Republic of the Philippines

COTABATO STATE UNIVERSITY

2437 NS ELEC 1 – BIOLOGY

GROUP 2:
Abas, Mohamad Hamdi E.
Ampatuan, Queen Adawiyah B.
Gumander, Najwa M.
Libongcogon, Angelene C.
Marzan, Princes Clair Z.
Samad, Hannyle Kale M.
Usman, Ariana K.
Utto, Princess Rohaina S.

November 15, 2024

 Seeds are the reproductive units of flowering plants, allowing them to grow new plants.
They come in various shapes, sizes, and colors, each suited to its specific plant species.
Generally, seeds are compact, durable, and designed for survival and dispersal.
 Seeds are produced as part of the plant’s life cycle and have a protective outer layer, helping
them survive until they find suitable conditions for growth. They can remain dormant for
extended periods, waiting for the right temperature, moisture, and light conditions to begin
germinating.
 Seeds are adapted to different environments and use various methods for dispersal, such as
wind, water, or animals, which helps plants spread to new areas.

The seed is composed of three main parts:

1. Embryo
The embryo is the young plant in a dormant state. It includes parts that will develop into
the roots, stem, and leaves once germination begins. The embryo is the core of the seed,
where the genetic material needed for plant growth is stored.
2. Endosperm
The endosperm is a tissue that surrounds the embryo and provides nourishment for the
seedling as it begins to grow. It serves as a food source during germination, sustaining the
embryo until it can produce its own food through photosynthesis.
3. Seed Coat (Testa)
The seed coat is the outer layer that protects the seed from physical damage and
environmental stressors, such as moisture, pests, and disease. It helps regulate the seed’s
water intake during germination and ensures the seed remains dormant until conditions are
suitable for growth. Each type of seed is uniquely suited to its natural habitat and dispersal
needs, supporting the plant’s survival and reproduction.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF SEEDS IN PLANTS

Reproduction: Seeds are the primary means of sexual reproduction in plants, allowing for genetic
diversity.

Survival Mechanism: Seeds can remain dormant for long periods, enabling plants to survive
adverse conditions.

Propagation: Seeds help spread plant species to different environments, enhancing biodiversity.

Role of Seeds in Plant Life Cycle

 Germination: The process where a seed develops into a seedling under favorable
conditions (water, oxygen, right temperature).

 Growth: The seedling uses stored nutrients to grow until it can photosynthesize
independently.

Ecological Importance of Seeds

 Support for Ecosystems: Seeds provide food for many organisms (birds, insects,
mammals).

 Habitat Restoration: Seeds are used to replant forests and revive damaged ecosystems.

Economic Significance of Seeds

 Agriculture: Seeds are the basis of food production; crops like rice, wheat, and corn are
cultivated from seeds.

 Trade and Industry: The seed industry supports farmers and plays a major role in global
agriculture.
 PROCESS OF HOW SEEDS GROW

A. Initial Embryo Formation

After fertilization, an embryo (the early form of a plant) starts to grow inside each ovule (the part
that will become a seed). The ovule also contains endosperm, a tissue that provides nutrients to the
developing embryo.

B. Heart-Shaped Stage

As the embryo grows, it changes shape, becoming heart-shaped. Two small cotyledons (seed
leaves) start to form. These will help the young plant get nutrients once the seed germinates.

The endosperm around the embryo continues to grow, supplying more nutrients for the embryo to
develop.

C. Torpedo Stage

In this stage, the embryo gets longer and looks like a torpedo. The cotyledons grow larger and start
curving.

At this stage, in many plants (like Capsella), nutrients are transferred from the endosperm into the
cotyledons, so they store food for the seedling.

D. Mature Embryo

Finally, a tough seed coat forms around the embryo and the cotyledons. The seed is now mature,
with large cotyledons filled with nutrients, ready to support the embryo when it starts growing into
a new plant.

NUTRIENTS FOUND IN SEEDS

Seeds are rich in essential nutrients that support the growth of new plants and provide
significant health benefits when consumed by humans and animals. These nutrients play a vital
role in energy production, development, and overall maintenance of living organisms. The
nutrients in seeds are primarily stored in the endosperm, cotyledons, and the embryo.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are primarily stored in the endosperm of seeds, often in the form of starch. These
provide a quick and accessible source of energy during seed germination and early seedling
development.

Proteins
Proteins, primarily found in the embryo and cotyledons, are crucial for the formation of enzymes,
hormones, and other cellular structures. They also play a vital role in the growth and repair of plant
tissues during development.

Oils

Oils, stored in the cotyledons of certain seeds, serve as long-term energy reserves. These are
particularly abundant in oilseeds like sunflower and soybean, providing energy and aiding in cell
membrane formation.

Vitamins

Seeds are a source of essential vitamins like Vitamin E, which acts as an antioxidant, and B
vitamins such as folate, which are involved in DNA synthesis and cell division during plant
growth.

Minerals

Minerals like potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium are found in seeds and contribute to
enzymatic reactions, energy metabolism, and structural development.

Fiber

The seed coat, or bran, contains dietary fiber, which supports digestive health. In plants, this layer
protects the seed from physical damage and dehydration.

These nutrients are stored strategically within seeds to ensure the successful development of the
embryo into a new plant.
 FRUITS

What is Fruit?

 A fruit is a seed-containing mature ovary, often with fleshy tissues that develop from the
ovary wall. Apples, oranges, and grapes are familiar fruits, but so are many “vegetables”
such as beans, peas, tomatoes, grains, eggplant, and squash.
 Fruits may be categorized by the composition of their tissues, how they originate, and
whether they are fleshy or dry (right).

Fruits can be divided into two main categories:

Fleshy fruits - Have a thick, juicy ovary wall that becomes the soft tissue of the fruit. Examples
include apples, oranges, grapes, and tomatoes. This fleshy tissue helps in protecting seeds and
attracts animals for seed dispersal.

Dry fruits - Have a hard papery ovary wall, which becomes the dry outer layer of the fruit.
Examples include nuts (like acorns), grains (like wheat), and legumes (like peas and beans). These
fruits often split open to release seeds.

Types of fruits

True fruit - consists only of the ovary wall and its contents.

Example: orange, where the fruit is entirely formed from the ovary.

Accessory fruit - include tissues from other floral parts, like petals or sepals that growl along with
the ovary wall.

Example: Apple, where most flesh is an enlarged receptacle around the ovary.

Simple fruit - are derived from a single ovary or a few fused ovaries.

Examples: cherries, pea pods

Fruits are not just tasty snacks or decorative parts of plants. They play a vital role in the
reproduction and survival of flowering plants. By developing from the ovary of a flower, fruits
protect seeds and aid in their dispersal to new locations, ensuring the continuation of plant species.
Additionally, fruits are an important food source for humans and many other animals, providing
essential nutrients that fuel growth and health.

How Fruits Form and Function in Plants

In flowering plants, the formation of fruit begins after fertilization. When pollen fertilizes
the ovule, the ovary of the flower starts to develop into a fruit. This process typically begins with
double fertilization, where one sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell to form a zygote, while another
sperm cell combines with two other nuclei to form the triploid endosperm, which nourishes the
developing embryo. As the seed matures, the ovary wall thickens and turns into a protective layer
called the fruit. The fruit’s primary function is to safeguard the seeds and help them spread, or
disperse, to other areas where they can grow into new plants. Without this dispersal, seeds would
remain close to their parent plant, increasing competition for resources like water, light, and
nutrients. By dispersing their seeds through fruits, plants are able to colonize new environments
and reduce the risk of overcrowding.

Fruits that are dispersed by animals are particularly effective at ensuring the survival of the
species. Many plants have evolved features like hooks or spines that attach to an animal’s fur,
helping the fruit travel even further. Additionally, some fruits have hard outer shells that protect
the seeds during their journey through the digestive tract of an animal.

The Economic Importance of Fruits

The cultivation of fruits is a major part of agriculture, providing jobs and supporting
economies worldwide. Crops such as apples, bananas, grapes, and citrus fruits are grown on a large
scale, feeding millions of people and contributing to the global economy. In addition to fresh fruits,
processed fruit products like juices, jams, and dried fruits are popular and widely consumed.
 Fruits also play a role in the economy by supporting industries related to transportation,
packaging, and retail. The demand for fresh and processed fruit creates opportunities for trade and
export, which are especially important for countries that grow tropical fruits like pineapples,
mangoes, and avocados. Fruits are much more than just a tasty part of a plant—they are essential
for the survival and reproduction of flowering plants. They help protect seeds and facilitate their
dispersal, allowing plants to grow in new areas and reduce competition with parent plants. Fruits
also provide important nutrients to humans and animals, playing a vital role in nutrition and health.
As an agricultural product, fruits support economies and provide jobs worldwide. Whether in their
natural form or as part of processed foods, fruits are indispensable in both the natural world and
human life.

PARTS OF A FRUIT DEVELOP FROM PARTS OF A FLOWER

Aggregate - fruits that are derived from separate ovaries of one flower that mature as a cluster.

Example: Blackberries

Individual Fruits of Blackberries:

Cherries, almonds, and olives are fleshy fruits and other related species.

Multiple - fruit that develops as a unit from several individually pollinated flowers.

Example: Pineapple and Fig

Dry Fruits - are the fruits of sunflowers, maples, and strawberries.

Example: Acorns, pea pods, and grains are dry fruits

• Strawberries are not berries and their fruits are not fleshy. The red, juicy part of a strawberry is
an enlarged receptacle with individual dry fruits on its surface.

Berry - is a fleshy fruit produced from one ovary.

Example: Grapes, tomatoes, citrus fruits, pumpkins, watermelons, and cucumbers

Pomes- fleshy tissues derived from the receptacle enclose a core derived from the ovary wall.
Example: Apples and pears

Function of a fruit - to protect and disperse seeds.

Dispersal - increases reproductive success by minimizing competition for resources among parent
and offspring. Just as flower structure is adapted to certain pollination vectors.

These adaptations are reflected in a fruit’s form:

For example:

- Fruits dispersed by wind tend to be lightweight with breeze-catching specializations.

- Fruits dispersed by water have water-repellent outer layers, and they float.

- The fruits of many plants have specializations that facilitate dispersal by animals.

- Some have hooks or spines that stick to the feathers, feet, fur, or clothing of more mobile species.

- Colorful, fleshy, or fragrant fruits attract birds and mammals that disperse seeds.

- The animal may eat the fruit and discard the seeds, or eat the seeds along with the fruit.

- Abrasion of the seed coat by teeth or by digestive enzymes in an animal’s gut can help the seed
germinate after it departs in feces.

How do seeds and fruits develop?

➢ After double fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo, and the endosperm becomes
enriched with nutrients.

➢A seed is a mature l ovule that consists of an embryo sporophyte, its food reserves, and a seed
coat.

➢ A fruit is a mature ovary, with or without accessory tissues that developed from other parts of
the flower.

➢ A fruit protects and disperses seeds. Fruit specializations are adaptations to particular dispersal
vectors.
 NUTRIENTS IN FRUIT

Fruits have many essential nutrients that many people don’t get enough of. Some examples
include Potassium, Fiber, Vitamin C, and Folate.

SOME EXAMPLES OF NUTRIENTS

Potassium - is an important nutrient that helps regulate blood pressure, heart function, and fluid
and electrolyte levels in cells. The mineral helps maintain the health of the kidneys, bones, and
cardiovascular system and may help manage blood pressure.

Fiber - is mainly a carbohydrate. The main role of fibre is to keep the digestive system healthy.
Other terms for dietary fibre include ‘bulk’ and ‘roughage’, which can be misleading since some
forms of fibre are water-soluble and aren't bulky or rough at all.

Vitamin C - also known as ascorbic acid, is necessary for the growth, development and repair of
all body tissues. It's involved in many body functions, including formation of collagen, absorption
of iron, the proper functioning of the immune system, wound healing, and the maintenance of
cartilage, bones, and teeth.

Folate - also known as vitamin B9, is a nutrient that helps with many bodily functions, including:
Producing red and white blood cells, Producing DNA and RNA, Transforming carbohydrates into
energy, Lowering the risk of neural tube defects, and Lowering the risk of stroke.

Vascular plants get their nutrition through the transport of sugars by specialized vessels called
phloem. All vascular plants have two types of vessels which make up vascular tissue for the
purpose of transport: xylem and phloem.

Xylem - moves water up through the plant from the roots, where it is absorbed through the soil.
Phloem - is responsible for conducting sugars throughout the plant so that all parts can receive
these necessary nutrients.