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Physics 1010: Mechanics

2020-2021 Batch: I
Instructor: V. Praveen Bhallamudi, Jayeeta Bhattacharya, Jatin Rath
TAs: Saroj, Zainab, Ketan, Dhruva, Manab, Gautham

Welcome!
Crazy year but let’s make the best of it

This presentation is meant only for IITM PH 1010 B-Tech students, Yr. 2020, Batch 1
Images and materials taken from various sources are meant to be used only
for non-commercial educational purposes only

Making sense of nature:

Observations, Questions, Experiments, Theory and Maths
• Observation: The color of sky is blue, Question: Why, Theory: Probably because of
scattering of light by particles in the atmosphere, Experiment: Controlled
environment observations to test or develop the theory further
– Not always in this order…but just as a general notion of the relationship

• Important to understand the physical concepts, but we do need Mathematics to

make our understanding concrete and quantitative
• But we should not hide behind equations when explaining Physics
• Equations are preceded by certain assumptions, which themselves come from
experimental observations or intuition about a problem

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Overview of the course:

Understanding motion of objects is important

Artist's (not to scale!) rendition of our

solar system's architecture. [NASA] The Thinker by
Rodin, Wiki

https://www.wallpaperup.com/9175/Cars
_motion_blur_noble_noble_m600.html 3

Key concepts for motion and mechanics

• Positions (spatial location)

– Can change with time

• Displacement or separation

• Velocity

• Acceleration

• Force

• Path or trajectory

• Energy

From Google Earth

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Regimes of Physics

Newton Einstein

Bohr, Heisenberg, etc. Dirac, Pauli, Feynman

From wikipedia 5

Some basic things to keep in mind

• Size: universe: 1026 m, quark: 10-19 m

• Mass of universe: 10 53 kg , Mass of
electron: 10-31 kg
• Age of universe: 10 17 s , smallest time
measured: 10-21 s
• Temperature inside some hot stars: 108 K,
lowest temperatures recorded : 10-9 K,
outer space: 4K
• No. of protons, electrons, neutron in the
universe: 1080
• In sun: 1057, In earth: 1051, human: 1030

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Module 1: Revisiting Newton's Laws of Motion

Key themes: Newton’s Laws, connection

between fields and potentials

V. Praveen Bhallamudi (2020)

Overview and motivation of the module

• We are trying to understand motion of objects…rigid objects

• Understand motion in term of Newton’s laws

• Historically the first successful attempt to mathematically describe motion of

planetary and everyday objects

• Very successful theory that still works quite well in most situations

• Developed calculus that helps to describe classical motion mathematically

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Outline for the module

• Concepts of inertia, force and momentum, linear and angular momenta

• Conservative force fields (gravitational and electrostatic)

• Equipotentials and the concept of gradient

Types of motion: Translation and Rotation

From wikipedia

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Understanding and controlling motion

https://www.pooldawg.com Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech 11

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Lecture 1 and 2

• Basic notions in mechanics of point particles- space and time,

• Concept of vectors

• Algebraic properties of vectors

• Coordinate system, basis and unit vectors

• Differentiation of vectors

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Some key points about vectors

• Need to define a frame of reference or coordinate system to define vectors

– Basis and unit vectors
– Possible types of coordinate systems: Cartesian, polar, cylindrical, spherical
– Cartesian bases (unit) vectors are independent of each other

• Do vector have units/dimensions? Do unit vectors have units and dimensions?

• Does position vector depend on the choice of coordinate system? Does
displacement or separation vector depend this?
• Dot and cross products
– Dot product: scalar quantities like energy
– Cross product: vector quantitates such as force or torque

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Displacement or separation vector: True vector

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Key concepts for motion and mechanics

• Positions (spatial location)

– Can change with time

• Displacement or separation

• Velocity

• Acceleration

• Force

• Path or trajectory

• Energy

From Google Earth

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Jerk Snap Crackle Pop

From Wikipedia 16

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General announcements

• Register on Moodle

• Change Moodle email address to smail (easy to do this from your profile)

• Check smail and Moodle regularly

• Moodle is the central place to find all course materials

• Access to video lectures will be through your smail account ONLY. Please DO NOT
send me access requests from other mail IDs

• Please DO NOT start individual conversation with me on WhatsApp. Very hard for
me to keep track with 275 students. Use the WhatsApp groups

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PH 1010, 2020, Batch I

Newton’s laws

Lecture 3 & 4
11/16/2020

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Space

Already discussed in the previous slides that each point (say P) of three dimensional
space can be represented by a position vector (r). Vector r specifies the distance
and direction of point P with respect to a chosen origin.

r = x ̂ + 𝑦 ̂ + 𝑧𝒌 P (x, y, z)

O
Y

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Source: JRT; Chapter 1
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Time

• In classical mechanics, time (t) is a single universal parameter for all observers.

• However, this view is not exactly correct when two observers are in relative motion
with speed comparable to speed of light.
•
• Two observers, in relative motion do not agree on all times.

• In classical mechanics, with all speeds much less than the speed of light, we will
follow the notion of single universal time.

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Source: JRT; Chapter 1
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Some definitions from Newton

• Mass: The quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density and
bulk conjointly

• Momentum: The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising from the
velocity and quantity of matter conjointly

• Inertia: The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of resisting, by which every
body, as much as in it lies, continues in its present state, whether it be of rest…

• Force: An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to change its
state, either of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line

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Key physical implication of 1st law: Inertial systems

• In the absence of forces, a stationary particle remains stationary and a moving particle
continues to move with unchanged speed in the same direction
• A uniformly moving body continues to move uniformly unless acted on by a force
• In the absence of forces, a particle moves with constant velocity
• In the absence of forces, a particle has zero acceleration

• We need to measure things with respect to a coordinate system

• Underlying concept if that of an isolated body
• Assertion that inertial systems exist, and Newton’s laws apply for these inertial systems
• A frame of reference or coordinate system which is moving with uniform velocity is called
an inertial system
• Note this includes systems at rest, zero velocity

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Inertial and non-inertial frames

• Is there anything such as inertial frame? Maybe inertial enough…

– Earth’s speed around sun: 30 km/s, sun’s speed around galaxy: 230 km/s,

• Non-inertial frames require us to include pseudo-forces (will be discussed later)

• Earth is an inertial frame…and non-inertial too

– For most purposes it is an inertial frame

– Some non-inertial effects do happen: Coriolis that affects winds and clouds or tidal forces

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Some notes on inertial and non-inertial frames

u.au/~cblake/Class5_Eq
http://astronomy.swin.ed
• Read example Example 2.1 Inertial and Non-

uivalencePrinciple.pdf
inertial Systems in KK
• Observer is tied to a coordinate system
• Newton’s pail experiment: Newtonian
mechanics requires absolute space and time,
and FoR
• Mach’s principle: local physical laws are
determined by the large-scale structure of the
universe
• Equivalence Principle: a freely-falling frame is
locally equivalent to an inertial frame, and a
gravitational field is locally equivalent to an
acceleration
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IITM 2.5 s μ-gravity drop tower

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Newton’s second law of motion

• The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and is

made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.

F = ma
𝒗 𝒓 𝒓
a= = = =
𝒑
p=

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But what is a big force and small force

• Is 100 N a big force?

• For a B777-300 with 2 GE90-115, Maximum thrust :1023000N.

MTOW (maximum take off weight) : 263000kg.
Acceleration is 1023000/263000 = 3.89m/s2 = 3.89/9.81g = 0.3965g (horizontally).
oly720man on <https://www.airliners.net/forum/viewtopic.php?t=751983>

• Fighter pilots 9g vertically, Space rockets: More than 10 g

• Force between sun and the earth: 3.52 x 10^22 N

• Force of stretching proteins: pN

• Force between two nuclear spins separated by 1 nm: 1e-20 N

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Fundamental forces in nature

Force Affects Range Rel. strength Role in the universe

Gravita- All ∞ 10-39 Assemble materials in to planets, stars,

tional (Least strong) galaxies etc.
Electro- Charged ∞ 10-2 Determine structure of atoms, solids,
magnetic liquids etc.
Strong Nucleus 10-15 m 1 Holds nucleons together to form
(Most strong) atomic nuclei,
Holds quarks together to form
nucleons
Weak Nucleus 10-18 m 10-3 Helps determine compositions of
atomic nuclie.

Source: David J Griffith, page no. xii, Arthur Beiser, section 13.1 28

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So what about them other forces we talk about

• Normal, Frictional, tension, drag, spring force, mechanical force…all Electromagnetic

force

• electric force, magnetic force: Also from Electromagnetic force

• For most things in our everyday life Electromagnetic force is what matters

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Quick note on Gravitational force

F = ma = mω2r
GmM/r2 = mω2r = m(2π/T)2r ⇒ So T is proportional to (r)3/2

Period = A x (Distance)pow

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Friction and Drag

• Coefficient of friction: Static; dynamic and

rolling friction

• Some objects for which the linear drag

force dominates—namely very small
liquid drops in air, or somewhat larger
objects in a very viscous liquid (e.g. a ball
bearing in molasses).

• For most projectiles, however, including

baseballs, cannon balls, even humans in
free-fall, the appropriate drag force to use
is the quadratic one.
• Other examples of linear drag: falling
magnet and eddy currents, Lenz's law;
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• Falling magnet is a copper tube
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Block sliding down an incline

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Applying Second law

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Spinning terror

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PH 1010, 2020, Batch I

Newton’s third law and Energy

Lecture 5 & 6
11/17/2020

All images of equations are taken from KK textbook

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Outline

• Newton’s third law

• Conservation of momentum

• Elastic collisions

• Kinetic energy and work

• Potential energy

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Newtons third law and its consequences

• Forces always appear in pairs Sum of all internal forces in a body is zero Conservation of momentum
that are equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction
What happens
– If body b exerts force 𝑭 on when 𝐅 = 0?
body a, then there must be a
force 𝑭 acting on body b, due
to body a, such that 𝑭 = − 𝑭 𝑑𝐏
=0
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝐏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

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Notes on momentum and its conservation

𝐏 ( 𝒗)
• 𝐅= =
• Conservation of momentum is much more fundamental than Newtonian Mechanics
– We can find it in quantum mechanics or relativistic mechanics too
– Photons, electromagnetic fields all contribute to momentum

See problem 6
in Problem set 2

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Spring Gun Recoil problem from KK

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Center of Mass

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Kinetic energy and work done

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PH 1010, 2020, Batch I

Kinetic and potential energy

Lecture 7
11/19/2020

All images of equations are taken from KK textbook

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Work-Energy theorem

• What happens if
mass is changing

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Couple of examples of work done

• Tension does no work in either

case (⊥ to motion)
• Gravity: Gravity does work on the
left side, not right
• Since gravitational force is along
vertical direction, only that
displacement matters for
calculation

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Conservative forces:
Work done in a uniform field

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Conservative forces:
Work done by central force

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Conservation of Energy

Emmy Noether

Showed conservation laws are derived

from symmetries in nature, that formed
the basis for Standard Model of Physics
• Time invariance: Total energy
Total mechanical energy is conserved • Spatial invariance: Momentum
• Rotational invariance: Angular
momentum 47

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Examples of central force

• Gravitational: 𝑓 𝑟 =

• Electrostatic: 𝑓 𝑟 =

• Spring: 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝑘(𝑟 − 𝑟 )

• Magnetic field??

• Note: Here m1 and m2 are magnetic dipole moments, NOT masses.

• Magnetic force depends on the relative orientation of the dipoles and thus not central
• Is it conservative…complicated
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Is there an absolute potential

• 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = − ∫ 𝑭(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥) ⋅ 𝑑𝒓, where 𝑑𝒓 = 𝑑𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝚥̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘

• We can even consider simpler 1D case: 𝑈 𝑥 = − ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

• What about the constant of integration?

• There is no unique or absolute potential and thus energy

• Also, when integrating w.r.t one variable, others are constants

• It is decided based on convenience for the problem

• Potential energy can be negative, based on the choice of the constant

• We are only interested in changes of energy

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What are the non-conservative forces

• Friction, drag…basically damping forces

• The fundamental forces are all conservative

• So how do we get non-conservative forces?

• Because we should think of energy and interactions

• Heat is a kind of energy that needs to included in energy conservation equation

• Mechanisms allow for transformation from mechanical energy to heat, and these
become non-conservative interactions

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Force and energy: 1D simplification

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How to represent energy in 3D space

• Can be represented as a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

– Gravitational potential 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =−

• Or can be shown as a surface: U = const.

– Equipotential surface, contour lines

– − = 𝐶 ⇒𝑟 = − ⇒𝑥 +𝑦 + 𝑧 = C

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How to get force from potential in 3D

𝐹 = −𝛁𝑈

Please note we have obtained a vector from a scalar

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Del operator
• Del (or Nabla): 𝛁 = ̂+ ̂+ 𝒌
https://math
– A very important mathematical tool .etsu.edu/m
ulticalc/prea
– Almost a vector, an operator lpha/chap3/
chap3-
• Gradient: 𝛁𝑓 = ̂+ ̂+ 𝒌 6/part1.htm

– Extension of slope to multiple

dimensions, tells us about the change of
a function, tangent and surface normal
• Divergence: 𝛁 ⋅ 𝒗, where 𝒗 is a vector
– How quickly things diverge out of a point,
how fast things change if we move
radially
• Curl: 𝛁 × 𝒗
– A measure or circulation of a function,
how a functions swirls around 54

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Properties of gradient

• 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 = 𝛁𝑓 ⋅ 𝑑𝒓

• The gradient 𝛁𝑓 points in the direction of maximum increase of the function 𝑓

• The magnitude 𝛁𝑓 gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction

• This is a fundamental result; the gradient vector of a function is always perpendicular to the
contour lines, 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐶, of the function

• More generally gradient gives the direction of the surface normal

• Useful link to help visualize gradient and directional derivative

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Three equivalent statements for conservative forces

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Examples

Remember: when differentiating

w.r.t x, y and Z are constant, and
so on…

What happens when theta = 0?

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PH 1010, 2020, Batch I

Simple Harmonic Motion

Lecture 8-9
11/22/2020

Material has been taken from recommended textbooks by

Klepper and Kolenkow, and J. R. Taylor, alongwith slides from Dr. Yasir Iqbal
and Dr. Panchanana Khuntia for non-profit educational purposes

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Understanding motion in frequency

• Functions (including motion, r(t)) can be broken into collection of oscillations, all
happening at the same time: Fourier transform

• Oscillatory behavior (or periodic motion) is defined by a frequency

• Motion (or functions more generally) can be viewed equivalently in time or

frequency

• Complex motion in time results from many frequencies of motion being present

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Simple Harmonic Oscillator:

Hookes’s law

• For sufficiently small displacements from an equilibrium point,

Hooke’s Law is ALWAYS valid for any potential energy function.
1
𝑈 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥
2 • Spring: 𝑥̈ = − 𝑥 = −𝜔 𝑥, where 𝜔 =

• Pendulum: 𝜙̈ = −𝜔 𝜙

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Example: From, JRT, Bottle in a bucket

A bottle is floating upright in a large
bucket of water. In equilibrium it is
submerged to a depth d0 below the
surface of the water. Show that if it is
pushed down to a depth d and released,
it will execute harmonic motion, and
find the frequency of its oscillations.

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Simple harmonic oscillator equations in 1D

• Undamped, undriven: 𝑥̈ + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0
– Never stops, keeps moving in a periodic motion

• Damped undriven: 𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0

– Moves in a periodic motion but then stops after some time, typically at an
equilibrium point
• Damped and driven: 𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔 𝑥 = (𝑡)
– Depends on the driving force. For the right drive force we can sustain the
motion
– Typically we are interested in periodic drive force

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Solutions for undamped undriven case:

𝑥̈ + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0
Four possible ways to write the solution • This is a 2nd order, linear,
homogeneous differential equation
• 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙) • We have two unknowns in the soln.
– Amplitude and a phase
– 𝐴 is real, 𝜔 = 𝑘/𝑚
• We need two independent pieces
of information to solve
• 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒(𝐴𝑒 )
– Initial position and velocity
• 𝑥 = 𝐵 cos 𝜔 𝑡 + B sin 𝜔 𝑡 – Positions at two times
– Position at one time and velocity at
another
– 𝐴= 𝐵 + 𝐵 , 𝐵 and 𝐵 are real
– But position and acceleration at the
same time cannot be given, since
• 𝑥=𝐶 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑒 they are dependent
– 𝐶 = (𝐵 − 𝑖𝐵 ) , 𝐶 = (𝐵 + 𝑖𝐵 )

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Solutions for damped undriven case:

𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0
• LCR circuits: 𝑞̈ + 𝑞̇ + 𝑞=0 • More realistic, we have included
effects of damping or dissipation or
• 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 cos(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙) friction
• Damping is dependent on velocity
– 𝜔 = 𝜔 −
Time vs. Position

𝜸𝟐 ≪ 𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝜸𝟐 < 𝟒𝝎𝟐 64

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What is happening to the energy

• 𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑒 ⇒ = 𝛾𝐸
– Energy goes as square of the amplitude
• 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ∝ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 , 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ∝ 𝑥

/
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑒 , where 𝜏 = 𝑄/𝜔
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𝜸
Overdamped regime of damped oscillator: 𝟎
𝟐
• 𝑥=𝐶 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑒

• 𝛼 = − − 𝜔 and 𝛼 = + −𝜔

• No oscillations are seen in the overdamped regime

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Different frequencies

• Natural frequency, 𝜔 =

• Frequency of a damped oscillator: 𝜔 = 𝜔 −

• Driving frequency: 𝜔

• Frequency of maximum response, resonant frequency: 𝜔 = 𝜔 −

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Amplitude response of a driven resonant system

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Response of the energy of the system

• Resonance lineshape is called

Lorentzian

How narrow can the linewidth be:

• Thermal energy
• Quantum fluctuations
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Complete solution:
Transient + steady-state

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Mathematics of solving differential equations

Linear operator D Homogeneous Inhomogeneous Complete solution

eqn. eqn.

Homogeneous or Particular
complementary Soln.
Soln.

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Some other notes of oscillators

• Periodic vs SHO
– Restoring force opposite to the More complex periodic motion
direction of motion for SHO, but not
necessary for periodic
• Harmonic vs. Anharmonic
– Asymmetric potentials
– When we go beyond the quadratic
approximation, say a cubic term in
the potential
– Superconducting qubit are
anharmonic oscillators
• Coupled oscillators

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