Sexual & Asexual Reproduction

Meiosis is the formation of four non-identical cells from one cell.

Mitosis is the formation of two identical cells from one cell.

Sexual reproduction (meiosis)

 Joining of male & female gametes that produce genetically different offspring, each
containing genetic information from the mother or father.
 Gametes formed by meiosis
 Mixing of genetic info leads to variety in offspring
 Requires energy as some animals & plants produce gametes in high no. & process of
courtship requires energy
 Sperm and egg cells in animals
 Pollen and egg cells in flowering plants.

Animals Flowering plants

 Sperm cell  Pollen
 Egg cell  Egg cell

Advantages Disadvantages
 Produce variation in offspring  Slower reproduction
 If environment changes, variation gives  Need mate
a survival advantage by natural  Unreliable in consistent environment
selection + evolution can occur  Comparison to asexual production
 Natural selection can be sped up by
human in selective breeding to ↑food
production

Asexual reproduction (mitosis)

 Involves only one parent & no fusion of gametes

 No mixing of genetic info – produce genetically identical offspring (clones) by mitosis
 E.g. Bacterial reproduce asexually when divide by binary fission

Advantages Disadvantages
 Only one parent needed  No variation in offspring
 More time & energy efficient as don’t  Less survival advantage by natural
need to find mate selection
 Faster than sexual reproduction  No natural selection can be made for
 Many identical offspring can be adapting to new conditions
produced when conditions are
favourable
Malaria parasite  Sexually – in human host
 Asexually – in mosquito
Fungi  Sexually – by spores to give variation
 Asexually – by spores
Plants  Sexually – produce seeds
 Asexually – produce tiny plantlets on runners e.g. strawberry plants
 bulb division e.g. daffodils

Meiosis
  Only takes place in reproductive organs
 Male - testes
 Females – ovary

Describe how meiosis halves no of chromosomes in gametes.

1. All chromosomes made copies of their DNA

2. Chromosome pairs line up and exchange pieces of DNA (DNA crossover)
3. Cell divides into 2
4. Chromosomes line up
5. Both cells divide one more time to form 4 gametes, each with a single set of chromosomes
6. DNA is exchanged so all gametes are genetically different from each other

Gametes join at fertilisation to restore the normal number of chromosomes. The new cell divides by
mitosis. The number of cells increases. As the embryo develops cells differentiate.

Meiosis
Prophase I The chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope break down.
Metaphase I Pair of homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell
Anaphase I Homologous chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell.
 Telophase I & Chromosomes gather at the pole of the cells. The cytoplasm divides
cytokinesis
Prophase II A new spindle forms around the chromosomes
Metaphase II Chromosomes line up at the equator
Anaphase II Chromosomes divide. Chromatids move to the opposite poles of the cells.
Telophase II & A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes. The cytoplasm
Cytokinesis divides.

Describe how fertilisation restores full no of chromosomes.

 In sexual reproduction (fertilisation), gametes join together

 Cell now has normal no of chromosomes

Explain why sexual reproduction could produce new variety of onion. (3)

 Meiosis produces 4 gametes from an original cell

 Fusion of gametes in fertilisation
 These gametes are genetically different from each other & have different alleles, produced
by meiosis which causes variation

DNA & The Genome

Structure of nucleotide
 DNA polymer

 Nucleotide: Monomers that make up DNA polymer

 Each nucleotide is made of the same phosphate group and pentose sugar but 4 different
bases.
1. Adenine
2. Cytosine
3. Thymine
4. Guanine
 Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds.
 Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds.

Gene: A small section of DNA on chromosomes; codes for a particular sequence of amino acids to
make specific protein

 Haploid number: 23 chromosomes

 Diploid number: 46 chromosomes (maternal + paternal chromosomes)
 DNA is a polymer made up of 2 strands forming a double helix, which twist around to make
ladder structure/double-stranded spiral and controls order of amino acids to form specific
proteins, that determines the characteristics of a living organism.
 Genome: The entire genetic material of the organism
 Amino acids: Molecules that join together to make proteins
 Homologous chromosomes: Chromosomes in matching pair
 Polymer: A large molecule made from many smaller molecules called monomers.

Importance of human genome project

 Search for genes linked to different types of diseases.

 Understanding and treatment of inherited disorders.
 Track human migration patterns from the past.
Why is sequence of compounds A,C,G & T in gene important? (2)

 They are codes for order of amino acid which make a specific protein

chromosomes only have an 'X'

shape when the DNA has been
duplicated ready for cell
division. The rest of the time,
they will look more like an 'l'.

Protein synthesis, Transcription &

Translation
  Protein - polymers of amino acids
 Sequence of bases in gene determines order of amino acids (aka codes for sequence)
 Each set of three bases known as codon or triplet codes for a single amino acids
 The chain of amino acids (a 'polypeptide'), then folds up to form a protein.
 Specific order of amino acids determines shape of protein
 Shape of protein determines function e.g. enzyme (amylase), structural protein (collagen),
hormones (insulin)

Stages Protein synthesis (6)

Transcription:

 DNA in the nucleus unwinds to expose the gene that codes for the required protein.
 An enzyme called RNA polymerase moves through a template strand and copies the DNA
sequence of the gene into a complementary mRNA template (copy of a single gene).
 The mRNA template detaches from the DNA, exits the nucleus, and moves into the
cytoplasm.

Translation:

 The mRNA binds to ribosome in the cytoplasm, which reads the sequence of bases in
codons/triplets
 Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid, which is brought to the ribosome by a
carrier molecule (tRNA).
 The ribosome links the amino acids together in the correct sequence to form a
polypeptide chain.
 This chain folds into a specific shape to form a functional protein.

Describe how protein is synthesised. (3)

 A sequence of 3 bases is coded for 1 amino acid

 Amino acids make up a protein Key differences

 mRNA are much

Explain how DNA is responsible for structure of proteins. (3) shorter than DNA
 DNA carries coded info which controls order of amino  Only a single strand of
acids to form specific proteins double helix
 A sequence of 3 bases is coded for 1 amino acid  Thymine is replaced by
a base called uracil

Mutation
 Change in a base changes the triplet/codon.
 This changes the amino acid it codes for
  So, there will be a different sequence of amino acids
 This means the polypeptide will fold into a differently shaped protein/enzyme
 The protein/enzyme may have a differently shaped active site
 So, it may no longer be complementary to the substrate
 Which would mean it couldn’t form an enzyme-substrate complex
 So, it couldn't catalyse the reaction as well / the rate would be lower

Explain how mutation could cause enzyme not to work. (5)

 A sequence of 3 bases is coded for 1 amino acid

 Mutation changes DNA code through substitution/insertion/deletion
 Changes order of bases, change order of amino acids, change shape of protein that change
active site
 So, enzyme no longer fits substrate

Name 2 factors that increase the risk of mutation:

 Carcinogens found in cigarette smoke

 Ionising radiation like x-rays or gamma rays

Mutation facts
 A mutation to one of the basis in DNA can change the amino acid that a triplet (codon) codes
for.
 Most mutations don't have any significant effect, only very rarely will they impact the
organism.
 Most mutation occur in non-coding DNA.
 Non-coding DNA often controls the expression of coding DNA (regulates how and when
coding DNA makes protein). By switching genes on and off, so variations in these areas od
DNA may affect how genes are expressed.
 Substitution: One base in the sequence is replaced with a different base
 Insertion: An extra base is added into the sequence causing all the base to move on by 1
 Deletion: A base is removed from the sequence causing all the bases to move down by 1
 Deletion and insertion mutations have a much larger effect than substitution mutations as
they disrupt all of the triplets after the mutation.

Genetic Inheritance
Gamete An organism’s reproductive cell (egg in female & sperm in male), which has
half no of chromosomes
Chromosomes A structure found in nucleus which is made up of long strand of DNA
 Gene Small section of DNA on chromosome that codes for a particular sequence
of amino acids to make specific type of protein that determine
characteristics
Allele Different forms of the same gene controlling a characteristic & occupying
same site on homologous chromosome
Dominant e.g. B Only expressed if recessive allele is not present Will show a characteristic if
inherited from one or both parents
Recessive e.g. b Only expressed if dominant allele is not present. Will show a characteristic
only if inherited from both parents
Homozygous e.g. A genotype with two same alleles
e.g. BB or bb
Homozygous A genotype with two dominant alleles
dominant e.g. BB
Homozygous A genotype with two recessive alleles
recessive e.g. bb
Heterozygous e.g. A genotype with one dominant & one recessive allele
Bb
Genotype Individual collection of genes/allele
The 2 alleles present for a particular gene
Genetic make-up of an organism represented by letters
Phenotype The characteristics an organism has as a result of their genotype
Physical characteristics of an organism as described by words

Explain why it looks similar to its parents. (1)

 DNA passed from parents

Explain why not identical to its parents. (2)

 DNA from 2 parents

 Different alleles
 Environmental effect e.g. mutations

Why might your prediction not have proved right? (1)

 It's down to chance / only a prediction

Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather than a single gene inheritance.

Inherited Disorder
 Polydactyly  Have an extra digit; that is an extra
finger/toes
 Caused by dominant allele

Cystic fibrosis  A disorder of cell membranes; releases thick

sticky mucus in lungs & digestive system.
 Caused by recessive allele
 Heterozygous cystic fibrosis allele means you
don’t get cystic fibrosis yourself but you will
pass it on to your offspring = carrier.

Solution – Embryo screening

 Embryos are tested to see if alleles for inherited disorders are present
 DNA isolated from embryo
 Fluorescent probe mixed with embryo DNA
 Probe then binds with embryo DNA
 UV light to show alleles / gene for disorder

Advantages Disadvantages
 ↑chance of having a baby without  Operation hazard e.g. infection
disorder  Ethical - potential damage to embryo
 Disorder won’t be passed on to future  Expensive
generation  Large no of embryo created but only
 ↓ppl suffer – fewer people with health small no are implanted – remaining
problems embryos destroyed
 There’re many regulations to stop it  Promote prejudice as it suggests ppl
going too far with genetic disorders are unwanted
 Use more than 1 embryo so more  Encourage ppl to pick characteristics
chance of success  Embryos might not develop
 Spare embryo have potential use –
could be used in stem cell treatment
Sex determination
Human body cell – 23 chromosomes

 22 pairs – control characteristics

 1 pair – carrier genes that determines sex
 Sex chromosomes – Male (XY), Female (XX)

Variation & Evolution

Variation – differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population
Causes of variation:

 genes they have inherited (genetic causes)

 conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes)
 combination of genes and the environment

Rhere is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species

All variants arise from mutations and that: most have no effect on the phenotype; some influence
phenotype; very few determine phenotype

Natural selection
 Published in On the Origin of Species (1859)

Explain process of natural selection (6)

1. Individual organisms within a particular species show wide range of variation of

characteristics controlled by different alleles caused by mutations
2. Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive &
breed successfully (aka survival of the fittest)
3. The beneficial characteristics / alleles which enable individuals to survive are passed on to
their offspring (to next generation)
4. Over many generations, frequency of alleles for this beneficial characteristic increase within
the population

The different types of rat snake have evolved from similar ancestors.

The rat snakes have evolved to suit their environments.

Type of snake Japanese rat snake Texas rate snake

Colour of snake Grenn Pale brown
Type of environment Grass Dry and dusty

Explain how the Japanese rat snake evolved to be different from the Texas rat snake.

 There are lots of different colours of snakes, which is controlled by different alleles caused by
mutations.
 Japanese rat Snake being green means they're best suited to green environments or are
Camouflaged, allowing it to catch more food, avoid being eaten, survive & breed successfully
 The beneficial Characteristics / alleles which enable it to Survive are passed to their
offspring.
 Over many generations, frequency of alleles for this beneficial characteristic increase withing
the population.
Why the theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted? (3)

 Challenged the idea that God made all the animals and plants that live on Earth
 Insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists
 Mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was
published

An organism during its lifetime can be inherited (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck)

 Changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be inherited

 If an individual continually repeated an action, characteristic that allow it to do this would
develop further
 But we now know that in vast majority of cases, this type of inheritance cannot occur as
changes in environment does not pass on to offspring

Use Lamarck's theory to explain how elephant's trunk evolved (2)

 Ancestor continually stretched its nose to reach food

 This characteristic of stretching its nose develop further during its lifetime
 This characteristic then passed on to offspring

Explain how 2 different species could have developed from a common ancestor (6)

 2 populations separated by geographical barrier

 Different environmental conditions cause alleles to mutate differently in each population
 Individuals with characteristics more suitable for environment are more likely to survive and
breed successfully
 Beneficial characteristics / alleles which enable species to survive are passed on to their
offspring
 Over many generations, frequency of alleles for this beneficial characteristics increases
within each population
 Eventually 2 types cannot interbreed successfully

Suggest how scientist prove they come from same species

 Interbreeding successfully between island types

 DNA analysis

Suggest why 2 species have not become more different over time (2)

Similar environment so similar adaptations

Original ancestor already well adapted

Selective Breeding (artificial
selection)
 Process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics
 By choosing parents with desired characteristics from a mixed population & breed them
together
What are the reasons for selecting specific characteristics in organisms?

 Food crops – disease resistance

 Animals – produce more meat or milk
 Domestic dogs - gentle nature.
 Flowers - large / unusual

Many people have breathing problems because they are allergic to cats.

The allergy is caused by a chemical called Fel D1.

Different cats produce different amounts of Fel D1.

A cat has been bred so that it does not produce Fel D1.

The cat does not cause an allergic reaction.

Explain how the cat has been produced using selective breeding. (4)

 Parents with the desired characteristic are selected. In this case, those who produced the
least Fel D1 are selected.
 The parents are bred together to produce offspring. In their offspring there'll be individuals
with differing amount of Fel D1 produced.
 Offspring with the desired characteristics are selected & bred together
 This is repeated over many generations until all offspring show the desired Characteristic.
 In this case, cats until produces less Fel D1

Advantages Disadvantages
 Produces organisms that are useful to  Selective breeding can lead to
us e.g. ↑food production inbreeding (some breeds are
particularly prone to disease or
inherited defects e.g. pedigree dogs
have hip problems)
 ↓gene pool ↓ no of alleles in a
population - ↓variation of species - if
environment changes, organisms can’t
cope & die

Genetic Engineering
 Process which involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from
another organism to give a desired characteristic
 Plant crops – resistance to diseases, produce bigger better fruits
  Bacterial cells – produce useful substances e.g. insulin to treat diabetes

Process of genetic engineering (6)

 Use restriction enzyme to isolate required gene

 Insert isolated gene into a vector (bacterial plasmid / virus) which is cut opened using
restriction enzyme, and seal the gene into the vector using DNA ligase enzymes.
 Use vector to insert gene into required cells
 Transfer gene to animals / plants cells or microorganisms at an early stage in their
development so they develop with desired characteristics

Genetically modified crops (GM crops)

Advantages Disadvantages
 Resistant to disease  Affect population of wild flowers &
 Resistant to insect attack / herbivores insects = ↓ biodiversity
 ↑yields /produce bigger & better fruits  Haven’t fully explored effects on GM
= ↓starvation in less developed crops on human health
countries  Ethical issues; shouldn’t interfere with
 Improve nutritional value e.g. Golden God’s creation
rice contains carotene = ↓ chance of
vitamin A deficiency

Explain why scientists add glyphosate to agar? (2)

The resistance gene will be transferred

from bacteria to some plant cells

What is a transgenic organism?

An organism with DNA from another

species

Genome
Research in Medicine
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was a major international research effort that aimed to map out
the complete human genetic code. From 1990 to 2003, scientists across the globe worked together
to sequence all 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up the human genome.

The HGP identified around 20,500 human genes and has so far found about 2,000 genes linked to
diseases. Understanding the human genome has opened up new possibilities for medicine, genetic
research, and personalised healthcare.

Why is the human genome important?

1. It helps us understand how genetic diseases work so preventative steps can be taken. People
can get screened to detect health risks early and start treatment sooner.

2. It aids the diagnosis and treatment of inherited disorders by letting us quickly identify faulty
genes. New personalised drugs and therapies can be tailored to a patient's specific genetic
makeup (this is sometimes called personalised medicine).

Drawbacks of genetic screening

1. Learning about their genetic risks can cause stress and mental health issues for some
people.

2. Genetic discrimination may lead to unfair treatment in jobs and insurance for those with
certain gene variants. Strict regulations are needed to prevent gene-based bias.

3. There are concerns about the misuse of genetic data by employers and insurers,
emphasising the need for privacy protections.

What key information does the Human Genome Project offer in tracing human migration patterns?

Genetic markers revealing ancestral origins and migration routes

Cloning
Tissue culture
  Using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical new plants
 Importance - preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries

Process of micropropagation

 Remove leaf from plant with desirable traits

 Scrape off small group of cells (explants/tissue) sample from part of plant onto agar jelly.
 Grow tissue in agar with nutrients & plant hormones to stimulate plant cells to divide to form
big mass of identical plant cells called callus.
 Use different mixture of hormones & conditions (light/water) to form tiny identical plantlets.
 Plantlet clones grown on.

Advantages Disadvantages
 ↑ yields  Expensive
 Quick  Slow compared to cuttings
 Little space  Requires more technical expertise
 Grow all year  Have to worry about sterilization

Cuttings

 An older, but simple, method used by gardeners

 To produce many identical new plants from a parent plant
 Quick & cheap

Process

 Find a desirable plant to clone

 Cut off a branch from parent plant
 Plant stem in damp compost
 Keep cuttings in moist & warm conditions
 After a few weeks, new roots develop & new plant
produced

Animals – Embryo transplant & Adult cell cloning

Embryo transplant Process

 Pick a male and female animal with the most

desirable traits.
 Take sperm from the male and use it to fertilize an
egg from the female, forming a zygote.
 Use the zygote to develop into an embryo
 Split cells apart from developing animal embryo
before they become specialised
 Each cells grows into identical embryo in lab
 Transplant identical embryos into host
mothers/surrogate
 Identical cloned calves born

Advantages Disadvantages
  Produce more animals  Expensive
 People can transfer high-quality  Need skilled labour
embryos around the world
 Produce medically useful compounds

Adult cell cloning (6)

 Remove nucleus from unfertilised egg cell

 At the same time, take nucleus from adult body cell e.g. skin cell of another individual of
same species
 Insert nucleus from adult cell into egg cell
 Give egg cell an electric shock to stimulate it to divide to form an embryo
 These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell.
 When embryo has developed into ball of cells, insert it into womb/uterus of adult
female/surrogate to continue its development into a foetus.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Produce animals with desirable  Reduce variation in a population - less
characteristics e.g. cows produce large able to survive if environment changes
quantity of milk  Expensive
 Produce large no of cloned medically  Can help infertile couples but can also
useful animals be abused
 Save animals from extinction  Unethical
 Clone pets/prized animals so DNA  Possible operation complications
continue after original died

Speciation
 Populations become extremely varied & no interbreed anymore
  Formation of new species (a group of organisms able to interbreed & produce fertile
offspring)

Alfred Russel Wallace

 Published joint writings with Darwin in 1858 proposing the theory of evolution by NS.
 Which prompted Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859) the following year.
 Best known for his work on warning colouration in animals & his theory of speciation
 Alfred Wallace did much pioneering work on speciation but more evidence over time.

A species is a group of organisms able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

New species can arise as a result of the following things:

genetic variation - each population has a wide range of alleles that can control their characteristics

natural selection - the alleles which help an organism to survive are selected in each population

speciation - the populations become extremely varied and successful interbreeding cannot happen
anymore at which point they are considered different species and we say speciation has occurred.

New species can also arise as a result of isolation:

 two populations of a species can

become geographically separated
because of the environment
 This means that different traits become
more favourable in each population,
and through the process of natural
selection, different characteristics will
become more common in the two
populations.
 isolation can prevent interbreeding and
the combination of genes within a
species
 different mutations can take place in
the isolated groups and create
different phenotypes within a particular
location
 over time species may evolve to be
different to each other, and they will
not be able to interbreed

Understandings
of genetics
Gregor Mendel

 Carried out breeding experiments on pea

plants
 Inheritance of each characteristic is
determined by hereditary ‘units’ (genes)
that are passed onto descendants
unchanged
 These units could be either dominant or
recessive
 Recessive ones are only expressed if plant
got unit from both parents

Describe the development of our understanding of genetics including the work of Mendel

 Mid-19th century – Gregor Mendal carried out breeding experiments on plants

 Late 19 – behaviour of chromosomes during cell division was observed
 Early 20th century – chromosomes and Mendel’s ‘units’ behaved in similar ways - led to the
idea that the ‘units’, now called genes, were located on chromosomes.
 Mid-20th century - structure of DNA was determined & the mechanism of gene function
worked out

Why importance of Mendel's discovery wasn't recognised at that time? (2)

 DNA not discovered

 Mendel wasn't considered as a scientist / wasn't part of academic establishment

Evidence For Evolution

Fossils - the ‘remains’ of organisms from millions of years ago, which are found in rocks

2 types of fossil can be casts and impression

 Cast: Organism buried in soft material like clay and when it hardens the organism decays,
hence leaving a gap with same size and shape of the organism.
 Impression: Footprints, when organisms leaves footprint on the ground
 Preservation is another rare fossil formation when no decay occurs this is because organisms
are trapped by amber preventing decay due to lack of O2 and moisture or coldness.

Where are fossils formed? (3)

 Parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the conditions needed for
decay are absent
 When parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay
 As preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces

How fossils are formed?

 An animal or plant dies and its body is covered by sediment.

 Soft parts decay, while hard parts (bones or shells) don’t.
 Over time, hard parts are replaced by minerals, turning them into rocklike substances/fossils
 Lack of oxygen and moisture can prevent decay by microorganisms.
 Fossils may also form from preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows, or
rootlet traces.

Suggest how insects came to be preserved in the amber (2) Amber is a fossilized tree resin
 Trapped and engulfed by amber that forms over millions of
 Prevented decay (due to lack of O2 and moisture) years. It is produced when
resin, a sticky substance
secreted by certain trees to
How can fossils give evidence for evolution? (1) protect themselves from
 Show how organisms changed as life developed on Earth damage, hardens and
undergoes chemical changes
under heat and pressure.
Why scientists are uncertain about how life began on Earth? (1)

 Insufficient evidence

Suggest 2 reasons why there are gaps in the fossil record (2)

 Fossils not found yet

 Fossils are destroyed by geographical activities e.g. volcanoes
 Conditions not right for fossilisation / soft bodied organisms do not fossilise well.

Extinction
Extinction – occur when there are no remaining individuals of a species still alive

Why a species may become extinct? (3)

 Environmental changes – species can’t adapt fast enough

 Natural disaster e.g. flooding, drought
 New predator / disease e.g. no resistant alleles
 Human activities e.g. hunting, deforestation
 Competition for food / mates
 Catastrophic event wipe out species e.g. asteroid killed dinosaurs

Resistant Bacteria
 Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate

How pathogens produce new strains via mutation (6)

 Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strain

 Some strains might be resistance to antibiotics and so are not killed
 Resistant bacteria survive and reproduce by binary fission
 Gene for resistance passed on to offspring so pathogen being immune
 Population of resistant strain rises
 Antibiotic Resistant strain then spread because people not immune to it & has no effective
treatment

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

 Bacterium that has evolved to be resistant to lots of antibiotics (superbugs bacteria)

How to reduce rate of development of antibiotic-resistant strains? (3)

 Doctors reduce use of antibiotics for non-serious / viral infections

 Patients complete course of antibiotics to kill all bacteria so none survive to mutate & form
resistant strains
 Restrict agricultural use of antibiotics

Development of new antibiotics

Unlikely to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains; slow and costly.

Classification of Living organisms

Classification – process by which living things are placed into groups depending on their structure &
characteristics in a system

Linnean System (Carl Linnaeus) – Dear Kate Please Come Over for Great Spaghetti

Describe the impact of developments in biology on classification systems

 Improvements in microscope
 Better understanding of biochemical process
 Evidence of internal structures become more developed
 New models of classification proposed

‘Three-domain system’ (Carl Woese)

 Archaea - primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments

 Bacteria - true bacteria
 Eukaryota - includes protists, fungi, plants and animals

Evolutionary trees

 A method used by scientists to

show how they believe organisms
are related
 Use current classification data for
living organisms & fossil data for
extinct organism
 The branch points shows the
divergence of a single
population/specie into 2 separate
population/specie.