contents

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
From the Publisher xix
About the Author xxi
About the Editors xxiii

List of Symbols xxv

CHAPTER 1

Introduction 1
Dawn of the Motor Vehicle Age 1
Introduction to Vehicle Dynamics 5
Fundamental Approach to Modeling 6
Lumped Mass 6
Vehicle-Fixed Coordinate System 7
ISO/SAE Z-up Vehicle-Fixed Coordinate System 8
Motion Variables 8
Earth-Fixed Coordinate System 8
Euler Angles 9
Forces 9
Newton’s Second Law 9
Dynamic Axle Loads 10
Static Loads on Level Ground 11
Low-Speed Acceleration 11
Loads on Grades 12
Climbing a Grade 12
Road Grade 12
Composite Mass 13
Moments of Inertia 13
Example Problems 14
References 18

©2021 SAE International v

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CHAPTER 2

Acceleration Performance 21
Power-Limited Acceleration 21
Engines 21
Powertrain 23
Automatic Transmissions 27
Example Problems 30
Traction-Limited Acceleration 32
Transverse Weight Shift due to Drive Torque 32
Traction Limits 35
Parts of a Differential 36
Differential Rules 37
Example Problems 37
References 39

CHAPTER 3

Braking Performance 41
Basic Equations 41
Constant Deceleration 42
Deceleration with Wind Resistance 43
Energy/Power 43
Braking Forces 43
Rolling Resistance 44
Aerodynamic Drag 44
Driveline Drag 44
Grade 44
Brakes 45
Brake Factor 45
Tire-Road Friction 47
Velocity 49
Inflation Pressure 49
Vertical Load 49
Example Problems 49
Federal Requirements for Braking Performance 51
Brake Proportioning 52
Anti-lock Brake Systems 57
Braking Efficiency 58
Rear Wheel Lockup 59
Pedal Force Gain 61
Example Problem 63
References 64
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CHAPTER 4

Road Loads 67
Aerodynamics 67
Mechanics of Air Flow around a Vehicle 68
Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle 70
Aerodynamic Forces 73
Drag Components 74
Aerodynamic Aids 78
Bumper Spoilers 78
Air Dams 78
Deck Lid Spoilers 78
Window and Pillar Treatments 78
Optimization 79
Drag 79
Air Density 79
Drag Coefficient 81
Side Force 83
Lift Force 84
Pitching Moment 85
Yawing Moment 85
Rolling Moment 86
Crosswind Sensitivity 87
Rolling Resistance 90
Factors Affecting Rolling Resistance 91
Tire Temperature 91
Tire Inflation Pressure/Load 91
Velocity 92
Tire Material and Design 92
Tire Slip 94
Typical Coefficients 94
Total Road Loads 96
Fuel Economy Effects 97
Example Problems 97
References 99

CHAPTER 5

Ride 103
Excitation Sources 104
Road Roughness 104
Tire/Wheel Assembly 109
Driveline Excitation 113
Engine and Transmission 116
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Vehicle Response Properties 119

Suspension Isolation 119
Example Problem 124
Suspension Stiffness 124
Air Spring Suspensions 126
Suspension Damping 127
Tuning – Damping 128
Tuning – Unsprung Mass 128
Active Control 130
Wheel Hop Resonances 134
Suspension Nonlinearities 135
Rigid Body Bounce/Pitch Motions 137
Bounce/Pitch Frequencies 140
Special Cases 144
Example Problem 145
Perception of Ride 147
Tolerance to Seat Vibrations 147
Other Vibration Forms 152
Conclusion 153
References 153

CHAPTER 6

Steady-State Cornering 157

Introduction 157
Low-Speed Turning 158
High-Speed Cornering 159
Tire Cornering Forces 159
Cornering Equations 160
Understeer Gradient 163
Characteristic Speed 164
Critical Speed 164
Lateral Acceleration Gain 165
Yaw Velocity Gain 165
Sideslip Angle 165
Static Margin 167
Suspension Effects on Cornering 168
Roll Moment Distribution 168
Camber Change 174
Roll Steer 176
Lateral Force Compliance Steer 177
Aligning Torque 178
Effect of Tractive Forces on Cornering 178
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Summary of Understeer Effects 181

Experimental Measurement of Understeer Gradient 181
Constant Radius Method 182
Constant Speed Method 183
Example Problems 184
References 187

CHAPTER 7

Suspensions 191
Solid Axles 192
Hotchkiss 192
Four Link 193
De Dion 193
Independent Suspensions 194
Trailing Arm Suspension 194
SLA Front Suspension 195
MacPherson Strut 195
Multi-link Rear Suspension 196
Trailing-Arm Rear Suspension 196
Semi-trailing Arm 197
Swing Axle 198
Anti-Squat and Anti-Pitch Suspension Geometry 199
Equivalent Trailing Arm Analysis 199
Rear Solid Drive Axle 201
Independent Rear Drive 202
Front Solid Drive Axle 203
Independent Front-Drive Axle 203
Four-Wheel Drive 204
Anti-Dive Suspension Geometry 204
Examples 205
Roll Center Analysis 206
Solid Axle Roll Centers 207
Four-Link Rear Suspension 208
Three-Link Rear Suspension 209
Four-Link with Parallel Arms 209
Hotchkiss Suspension 210
Independent Suspension Roll Centers 211
Positive Swing Arm Geometry 212
Negative Swing Arm Geometry 212
Parallel Horizontal Links 213
Inclined Parallel Links 213
MacPherson Strut 214
Swing Axle 215
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Active Suspensions 215

Suspension Categories 215
Functions 216
Performance 217
References 218

CHAPTER 8

The Steering System 221

Introduction 221
The Steering Linkages 222
Steering Geometry Error 224
Toe Change 225
Roll Steer 226
Front-Wheel Geometry 227
Steering System Forces and Moments 229
Vertical Force 230
Lateral Force 233
Tractive Force 233
Aligning Torque 234
Rolling Resistance and Overturning Moments 234
Steering System Models 234
Examples of Steering System Effects 236
Steering Ratio 237
Understeer 237
Braking Stability 238
Influence of Front-Wheel Drive 240
Driveline Torque about the Steer Axis 240
Influence of Tractive Force on Tire Cornering Stiffness 241
Influence of Tractive Force on Aligning Moment 242
Fore/Aft Load Transfer 242
Summary of FWD Understeer Influences 242
Four-Wheel Steer 243
Low-Speed Turning 243
High-Speed Cornering 244
References 245

CHAPTER 9

Rollover 249
Quasi-Static Rollover of a Rigid Vehicle 250
Quasi-Static Rollover of a Suspended Vehicle 253
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Transient Rollover 255

Simple Roll Models 256
Yaw-Roll Models 259
Tripping 260
Accident Experience 262
Dynamic Stability Testing 265
Electronic Stability Control (ESC) 266
Sine with Dwell: ESC Performance Requirements 267
Hardware-in-the-Loop Testing of ESC Systems 268
Fishhook Maneuver 269
Slowly Increasing Steer 269
Fishhook Maneuver 269
References 271

CHAPTER 10

Tires 275
Tire Construction 276
Size and Load Rating 277
Tire Load Index 278
Terminology and Axis System 279
Mechanics of Force Generation 280
Tractive Properties 281
Vertical Load 283
Inflation Pressure 283
Surface Friction 284
Speed 285
Relevance to Vehicle Performance 285
Cornering Properties 286
Slip Angle 286
Tire Type 289
Load 290
Inflation Pressure 290
Size and Width 290
Tread Design 291
Relevance to Vehicle Performance 291
Camber Thrust 291
Tire Type 292
Load 293
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Inflation Pressure 293

Tread Design 294
Other Factors 294
Relevance to Vehicle Performance 294
Aligning Moment 294
Slip Angle 294
Path Curvature 296
Relevance to Vehicle Performance 296
Combined Braking and Cornering 297
Friction Circle 297
Variables 299
Relevance to Vehicle Performance 299
Conicity and Ply Steer 300
Relevance to Vehicle Performance 301
Durability Forces 302
Tire Vibrations 303
References 306

Appendix A: (R) Vehicle Dynamics Terminology 307

Appendix B: SAE J6a Ride and Vibration Data Manual 395
Appendix C: Ride Index Structure and Development
Methodology 437
Index 473