Behaviorist perspective
" Children learn language because their verbal behaviour is selectively reinforced by significant
others." - B.F. Skinner
Behaviorists believe that language develops through conditioning and reinforcement of
associations between stimuli in the environment and responses. Language is seen as a set of
behaviors or habits that are acquired through interaction with the social world. The American
psychologist B.F. Skinner was a major proponent of the Behaviorist perspective on language
development. He argued that children learn language the same way animals learn behaviors -
through conditioning principles of reinforcement and punishment. When children make
utterances that are reinforced by parents and caregivers, they are more likely to repeat those
utterances and sounds. Over time, this conditioning shapes the child's language development.
TECHNIQUES USED :
1)Reward and praise - Reinforcing students' correct language use with rewards like stickers,
stars or verbal praise. This positive reinforcement strengthens desired behaviors.
2)Modelling - Providing examples for students to imitate. The teacher models correct
pronunciations, sentences structures and vocabulary for students to mimic and reproduce.
3)Focus on imitation - Encouraging students to repeat and imitate the teacher's language
examples as closely as possible. This helps form associations between sound patterns and
meanings.
CRITICISIM :
1)It fails to explain the creativity and productivity of language. Children are able to
spontaneously produce and understand novel utterances that they have never been reinforced for
before. This suggests innate linguistic mechanisms beyond simple association formation.
2)It cannot account for the systematicity and rule-governed nature of syntax and grammar.
Children acquire language rules that allow them to produce and understand an infinite number of
grammatical sentences. Conditioning alone cannot explain this rule-based knowledge.
3)It does not consider the rapidity of language acquisition. Children learn language at a very fast
pace, much faster than what would be expected from a purely associationist model of
conditioning and reinforcement. This indicates innate linguistic knowledge.
4)It cannot explain language universals. All human languages share certain common properties
like the ability to form noun phrases and verb phrases. This suggests innate, universal properties
of language that are not learned through associations.
5)It does not account for the poverty of stimuli. The environmental input children receive is
limited and insufficient to fully explain their acquisition of language rules and structures. Innate
knowledge fills in the gaps.
6)It fails to consider children's errors and irregularities in language development. These
deviations do not fit the reinforcement-based model and point more to cognitive development
processes.
Overgeneralization: A child might say "goed" instead of "went."
Why: This shows they’re applying a general rule (adding -ed) rather than simply imitating adults.
Behaviorism can’t explain this rule-testing process since it’s not based on hearing or
reinforcement.
CASE OF GENIE WILLY : The case of Genie Wiley, a child who suffered extreme social
isolation and was denied language exposure, challenges the behaviorist view on language
acquisition. According to behaviorism, Genie should have learned language once she received
reinforcement and exposure after her rescue. However, despite intensive training, she struggled
with grammar and syntax, supporting Noam Chomsky’s theory of a "critical period" for language
development. With the help of therapists and get effort she was able to develop expansive
vocabulary but was unable to make sentences.
VERBAL OPERANTS
Verbal operants are categories of language behaviors, identified by B.F. Skinner, that serve
different communicative functions. Each verbal operant is a type of response to a specific
stimulus in the environment or conversation
1. Mand : Mands are all about making requests. From asking for a glass of water to seeking
attention, mand operants allow individuals to communicate their wants and needs.
For example, a child saying, “Juice” while pointing at their cup is a mand operant in action.
Teaching mand operants is vital as they empower individuals to express themselves and meet
their needs.
2. Tact : Tact operants involve labeling and describing items, actions, or events in the
environment. They help individuals connect words to their sensory experiences.For instance,
when a child points to a dog and says, “Dog!” they are tacting. Tacting expands vocabulary and
fosters expressive language development.
3. Intraverbal : Intraverbals revolve around responding to others’ statements or questions
without any visual cue. Intraverbals facilitate conversation and social interactions.For example,
when someone asks, “What’s your favorite color?” and the child responds with, “Blue,” this is an
intraverbal. Developing intraverbal skills is crucial for engaging in meaningful back-and-forths.
Another intraverbal example is filling in the blank, such as “1…2…” and the child says, “3”.
4. Echoic : Echoics involve repeating or imitating speech. Echoics lay the groundwork for
speech sound discrimination and accurate pronunciation.When a child imitates an adult saying,
“Apple,” they use an echoic response. Echoics are a fundamental step toward building clear and
accurate verbal communication.
Nativist perspective
" Children have a innate predisposition to apply lingistic rules.". - Naom Chomsky
The nativist perspective on language development theorizes that children are born with an innate
assemblage of language learning tools, called the language acquisition device (LAD) (an inborn
capacity or pseudo organ that allows children to learn languages they are exposed to in their
environment.) Nativist theorists believe this is why children can learn a native language
quickly.The nativist perspective has been argued by linguist Noam Chomsky.
Chomsky is often regarded as the father of nativist theory. During the 1960s, Chomsky
questioned the idea that the human mind begins as a 'blank slate'. For example, children growing
up in England would hear English and therefore learn English. He suggests that a child's
predisposition to learn a language is triggered when they hear speech and that their brains begin
to interpret what is heard based on underlying structures and principles it already 'knows'.
The Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
The language acquisition device, or LAD for short, is a hypothetical 'tool' in the brain that
contains specific knowledge about language and grammar. Chomsky proposed the LAD to help
explain how children are able to comprehend the basic structures of language from such a young
age. Chomsky suggests that a child's LAD is triggered once they hear speech.Chomsky stated
that this part of the brain is a uniquely human trait and cannot be found in other animals, which
helps explain why it is only humans who can communicate through language.
Universal grammar
The term Universal Grammar has been used to describe the knowledge contained within the
LAD. Of course, all languages are different, and humans assign different meanings to different
sounds worldwide. Chomsky does not believe that a child born in England has an innate ability
to speak English or that a child born in China can miraculously speak Chinese. Instead, he
suggests that all human languages share many of the same common grammar principles.
For example, most languages:
Differentiate between verbs and nouns
Have a way of talking about the past and present
Have a way of asking questions
Have a counting system
This sharing of common grammar principles is what Chomsky refers to as Universal Grammar.
According to Universal Grammar theory, the basic grammatical structures of language are
already encoded in the human brain at birth. It is a child's environment that will determine which
language they will learn.
VIRTUOUS ERRORS
In language acquisition, "virtuous errors" are mistakes that children make while learning to
speak, which actually reflect logical thinking and creativity in applying language rules. These
errors show that children are actively learning and internalizing the patterns of language rather
than just memorizing words or phrases.For example, a child might say "goed" instead of "went"
or "runned" instead of "ran."
CREOLE LANGUAGES
The formation of creole languages appears to support Chomsky's theory of the LAD. Languages
that grow and develop from mixing other languages without any formal teaching are known to
linguists as creole languages.
The linguist Derek Bickerton studied the formation of Dutch-based creoles that originated from
escaped slaves. The adult slaves all came from different linguistic backgrounds and therefore had
to communicate with the small amount of Dutch they had learned before escaping. The adults
were past the critical age of being able to learn a language quickly, resulting in a very basic
pidgin language.
However, the children of the escaped slaves turned this basic pidgin language into a full
language with its own consistent grammar rules. The children were able to do this without any
formal teaching.
CRITICISMS OF THE NATIVIST THEORY
The nativist theory has been met with several criticisms.
Firstly, nativism is often perceived as too theoretical and lacking scientific proof. Jeffrey Elman
et al. (1996) ² pointed out that it is almost impossible to judge what knowledge is innate and
exactly how it could be coded in a person's genes.
Subsequently, Chomsky's theory fails to account for real-life relationships, external factors, and
motivations to learn that children may face in their day-to-day lives.
Interactionist theorists, such as Bruner and Vygotsky, examine the biological and social
perspectives to explain how children develop language. This demonstrates a move away from the
nativist theory as it fails to recognize the importance of social environment in language
acquisition.
Thirdly, although scientists have identified locations in the brain used specifically for language
processing, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area, a specific area that could be defined as the
LAD has never been found.
Did not explain what are the universal rules that allow us to learn many languages.
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
"Children learn language to talk about sensory motor experiences." - Nelson
The main principle of cognitive theory is the idea that children are born with a limited cognitive
ability that must develop over time. As the baby grows into a toddler, then a child, then a
teenager, their cognitive ability also increases due to their life experiences. Cognitive theorists
believe that with the development of cognitive ability comes the development of language.
Piaget and the Cognitive Development Theory : Piaget's theory was very influential in the field
of language acquisition and helped directly link language learning with intellectual development.
Piaget suggested that language and cognitive skills are directly related and that stronger
cognitive skills lead to stronger language skills.
Second language acquisition : The cognitive theory recognizes second language acquisition
(SLA) as a conscious and reasoned thinking process. Unlike first languages, which many
theorists argue we have an inbuilt and subconscious ability to speak, learning second languages
is more like acquiring any other skill.
Information process theory is a cognitive approach to SLA proposed by Barry McLaughlin in
1983. The theory recognizes that learning a new language is an active process that involves
building upon schemas and utilizing specific learning strategies to enhance comprehension and
retain information. The information process approach is often contrasted with the behaviourist
approach, which sees language learning as an unconscious process.
McLaughlin (1983) proposes that learning a new language involves moving from a conscious
process to an automatic process via practice.
Cognitive maturity :
Cognitive maturity in language acquisition refers to the level of mental development that enables
individuals to understand, process, and produce language effectively. As cognitive abilities
mature, language skills also progress, reflecting a deeper understanding of complex concepts,
abstract ideas, and social nuances.
Here’s how cognitive maturity plays a role in language acquisition:
1. Early Stages (Sensorimotor and Preoperational Stages): In Piaget’s theory, young children
first develop basic cognitive skills that help them make sense of the world around them. During
this period, they start learning vocabulary through sensory experiences and interactions with
objects and people. For example, a toddler may use simple words like “mama” or “milk” to
communicate needs. However, they lack an understanding of grammar or abstract concepts
because their cognitive abilities are still developing.
2. Symbolic Thought and Vocabulary Expansion: As cognitive maturity progresses, children
move into a stage where they can think symbolically. This is when they start to connect words
with meanings beyond direct sensory experiences. They can begin to understand that a word can
represent something they can't directly see, like "yesterday" or "sad." They also start forming
more complex sentences as their cognitive capacity for working memory and categorization
improves.
3. Grammar and Syntax (Concrete Operational Stage): With further cognitive maturity, children
can understand and use grammatical rules and syntax more accurately. This is when they start
using past and future tenses correctly, understanding pronouns, and forming more sophisticated
sentences. Their cognitive development enables them to see patterns in language, such as
conjugating verbs or making plurals, which they can apply consistently.
4. Abstract Language Use (Formal Operational Stage): As they reach adolescence, cognitive
maturity allows for abstract and hypothetical thinking. Language acquisition at this stage
includes understanding idioms, metaphors, sarcasm, and other nuanced uses of language. They
can now discuss complex topics, understand humor, and engage in debates, all of which require
advanced cognitive skills. This level of cognitive maturity enables them to use language for
persuasion, reasoning, and reflecting on abstract ideas.
CRITICISIM
One of the main criticisms of cognitive theory is that it discusses cognitive processes that aren't
directly observable. It becomes increasingly difficult to find clear links between language
acquisition and intellectual development as a child gets older.
Piaget’s cognitive development theory has been criticized for focusing mainly on the internal,
biological stages of cognitive growth without fully addressing the impact of external factors,
such as social interactions, cultural influences, and educational experiences.
Talks about acquisition of words but not syntax.
PRAGMATIC PERSPECTIVE
A pragmatic explanation for language acquisition suggests that we learn language primarily
through social interaction and the need to communicate effectively in different contexts, meaning
we actively adapt our speech based on the situation and our listener's understanding, rather than
just passively absorbing grammar rules; this process involves observing others' communicative
intentions, utilizing feedback from our environment, and constantly refining our language use to
achieve desired outcomes.
Tomasello and Barton’s (1994) Non-Ostensive Word Learning
Tomasello and Barton conducted a study in which children were able to learn words in situations
where the referent was not directly labeled or highlighted by an adult. In a "finding game," an
adult searched for an object in a bucket while using a novel word (e.g., "toma") to label it,
showing intentional behaviors like smiling when the object was found. Children successfully
learned the word for the object even though it was not pointed out directly. This study supports
the social-pragmatic perspective by illustrating that children can infer word meanings through
interpreting communicative intentions and actions within a social context.
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
The interactionist theory was first suggested by Jerome Bruner in 1983 who believed that,
although children do have an innate ability to learn language, they also require plenty of direct
contact and interaction with others to achieve full language fluency.
In other words, the theory of interaction suggests that children can't learn to speak just by
watching TV or listening to conversations. They have to fully engage with others and understand
the contexts in which language is used.
Caregivers tend to provide the linguistic support that helps a child learn to speak. They correct
mistakes, simplify their own speech and build the scaffolding that helps a child to develop
language. This support from caregivers can also be referred to as the 'Language Acquisition
Support System' (LASS).
LASS is a term used to describe the support from caregivers/parents/teachers in a child's early
language development. They provide active support in social interactions such as:
Adjusting language to suit the child. This is sometimes referred to as 'motherese', 'caregiver
speech', 'baby talk', or 'Child-Directed Speech (CDS)'.
Collaborative learning such as joint reading. This can involve an adult looking at picture books
with a child and pointing out key vocabulary, for example, by saying 'this is a banana' as they
point to a picture of a banana.
Encouraging the child and providing feedback through interactions. For example, the adult may
smile when the child talks and say 'yes, good, that's a banana!'
Providing examples for the child to imitate. This includes using certain vocabulary in certain
social situations, for example, by encouraging the child to 'say hi!' or 'say thank you!'
Games such as 'peek-a-boo' that practice the turn-taking that is necessary for interactions
The interactionist approach looks at both social and biological perspectives to explain how
children develop language. It moves away from Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory which failed
to recognize the importance of the social environment in language acquisition.
The interactionist approach looks at both social and biological perspectives to explain how
children develop language. It moves away from Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory which failed
to recognize the importance of the social environment in language acquisition.
• Vygotsky developed key concepts such as:
Cultural-specific tools - these are 'tools' specific to a certain culture. This includes technical tools
such as books and media as well as psychological tools such as language, signs, and symbols.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - This is the zone of potential development in which a
child can develop skills that require the support of a more knowledgeable teacher. This teacher
can provide scaffolding, encouraging the child and helping them to master skills and gain more
knowledge.
Scaffolding :Think of scaffolding on a building - it is there to support the building whilst the
bricks and windows are being put into place before it is then gradually removed once the
building is finished and stable.
Research support
A study by Carpenter, Nagell, Tomasello, Butterworth, and Moore (1998) showed the
importance of parent-child social interaction when learning to speak. They studied factors such
as joint attentional engagement (e.g., reading a book together), gaze and point following,
gestures, and understanding/producing language. The results showed a correlation between
parent-child social interactions (e.g., joint attention) and language skills, suggesting that
interaction is important in a child's development of language.
Limitations of Interactionist Theory
There are some limitations to the interactionist theory:
Researchers such as Elinor Ochs and Bambi B. Schieffelin have suggested that the data collected
from studies supporting the Interactionist theory are actually over-representative of middle-class,
white, western families. This means that the data may not be as applicable to parent-child
interactions in other classes or cultures who may speak to their children differently but still
acquire fluent speech.
It has been noted that children from cultures where Child-Directed Speech isn't used as
frequently (e.g., Papua New Guinea) still develop fluent language and pass through the same
stages when acquiring language. This suggests that Child-Directed Speech isn't essential in
language acquisition.
MILESTONES IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Birth to 5 months : Coos
Vocalizes pleasure and displeasure, sounds differently (laughs, giggles, cries, or fusses)
Cooing is an early form of vocalization in infants, usually starting around six to eight weeks old.
It involves soft, repetitive sounds like "oo," "ah," or "goo," often made in response to interactions
with caregivers. Cooing is an important developmental stage in language acquisition, as it helps
babies practice vocal control and learn how to make sounds in a relaxed and enjoyable way. This
stage also strengthens the bond between babies and their caregivers, as cooing often elicits
smiles, eye contact, and verbal responses that support social and emotional development.
6 to 11 months
Understands "no-no"
Babbles (says "ba-ba-ba")
Says "ma-ma" or "da-da" without meaning
Tries to communicate by actions or gestures
Babbling is sometimes called baby talk (or jargon, when it begins to take on the intonations of
speech) because it doesn’t make any sense to people with developed language. It sounds like
someone threw a bunch of letters in a box, jumbled them up, and tossed them back out again.
But the babbling still has significance. It’s how your child first learns the art of putting sounds
together and, later, assigning those sounds some kind of meaning.
Marginal babbling. Between 4 and 6 months of age, your baby may start ramping up their vowel
pronunciation and pairing vowel sounds with consonant sounds. Most of these are single
syllables — think “daa” and “baa.”
Canonical babbling. Your 6- to 10-month-old should start making recognizable syllable sounds
— and stringing several of them together. This is where all that “goo-goo” and “gaa-gaa” stuff
begins! There are even two types of canonical babbling:
reduplicated, where a baby repeats the same syllable sound over and over (“deedeedeedee”)
non-reduplicated, where the syllable sounds strung together are different (“meebaagoo”)
Conversational babbling. You know those viral videos where a baby is “arguing” with Mom or
Dad in nothing but baby talk — but their speech patterns mimic adult speech? This is the stage of
conversational babbling where your baby still isn’t putting real words together yet, but they
understand that typical dialogue between people includes expression, pauses, volume changes,
and even hand gestures. This often starts around 10 months old and is the big finale before a
baby speaks their first real word.
3 to 6 years
For children ages 3-6, speech and language milestones include recognizing colors and object
groups (3-4 years), using complex sentences and expressive speech, understanding concepts like
"behind" and "next to" (4-5 years), and understanding sequences and categories. By age 5, they
also engage in conversations, use imagination for storytelling, and follow multi-step directions.
These skills reflect increased vocabulary, sentence complexity, and social use of language.
NAMING EXPLOSION : a stage in language development, usually occurring during a child’s 2nd
year, when a marked increase occurs in the rate at which new words are added to the child’s
productive vocabulary. This stage marks a change in the cognitive and linguistic underpinnings
of children’s language use: It indicates their increased understanding that words are symbols that
refer to actual things in the world, and it is thought to explain why nouns in particular are
acquired at a rapid rate. Also called vocabulary spurt; word spurt.
Examples of Naming Explosion
Everyday Objects: A child who knows the word "ball" may start naming other familiar objects,
like "cup," "car," and "book."
Animals: After learning "dog," they may quickly add "cat," "bird," and "cow" to their
vocabulary.
Food Items: They might suddenly start naming foods they eat regularly, like "apple," "milk," or
"cookie."
FAST MAPPING : Fast mapping refers to the ability of children to learn new words very quickly
and easily around age two. Children can pick up words and phrases with very little exposure to
them because they are constantly absorbing all of the world around them. Fast mapping is a
quick process that occurs in the child's brain, by which they will hear a word and connect it with
an understanding of the word or concept. This usually happens when talking to a child about
their close environment and labeling everything in it. Fast mapping was initially introduced by
Susan Carey and Elsa Bartlett in 1978. Fast mapping works by students making connections with
words to items by inferring the meanings. Children will infer the meanings of words based on
visuals and context clues. Children will be able to gain at least a part of the meaning of words
from how they are used in a sentence by the adults around them. Carey and Bartlett provide
much evidence, along with other studies after them. Children were tested for their skill in
producing and understanding new words when given the context of the word and other familiar
words. The results of the studies show that even children as young as two can narrow down the
meaning of a word.
What is an example of fast mapping?
An example of fast mapping occurs when a child uses a familiar word to figure out an unfamiliar
word. If someone shows a child a picture of a dog and a picture of a platypus, and then they are
asked to point to the platypus, they should know what it is simply by knowing what the dog is.
TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH : Telegraphic speech is a stage of language acquisition—typically in a
child's second year.
The term telegraphic speech was coined by Roger Brown and Colin Fraser A simplified manner
of speech in which only the most important content words are used to express ideas, while
grammatical function words (such as determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions), as well as
inflectional endings, are often omitted. Eg.'No, mummy—no go sleep!'
EARLY ERRORS IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
These generalizations typically occur between 26 and 30 months and are essential stages as the
child begins to map language to their experiences.
1. Over-generalization: This happens when a child applies a word too broadly, covering a wide
range of items. For example, the subject in the study used "buk" (book) to refer to all printed
materials, like comics and newspapers. Similarly, "ayon" (crayon) was used for all colored
pencils, and "pen" referred to any writing tool, including markers. This reflects the child's
attempt to categorize items based on limited initial exposure.
2. Under-generalization: This occurs when the child applies a word too narrowly, using it only
for specific instances rather than general ones. In the study, the child referred to their sheep
puppet as "sip" (sheep) but did not extend this term to other similar sheep puppets, indicating a
restricted understanding of the term. The word "ayung" (umbrella) was similarly restricted to the
child's personal umbrella, umbrellas used in the house etc.
3. No-generalization: In this case, the child fails to apply a word's meaning in new contexts,
likely due to confusion or difficulty understanding. An example of no-generalization would be a
child who learns the word "dog" for their family pet but does not apply the word to other dogs
outside the home. For instance, when visiting a friend's house, the child may not recognize or
label the friend's dog as a "dog," only using the term exclusively for their own pet.
By 32 months, as the child's cognitive abilities develop, they typically begin to differentiate and
use words more accurately, leading to fewer generalization errors.
METALINGUSITIC AWARNESS
Metalinguistic awareness involves the ability to think and talk about language explicitly, to
analyze its components, and to understand the rules and structures that govern it. To recognize
what’s right about a sentence structure and what’s wrong – separate from meaning. For instance,
recognizing that the sentence “he singed a song” is not correct, the verb tense is incorrect
