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● All forms of life share common properties
○ Order-All living things are composed of cells that organized into complex
structures
■ Cell->Tissue->Organ->Organ System->Organism
○ Reproduction-to make offspring
○ Growth and Development-DNA controls the pattern of cell division and
progressive change
○ Energy processing-to take in energy and use it to sustain life
■ Nutrients metabolized to carry out specific functions
○ Response to Environment-Respond and adapt to external environmental stimuli
○ Regulation-maintain homeostasis->mechanisms that regulate internal stability
○ Evolutionary Adaptation-capacity of a species to change over time to increase
survival
● Distinctive properties emerge at every level in the hierarchy of life’s organization
● Each step up increases in complexity, with new characteristics arising that did not exist
before
● Levels of organization
○ Biosphere (most complex)-all of the environments on Earth that support life
○ Ecosystem-a group of different organisms living in a particular area with their
physical environment
○ Community-group of different organisms in an ecosystem
■ Species-each unique form of life
○ Population-group of the same species living in the same area
○ Organism-an individual living thing
○ Organ System-a group of organs that cooperate to carry out a specific function
○ Organ-made up of several different tissues to carry out a specific function
○ Tissue-a group of similar cells that perform a specific function
○ Cell-basic unit of life
○ Organelle-a membrane-enclosed structure that performs a specific function in a
cell
○ Molecule-a cluster of atoms held together by chemical bonds
○ Atom (simplest)-small chemical units/unit of matter
● Cells: Unicellular vs Multicellular
○ Unicellular-single-celled (amoeba, most bacteria, algae, fungi (yeast)
○ Multicellular-consists of many cells (humans, animals, plants, fungi (mold)
● Cells: Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic
○ Prokaryotic-small and simple cells that were the first to evolve
■ Lack of membrane-enclosed organelles
■ Lack of a nucleus
■ Unicellular
■ Found only in domains of Bacteria and Archaea
○ Eukaryotic-bigger and more complex cells
■ Have membrane membrane-enclosed organelles
■ Multicellular
■ Have a nucleus
■ Include plants, animals, fungi (mold), protists
● Organisms interact with their environment exchanging matter and energy
○ Producers-can make its own food (plants)
○ Consumers-eat plants and other animals (animals and humans)
○ Decomposers-break down complex organic matter into simple mineral nutrients
for plants (bacteria, worms, fungi)
■ Break down wastes and dead organisms to recycle the nutrients into the
soil
● Genes-units of inheritance that is passed on from parent to offspring
● DNA-chemical substance of genes
○ Blueprint for life
○ Information is stored without error over generations
○ Used to reproduce itself faithfully
○ Translated into messages that direct cell growth and development
○ Modified over time to allow organism more adaptable to the environment-allows
for evolution
● Chromosome-condensed long DNA molecules of genes
● Hypothesis-a proposed explanation for a set of observations/a tentative statement
● Scientific Theory-a widely accepted hypothesis that is supported by a large body of
evidence
● Scientific Inquiry-and investigation into an observed occurrence that requires
○ A systematic, step by step procedure
○ A logical interpretation of the observations
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● Matter-Anything that occupies space and has mass
○ Composed of atoms
● Element-a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by a chemical
reaction
○ A single type of atom
○ 92 elements in nature
○ Listed in periodic table
● Compound-a substance of 2+ different elements (or atoms) combined in a fixed ratio
○ NaCL (table salt), H2O (water), NaCIO (bleach)
○ 96% weight of human body -> C, H, O, N
○ 4% weight of human body
● Atom-smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
○ Proton-subatomic particle with a positive electrical charge (+)
○ Electron-subatomic particle with a negative electrical charge (-)
■ Determines chemical behavior
■ An atom has the same # of protons and electrons -> no net change
○ Neutron-electrically neutral->no charge
● Atomic number-number of protons
○ Also number of electrons
○ Helium’s atomic number is 2
● Mass number-# protons + # neutrons in nucleus
○ Helium -> 2 protons + 2 neutrons = 4
● Atomic mass (weight)-total mass of an atom
○ Equal to the mass number
● Isotopes-different forms of an element
○ Same # protons but different # neutrons
○ Manganese Chlorine, Carbon
● Valence shell-outermost electron shell
○ Its number of electrons determines the chemical properties
○ Outermost electrons have the highest potential energy
○ If there’s unpaired electrons -> will interact with other atoms and form chemical
bonds
○ If there’s paired electrons -> will not interact with other atoms -> unreactive or
chemically inert -> noble gases
● Covalent bond-strongest chemical bond
○ 2 atoms share 1+ pairs of valence electrons to form a molecule
○ Each atom’s valence shell is now filled
○ Valence-bonding capacity determined by # of electrons needed to fill valence
shell
● Ion-an atom with an electrical charge resulting from a gain or loss of 1+ electrons
● Ionic bond-2 ions with opposite charges attract each other
● Hydrogen Bond-weak chemical bond between an electronegative atom and a H atom
● Bond strengths-covalent>ionic>H bond
● Bonds in a water molecule are polar covalent bonds and bonds between water
molecules are H bonds
● Cohesion-tendency of same type of molecules to stick together
● Adhesion-attraction between different types of molecules
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● Macromolecules-covalently bonded together
● Polymer=multiple monomers
● Dehydration-Removes a molecule of water to link monomers together
● Hydrolysis-Breaks up a polymer by adding a water molecule
● All 4 classes are Carbon-based (macromolecules)
○ Carbohydrates-sugars, starches
○ Proteins
○ Nucleic acids-DNA/RNA
○ Lipids-fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes
● Polysaccharides
○ Glucose monomers
○ FUnctions:
■ Energy storage
■ Structure
● Insoluble fibers-gut-healthy fiber due to laxative effect, adds bulk to the diet to help
prevent constipation
○ Do not dissolve in water
○ Whole wheat, whole grain, nuts, broccoli, tomato, etc
● Soluble fibers-attract water and form a gel, which slows down digestion
○ Delays the emptying of your stomach and make you feel full, gain weight
○ Oatmeal, apples, oranges, beans, carrots, etc
● Hydrocarbon chains -> 1:2 ratio -> C2H2
● Hydrophobic/Nonpolar
● Cholesterol (lipids)
○ Mainly consist of C and H atoms linked by nonpolar covalent bond
○ 3 types of lipids-neutral fats (triglycerides), phospholipids, and steroids
● Lipids-cpds that do not mix well with water
○ hydrophobic/nonpolar
● Waxes are coating over seeds, fruits to prevent from drying out and energy storage for
plankton, some fish, and whales
● Fats-for long-term storage of energy and insulation
● Trans fat-unsaturated fats -> saturated fats
○ Hydrogenated vegetable oil
● Phospholipids
○ Major component of animal cell membranes
■ 1 glycerol+ FA
● HDL (good) cholesterol-helps remove LDL (bad) cholesterol from the arteries
● Proteins
○ Amino acids (aa)
○ 20 aa
○ Peptide bond-covalent bond
● 8 protein functions
○ Enzymatic proteins-selective acceleration of chemical reaction
○ Defensive proteins-protection against disease
○ Storage proteins-storage of amino acids
○ Transport proteins-transportation of substances
○ Hormonal proteins-coordination of an organism’s activities
○ Receptor proteins-response of cell to chemical stimuli
○ contractile/motor proteins-movement
○ Structural proteins-support
● Protein structure
○ 1 structure-sequence of aa
■ Determines shape of protein
○ 2 structure-polypeptide patterns
■ alpha helix-coiling
■ Beta pleated sheet-folding
○ 3 structure
■ 3-D shape
■ R group interactions
○ 4 structure-multiple polypeptide chains
■ Each polypeptide is a “subunit”
● Shape is function
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● Cell theory-all living things are composed of cells and that all come from other cells
● Prokaryotic cells-domains Bacteria and Archaea
○ Structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells
○ “Before nucleus” (evolved before eukaryotic cells)
○ Do not have membrane-enclosed organelles
○ 1/10th size of eukaryotic cells
● Chromosomes-carries genes made of DNA
○ Single coiled chromosome found in nucleoid
● Ribosomes-tiny structures that make proteins
● Cytoplasm-everything inside of prokaryotic cell
○ Cytosol-liquid component of cytoplasm
● Eukaryotic Cells-partitioned into functional compartments
● Cellular metabolism-chemical activities in cells
○ Occur within organelles
○ Cellular respiration in mitochondria in animal cells
○ Photosynthesis in chloroplast in plant cells
● Organelles-”little organs” that perform specific functions
● 4 basic functions of organelles
○ Nucleus and ribosomes-carry out genetic information
○ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles and
peroxisome-involved in manufacturing, distributing, and breaking down of
molecules
○ Mitochondria and chloroplast-function in energy processing
○ Cytoskeleton, PM, and plant cell wall-structural support, communication between
cells, and movement
● 4 structures found only in plant cells
○ Cell wall-to protect cell and help maintain shape
○ Plasmodesmata-cytoplasmic channels through cell walls that connect adjacent
cells
○ Chloroplast-site of photosynthesis
○ Central vacuole-compartment that stores water and chemicals
● The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma
membrane
● Plasma membrane (PM)-a flexible boundary between the living cell and its surroundings
● Phospholipid bilayer-the two layers of phospholipids
○ Small and nonpolar molecules-O2, N2, CO2, can move across the hydrophobic
section easily-> permeable
○ Polar molecules and ions-glucose, urea, NA+, CI- have channels and pumps in
the PM -> impermeable
● Nucleus-cell’s genetic control center
● Nuclear envelope-double membrane that encloses the nucleus
○ Has nuclear pores that control movement of molecules in and out of nucleus
○ Is connected ER
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