Consider only flexural buckling.

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Members with Slender Elements (Sec 505.7)

505.7 Compressive Strength

The nominal compressive strength, Pn , shall be determined based on

the limit states of flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling.

Pn = Fcr Ag (505.7-1)
q
1) when KL
r
≤ 4.71 E
QFy
(or Fe ≥ 0.44QFy );
 QFy

Fcr = Q 0.658 Fe Fy (505.7-2)

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Members with Slender Elements (Sec 505.7)

q
2) when KL
r
> 4.71 E
QFy
(or Fe < 0.44QFy );

Fcr = 0.877Fe (505.7-3)

where:
Fe = elastic buckling stress, MPa
= calculated using the provisions in Sec. 505.3-6
Q = Qs Qa for members with slender-element sections

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

505.7.1 Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

The reduction factor Qs for slender unstiffened elements is defined as

follows:

1) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled columns or

other compression members:
q
a. when b
t
≤ 0.56 E
Fy

Qs = 1.0 (505.7-4)

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

q q
b. when 0.56 E
Fy
< b
t
< 1.03 E
Fy

!s
b Fy
Qs = 1.415 − 0.74 (505.7-5)
t E
q
c. when b
t
≥ 1.03 E
Fy

0.69E
Qs =  2 (505.7-6)
b
Fy t

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

2) For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from built-up columns

or other compression members:
q
a. when b
t
≤ 0.64 Ekc
Fy

Qs = 1.0 (505.7-7)
q q
b. when 0.64 Ekc
Fy
< b
t
< 1.17 Ekc
Fy

!s
b Fy
Qs = 1.415 − 0.65 (505.7-8)
t Ekc

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

q
c. when b
t
> 1.17 Ekc
Fy

0.90Ekc
Qs =  2 (505.7-9)
b
Fy t

where:
4
kc = q
h/tw
but kc shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for
calculation purposes.

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

3) For single angles:

q
a. when b
t
≤ 0.45 E
Fy

Qs = 1.0 (505.7-10)
q q
b. when 0.45 E
Fy
< b
t
< 0.91 E
Fy

!s
b Fy
Qs = 1.34 − 0.76 (505.7-11)
t E

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

q
c. when b
t
> 0.91 E
Fy

0.53E
Qs =  2 (505.7-12)
b
Fy t

where:

b = full width of the longest angle leg, mm

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

4) For stems of tees:

q
a. when d
t
≤ 0.75 E
Fy

Qs = 1.0 (505.7-13)
q q
b. when 0.75 E
Fy
< d
t
< 1.03 E
Fy

!s
d Fy
Qs = 1.908 − 1.22 (505.7-14)
t E

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs
q
c. when d
t
> 1.03 E
Fy

0.69E
Qs =  2 (505.7-12)
d
Fy t

where:
b =width of unstiffened compression element,
as defined in Sec 502.4,mm
d =the full nominal depth of tee, mm
t =thickness of element, mm

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Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

Note: If the shape has no slender unstiffened elements, Qs = 1.0.

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Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

505.7.2 Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

The reduction factor Qa for slender stiffened elements is defined as

follows:
Aeff
Qa = (505.7-16)
A
where:
A = total cross sectional area of member, mm2
Aeff = summation of the effective areas of the cross section
based on the reduced effective width, be , mm2

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Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

The reduced effective width, be , is determined as follows:

q
1) For uniformly compressed elements, with bt ≥ 1.49 Ef , except
flanges of square and rectangular sections of uniform thickness:
s  s 
E 0.34 E
be = 1.92t 1− ≤b (505.7-17)
f (b/t) f
where:

f is taken as Fcr with Fcr is calculated based on Q = 1.0.

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Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

2) For flanges of square and rectangular

q slender element sections of
uniform thickness with t ≥ 1.40 f :
b E

s  s 
E 0.38 E
be = 1.92t 1− ≤b (505.7-18)
f (b/t) f
where:
Pn
f =
Aeff
Note: In lieu of calculating f = Pn /Aeff , which requires iteration, f
may be taken as equal to Fy . This will result in a slightly conservative
estimate of the column capacity.

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Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

3) For axially-loaded circular sections:

when 0.11 FEy < D

t
< 0.45 FEy

0.038E 2
Q = Qa = + (505.7-19)
Fy (D/t) 3

where:
D = outside diameter, mm
t = wall thickness, mm

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Slender Stiffened Elements, Qa

Note: If the shape has no slender stiffened elements, Qa = 1.0.

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Sample Problem 7

Determine the axial compressive strength of an HSS203.2X101.6X3.2

with an effective length of 4.6m with respect to each principal axis.
Use Fy = 320MPa

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References

American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of Steel Construc-

tion, 14th Edition. Chicago: AISC, 2011.

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines(2015), National

Structural Code Of The Philippines, Volume 1 – Buildings, Towers,
And Other Vertical Structures.

Salmon, C.G & et. al. (2009). Steel Structures Design and Behavior:
Emphasizing Load and Resistance Factor Design (5th Ed.). Pearson

Segui, W.T.(2013). Steel Design (5th Ed.). Cengage

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 End.

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