HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

SCHOOL OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGRICULTURAL
INNOVATION

MID-CAREER PROGRAM
OFF CAMPUS SUPERVISED EXTENSION PROJECT (SEP)
PROPOSAL ON

INDIGENOUS PRACTICES FOR MANAGING POWDERY MILDEW

(FUNGAL DISEASE) IN TOMATO PRODUCTION IN WALDAYA
KEBELE, ERER WOREDA, HARARI REGION, ETHIOPIA

BY: HAIMANOT TESFAYE ALEMU

ADVISOR: ZERIHUN GADISA (MSC)

FEBRUARY 2025
 ABREVATIONS
DAs – Development Agents

DAP – Diammonium Phosphate (Fertilizer)

Urea – A nitrogen-based fertilizer

FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization

MoA – Ministry of Agriculture

CSA – Central Statistical Agency

ICRISAT – International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

EIAR – Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research

ATA – Agricultural Transformation Agency

GDP – Gross Domestic Product

Kg – Kilogram

M – Meter

M.A.S.L. Meters Above Sea Level

ha – Hectare

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABREVATIONS..............................................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.................................................................................................................v
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background of the Study......................................................................................................1
1.1. Need Assessment..................................................................................................................2
1.3 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................................3
1.4. Objectives of The Project.....................................................................................................5
1.4.1 Production Objectives.....................................................................................................5
1.4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES...........................................................................................5
1.5 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................................5
1.6 Scope and Limitations...........................................................................................................6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................7
2.1 Overview of Tomato Production in Ethiopia.........................................................................7
2.2 Powdery Mildew and Its Impact on Tomato Production.......................................................8
2.3 Indigenous Practices for Managing Powdery Mildew.........................................................10
2.4 Effectiveness of Indigenous Disease Management Practices..............................................12
2.5 Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................13
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................16
3.1. Description of the Study Area............................................................................................16
3.1.1. Location of the Study Area..........................................................................................16
3.1.2. Population....................................................................................................................16
3.1.3. Climate.........................................................................................................................16
3.1.4. Soil Type......................................................................................................................17
3.1.5. Topography..................................................................................................................17
3.1.6. Vegetation....................................................................................................................18
3.1.7. Livestock Production...................................................................................................18
3.1.8. Major Agricultural Production....................................................................................18

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 3.2. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size..............................................................................19
3.3. Data Collection Methods....................................................................................................19
3.4. Data Analysis Techniques..................................................................................................20
3.5. Ethical Considerations........................................................................................................20
3.8. Project Implementation Strategies......................................................................................21
3.9. Materials and Inputs to Be Used.........................................................................................22
4. BUDGET AND TIME PLAN...................................................................................................23
4.1. Time Plan............................................................................................................................23
4.2. Budget.................................................................................................................................23
4.2.1. Stationery Cost.............................................................................................................24
4.2.2. Farm Input and Material Cost......................................................................................24
4.2.3. Training Cost...............................................................................................................25
4.2.4. Fuel and Lubricant Cost...............................................................................................25
4.2.5. Budget Summary.........................................................................................................25
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................27

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Summary of Prioritized Problems Using Need Assessment..............................................3
Table 2 Time Plan..........................................................................................................................23
Table 3 Stationery Cost.................................................................................................................24
Table 4 Farm Input and Material Cost...........................................................................................24
Table 5 Training Cost....................................................................................................................25
Table 6 Fuel and Lubricant Cost...................................................................................................25
Table 7 Budget Summary..............................................................................................................25

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, thanks to almighty God the source of every knowledge and wisdom: next, I would
like to express my deep gratitude to my advisor Mr. Zerihun Gadisa (MSc) for his genuine
advice, critical comment and closer supervision. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to the
Agriculture office experts who have provided me with the necessary data. Finally, yet
importantly, I am highly grateful to all persons who have cooperated me in the development and
successful completion of this proposal And I would also like to express my deepest gratitude for
my family who help me morally encouragement throughout my study in the university. Finally,
All My friends.

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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study

Tomato production plays a significant role in the agricultural economy of Ethiopia, particularly
in rural areas where it provides a major source of income and food security for smallholder
farmers. However, the crop is highly vulnerable to various pests and diseases, with powdery
mildew (Leveillula taurica) being one of the most widespread and damaging fungal diseases
affecting tomatoes. Powdery mildew is known for reducing both the quality and quantity of
tomato yield, particularly when environmental conditions favor its spread. In Ethiopia, where
tomato production is predominantly rainfed and practices are often traditional, farmers struggle
with controlling this disease using modern chemical methods due to high costs and limited
access to agricultural inputs. As a result, indigenous knowledge and practices have become a
crucial component in managing this disease, offering a sustainable alternative that aligns with the
environmental and economic realities of smallholder farming in areas like Waldaya Kebele,
located in Erer Woreda, Harari Region. These indigenous methods, which have been passed
down through generations, are tailored to the local context and often involve the use of natural
resources and local materials for disease management.

The adoption of indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew in tomato farming is not
only important for increasing productivity but also for ensuring environmental sustainability.
While synthetic chemicals may provide immediate relief from fungal diseases, they often lead to
negative environmental impacts, including soil degradation, water contamination, and the
development of pesticide-resistant pathogens. In contrast, indigenous practices tend to prioritize
ecological balance by using locally available resources such as plant extracts, ash, and organic
matter to combat powdery mildew. These methods have been shown to be effective in
minimizing disease incidence without the adverse effects associated with chemical interventions
(Alemayehu et al., 2019). However, despite their potential benefits, there is limited
documentation on the effectiveness and scope of indigenous practices in the specific context of
tomato production in Waldaya Kebele. This gap underscores the need for research to evaluate
and promote such practices in order to enhance tomato yields and strengthen food security in the
region. The objective of this study is therefore to assess these indigenous methods, focusing on

1
their potential to reduce the impact of powdery mildew and increase productivity from 85
quintals per hectare to 130 quintals per hectare.

The growing recognition of the importance of indigenous knowledge in agriculture has led to
increased efforts to integrate these practices into formal agricultural extension programs.
However, the effectiveness of these methods largely depends on farmers' awareness and
willingness to adopt them. In Waldaya Kebele, the lack of awareness about the potential benefits
of indigenous disease management practices for powdery mildew is a critical barrier to their
widespread adoption. This study aims to bridge this gap by providing targeted training and on-
farm demonstrations to enhance farmers' knowledge and skills in using these practices
effectively. In addition to knowledge transfer, it is essential to assess the factors influencing the
adoption of these practices, including socio-economic, cultural, and environmental factors.
Understanding these factors will help identify key challenges and opportunities for promoting
indigenous disease management strategies at a larger scale. The ultimate goal is to not only
improve tomato productivity but also empower farmers to make informed decisions about
integrating indigenous practices into their farming systems, thereby contributing to the
sustainability of tomato production in the region (Tadesse & Gebremedhin, 2021).

1.1. Need Assessment

As part of the need assessment for this research on indigenous practices for managing powdery
mildew in tomato production in Waldaya Kebele, Erer Woreda, Harari Region, a group
discussion was conducted with community farmers, the Kebele leader, and Development Agents
(DAs). A total of 10 farmers, equally represented by 5 males and 5 females, participated in the
assessment. The goal was to identify the major challenges faced by farmers in managing
powdery mildew and improving tomato production.

Farmers shared their experiences and outlined the key constraints that hinder tomato production,
particularly the management of powdery mildew. These challenges were then ranked based on
their severity and relevance using a participatory ranking method. The identified and prioritized
challenges are as follows:

Lack of knowledge and access to indigenous disease management practices.

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 High incidence of powdery mildew and other tomato diseases.
Low productivity and poor yield.
Limited availability of water for irrigation, exacerbating the spread of powdery mildew.
Inadequate supply of agricultural inputs and materials, such as fertilizers and fungicides.
Limited access to improved tomato varieties.
Weed infestation, which increases the susceptibility to fungal diseases.
Insufficient market access and price fluctuations, impacting profitability.

Table 1 Summary of Prioritized Problems Using Need Assessment

No. List of Problems Score Rank

1 Lack of knowledge and access to 13 1
indigenous disease management practices
2 High incidence of powdery mildew and 9 2
other diseases
3 Low productivity and poor yield 7 3
4 Limited availability of water for irrigation 5 4
5 Inadequate supply of agricultural inputs 4 5
6 Limited access to improved tomato 3 6
varieties
7 Weed infestation 2 7

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Tomato production in Waldaya Kebele, Erer Woreda, Harari Region, Ethiopia, faces significant
challenges due to the prevalence of powdery mildew, a fungal disease that impacts both the
quality and quantity of yield. Powdery mildew, caused by various fungal pathogens, leads to the
weakening of tomato plants, reducing photosynthetic efficiency, and consequently, fruit quality
(Ojiambo et al., 2021). This disease can result in considerable economic losses for farmers,
particularly in regions like Waldaya Kebele, where the control of pests and diseases remains a
critical concern. Despite the widespread impact of powdery mildew on agricultural productivity,
farmers often lack access to modern disease control technologies and rely heavily on indigenous
methods to manage the disease.

Generally, there are all types of pest control methods according to the basic nature. Cultural
control methods involve operations destroying pests or preventing economic damage; they do not
require skill and material and include a diverse set of practices such as crop rotation, time of

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planting and harvesting, sanitation, water management, and using resistant varieties. The
majority of these activities are simply practiced by farmers in the area. In addition to these, a
system incorporating additional practices like using Wiha Agar to control plant diseases such as
powdery mildew has been observed. Indigenous knowledge also plays a vital role in preventing
human health issues and controlling some skin diseases like 'Kakucha.'

The significance of this issue lies in the fact that tomato production in the region has been
stagnant, with an average yield of 85 quintals per hectare, far below the potential yield
achievable through the adoption of more effective disease management practices. The inability to
combat powdery mildew has prevented farmers from reaching higher productivity levels, thus
limiting their income and food security. Increasing tomato productivity to about 130 quintals per
hectare is a feasible target with the adoption of improved indigenous disease management
strategies (Abate et al., 2020). However, without proper knowledge and training, the widespread
adoption of these methods is unlikely. As such, there is a critical need for an intervention that not
only assesses the current effectiveness of indigenous practices but also enhances their capacity to
control powdery mildew and ultimately improve yield.

A key component of the intervention is to provide farmers with knowledge through training
sessions and on-farm demonstrations, which can facilitate better disease management and equip
them with the necessary tools to boost tomato productivity (FAO, 2020). However, the
knowledge gap among farmers regarding how to optimize these indigenous practices remains a
major barrier to increasing agricultural output. 'Chirt' and 'Bosom,' by using some perennial tree
leaves and annual weeds species, have a relation and interconnectedness in disease management.
Based on this understanding, I propose to explore a cultural or local plant fungal disease control
method for powdery mildew in collaboration with local farmers.

Furthermore, the adoption of these indigenous practices faces various challenges, including
limited access to information, a lack of awareness about their scientific foundations, and social
and economic factors that affect decision-making. Research indicates that while farmers in the
region possess substantial traditional knowledge, they often face difficulties in applying it
effectively on a larger scale due to resource constraints, climatic factors, and insufficient
technical support (Zewdie et al., 2019). The key challenges influencing the adoption of these

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practices include farmers' perceptions of their effectiveness, availability of resources, and
external pressures such as market demand and climate change. Additionally, understanding the
underlying factors that influence these practices, such as community norms, local ecological
knowledge, and socio-economic conditions, is crucial for developing targeted interventions
(Bengtsson et al., 2020). Addressing these challenges will help improve the farmers' knowledge
and adoption of indigenous disease management practices and ensure that such practices are
integrated with modern agricultural approaches for sustainable growth in tomato production. The
research aims to bridge this gap by providing a comprehensive assessment of indigenous
methods, their current impact on powdery mildew management, and the barriers to their
widespread adoption, thereby enhancing both productivity and the overall resilience of tomato
farming in the region.

1.4. Objectives of The Project

1.4.1 Production Objectives
To promote indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew in tomato production in
Waldaya Kebele for improved disease control and yield enhancement.
To increase tomato productivity from 85 quintals per hectare to 130 quintals per hectare
by reducing the impact of powdery mildew by adopting effective indigenous disease
management practices.

1.4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To improve farmers' knowledge of indigenous methods for managing powdery mildew
through training and on-farm demonstrations.
To assess the effectiveness of indigenous practices in controlling powdery mildew and
their impact on tomato yield.
To identify the key challenges and factors influencing the adoption of indigenous disease
management practices in the study area.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to enhance tomato production in Waldaya
Kebele, Erer Woreda, through the adoption of indigenous practices for managing powdery
mildew, a major fungal disease affecting crop yields. Powdery mildew significantly reduces both

5
the quantity and quality of tomato production, limiting farmers' income and food security in the
region. By promoting indigenous disease management practices, this study aims to increase
tomato yield from 85 quintals per hectare to 130 quintals per hectare, which would represent a
substantial improvement in productivity. This increase in yield could directly impact the
livelihoods of local farmers, enhancing food security and contributing to rural economic
development (Abate et al., 2020). Furthermore, the study’s focus on training farmers and
improving their knowledge of these indigenous methods through on-farm demonstrations will
not only empower local farmers but also encourage the sustainable use of locally adapted
agricultural practices, which are often more affordable and accessible compared to chemical
alternatives (FAO, 2020). The findings of this study could also serve as a model for other regions
facing similar challenges with powdery mildew, providing evidence of the potential benefits of
integrating indigenous knowledge with modern agricultural techniques to combat crop diseases
(Zewdie et al., 2019). Ultimately, this research will contribute to improving agricultural
productivity, promoting sustainable farming, and ensuring that the region's tomato production
remains resilient to disease outbreaks.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

The scope of this study is confined to Waldaya Kebele, Erer Woreda, in the Harari Region of
Ethiopia, focusing specifically on the use of indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew
in tomato production. The study will assess the effectiveness of these practices, aiming to
enhance both disease control and overall yield. It will involve a detailed analysis of the
indigenous methods currently in use by local farmers, their application in disease management,
and the factors influencing their adoption (Bengtsson et al., 2020). Additionally, the research will
focus on a selected group of farmers within the region, with particular attention to gender
balance in the study's participant pool. One limitation of this study is that it will not explore the
impact of chemical disease management methods, as the primary focus is on traditional practices
and their efficacy. Furthermore, the findings may not be easily generalized to other regions
outside Waldaya Kebele due to the unique socio-economic, ecological, and cultural
characteristics of the area. The study will also be constrained by the availability of resources for
conducting extensive training sessions and on-farm demonstrations, which may limit the depth of
engagement with some farmers. Additionally, external factors such as climate variability, market

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fluctuations, and government policies could affect the adoption and success of the proposed
indigenous practices, though these will be acknowledged as potential influencing factors (FAO,
2020). Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the potential of
indigenous knowledge in managing crop diseases and enhancing agricultural productivity, with
implications for similar contexts across Ethiopia and beyond.

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of Tomato Production in Ethiopia

Tomato production plays a crucial role in the agricultural economy of Ethiopia, contributing
significantly to food security and livelihood in both rural and urban areas. Tomatoes are among
the most important vegetable crops in Ethiopia, with extensive cultivation taking place across
several regions. They are grown in diverse agro-ecological zones, primarily in the central,
western, and eastern parts of the country. This crop is cultivated mainly during the rainy season,
with some farmers also growing tomatoes in irrigated fields. Tomatoes are a primary source of
food for local consumption and a significant cash crop for farmers, especially in regions where
horticultural practices are predominant (FAO, 2020). Despite the importance of tomato
production, Ethiopia's potential to increase yields is hindered by several constraints, including
inadequate pest and disease management practices, which significantly affect tomato yields.

Powdery mildew, a fungal disease that thrives in humid conditions, is one of the most destructive
diseases in tomato farming in Ethiopia. It attacks the leaves, stems, and flowers of tomato plants,
causing yellowing, wilting, and reduced fruit quality, which ultimately leads to decreased yields.
Powdery mildew can spread rapidly under favorable environmental conditions, making it a major
threat to tomato farmers, particularly in areas like Waldaya Kebele, where high humidity and
poor disease management practices exacerbate the problem (Tsegaye et al., 2020). In Ethiopia,
tomato yields average around 15-20 tons per hectare, far below the potential yields of 30-40 tons
per hectare achievable with proper pest and disease management (Zewdie et al., 2019). The
inability to effectively control diseases like powdery mildew is one of the main reasons for the
yield gap, making it essential for farmers to adopt better disease management practices to
improve tomato productivity.

The use of modern agricultural practices, such as synthetic pesticides, has been a common
approach to managing tomato diseases in Ethiopia. However, the high costs of these inputs,
limited access to them, and potential health risks associated with chemical use make it
challenging for smallholder farmers to rely solely on these methods. Furthermore, over-reliance
on chemical pesticides can lead to the development of pesticide resistance, further complicating
disease management. As a result, there is increasing interest in exploring alternative, sustainable

8
approaches to disease control, such as indigenous practices that have been used for generations
by local farmers. Indigenous practices, which are based on local knowledge and environmental
observations, can offer more affordable and eco-friendly solutions for managing diseases like
powdery mildew (Bengtsson et al., 2020). In many rural areas of Ethiopia, including Waldaya
Kebele, farmers have long relied on these practices to manage pests and diseases, including the
use of botanical extracts, crop rotation, and the selection of disease-resistant varieties. However,
the effectiveness of these methods in large-scale commercial tomato production remains under-
researched, and this study aims to fill this gap.

Despite the promising potential of indigenous practices, the widespread adoption of these
methods remains a challenge. Factors such as limited access to training, inadequate extension
services, and the dominance of conventional agricultural practices contribute to the slow
adoption of indigenous disease management strategies (Zewdie et al., 2019). Additionally, while
indigenous practices are tailored to local environmental conditions and agricultural contexts, they
may need to be integrated with modern techniques to be more effective in improving yields and
managing diseases like powdery mildew. This research aims to assess the role of indigenous
practices in managing powdery mildew in Waldaya Kebele and determine how they can be
incorporated into broader disease management strategies. By combining traditional knowledge
with modern agricultural techniques, it is possible to enhance disease control and increase tomato
yields, thereby contributing to greater food security and economic stability for smallholder
farmers in the region.

2.2 Powdery Mildew and Its Impact on Tomato Production

Powdery mildew is one of the most significant fungal diseases affecting tomato crops worldwide.
The pathogen responsible for this disease is primarily Leveillula taurica, although other fungal
species such as Oidium and Erysiphe can also cause similar symptoms. Powdery mildew is
particularly prevalent in areas with high humidity and temperatures ranging from 18°C to 25°C,
conditions often found in the tropical and subtropical climates of Ethiopia. This disease primarily
affects the leaves, stems, and flowers of tomato plants, causing characteristic white, powdery
fungal growth on the underside of leaves. Over time, the disease leads to leaf chlorosis, wilting,
reduced photosynthesis, and eventually plant death. In severe cases, powdery mildew can

9
drastically reduce the size and quality of the tomato fruit, rendering it unmarketable and severely
impacting farmers’ yields (Sharma et al., 2021). In Waldaya Kebele, where smallholder farmers
depend heavily on tomato production for their livelihood, the spread of powdery mildew has
been identified as a major threat to the sustainability of tomato farming.

The impact of powdery mildew on tomato production can be both economic and environmental.
Economically, the disease causes substantial yield losses, directly affecting farmers' income and
food security. In Ethiopia, the average tomato yield is about 85 quintals per hectare, but this can
decrease significantly in the presence of powdery mildew. Studies have shown that yield
reductions can range from 30% to 50% in areas with poor disease management practices (Bekele
et al., 2019). This decline in productivity means that farmers in Waldaya Kebele, who may
already be dealing with limited resources, face increased poverty and food insecurity. In addition
to the direct yield loss, the costs associated with controlling powdery mildew through chemical
pesticides or labor-intensive manual methods further add to the economic burden on farmers.
Despite these challenges, many smallholders in Ethiopia continue to use conventional practices
to manage powdery mildew, which are often less effective and costlier. The absence of
integrated pest management strategies and the over-reliance on chemicals contribute to the
persistence and spread of the disease, highlighting the urgent need for more effective, sustainable
solutions.

Environmental impacts of powdery mildew are also significant, especially when considering the
widespread use of chemical fungicides in conventional disease management. These chemicals
can have harmful effects on the environment, including soil degradation, water contamination,
and the destruction of beneficial organisms such as pollinators and natural pest predators
(Zewdie et al., 2020). Furthermore, the overuse of pesticides can result in the development of
pesticide resistance, reducing their effectiveness and creating a vicious cycle where more and
more chemicals are required to control the disease. This cycle not only damages the ecosystem
but also threatens the long-term sustainability of agricultural production. Indigenous disease
management practices, such as the use of plant-based remedies and natural fungicides, could
provide a more sustainable and eco-friendlier alternative. These methods are often less harmful
to the environment and can help reduce the dependency on chemical inputs, promoting a
healthier agricultural landscape for future generations (Bengtsson et al., 2020).

10
The spread and severity of powdery mildew in tomato production is influenced by a range of
factors, including climatic conditions, crop management practices, and the genetic makeup of
tomato varieties. The increase in temperature and unpredictable rainfall patterns associated with
climate change may exacerbate the conditions under which powdery mildew thrives, making it
even more difficult to control. In Waldaya Kebele, where farmers are highly dependent on rain-
fed agriculture, irregular rainfall and periods of drought followed by heavy rains can create ideal
conditions for the proliferation of fungal diseases. Additionally, the monoculture practice of
growing tomatoes in the same fields year after year without crop rotation can lead to an
accumulation of disease-causing pathogens in the soil, increasing the likelihood of severe
powdery mildew outbreaks (Sharma et al., 2021). Indigenous practices such as crop rotation,
intercropping with disease-resistant plants, and the use of organic amendments can help break
the disease cycle and improve overall crop resilience. The adoption of these practices, combined
with the use of local knowledge, could reduce the severity of powdery mildew outbreaks and
lead to improved tomato productivity and sustainability in the region.

2.3 Indigenous Practices for Managing Powdery Mildew

Indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew in tomato production have been a critical
component of agricultural systems in many regions of the world, including Ethiopia. These
practices often rely on the local knowledge of farmers, passed down through generations, and
have been found to be effective in minimizing the impact of fungal diseases like powdery
mildew. In Waldaya Kebele, traditional methods for controlling powdery mildew typically
involve the use of natural remedies, crop management practices, and cultural techniques. For
example, the use of plant-based substances, such as neem (Azadirachta indica), garlic (Allium
sativum), and pepper, is common among farmers as a natural fungicide. These substances are
known to have antifungal properties that can suppress the growth of powdery mildew, reducing
the need for chemical pesticides (Ghimire et al., 2021). In addition, many farmers practice
regular field sanitation, such as removing infected plant parts, which helps to limit the spread of
the disease. Such practices not only reduce the immediate impact of powdery mildew but also
contribute to long-term soil and crop health.

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Cultural practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and proper spacing between tomato plants
are commonly employed to reduce the risk of powdery mildew outbreaks. By rotating crops and
avoiding the continuous cultivation of tomatoes in the same soil, farmers break the disease cycle,
preventing the build-up of pathogens that can lead to severe disease pressure. Intercropping with
plants like marigold or garlic can also deter fungal pathogens by altering the microclimate
around tomato plants and disrupting the environmental conditions favorable to mildew growth
(Mulugeta et al., 2020). Furthermore, proper spacing between plants improves air circulation and
reduces humidity around the plants, both of which are crucial for minimizing powdery mildew’s
ability to spread. These practices, while not always scientifically validated, are rooted in the
farmers' observations of disease dynamics in their fields and have proven effective in many local
contexts.

In addition to these physical practices, indigenous knowledge emphasizes the use of organic
amendments such as compost and animal manure to improve soil fertility and plant resilience.
These natural fertilizers help build healthy soils, which are less conducive to the growth of
powdery mildew. Healthier soils promote robust tomato plants with improved resistance to
disease (Bengtsson et al., 2020). The organic materials also enhance the soil’s microbial
diversity, which can suppress the growth of harmful fungi like Leveillula taurica. While modern
chemical fertilizers can increase short-term yields, they often contribute to long-term soil
degradation and make plants more susceptible to diseases like powdery mildew. By relying on
organic inputs, farmers in Waldaya Kebele can not only manage disease but also contribute to
sustainable agricultural practices that preserve the health of the land for future generations.

Despite the proven effectiveness of indigenous practices, the widespread adoption of these
methods is often hindered by various challenges. One major barrier is the limited access to
resources, such as high-quality seeds, and the lack of formal education on disease management.
Farmers often rely on traditional knowledge, which may not always be comprehensive or up-to-
date with current research on plant pathology (Sharma et al., 2021). This gap in knowledge can
lead to suboptimal disease management, as farmers may not always apply the correct dosages of
natural remedies or use them at the appropriate time during the crop growth cycle. Additionally,
climate change has exacerbated the conditions under which powdery mildew thrives, making
traditional methods less effective in some cases. Thus, there is a need for improved access to

12
training and support for farmers, enabling them to combine indigenous practices with modern
knowledge for better disease control and increased tomato yield.

2.4 Effectiveness of Indigenous Disease Management Practices

Indigenous disease management practices, particularly those used to control powdery mildew in
tomato production, have demonstrated varying levels of effectiveness across different regions,
including Waldaya Kebele in the Harari Region. These practices, deeply rooted in traditional
knowledge, often rely on local plant-based remedies, cultural practices, and natural resources to
control fungal pathogens. Studies have shown that the application of plant extracts, such as garlic
and neem, can significantly reduce the prevalence of powdery mildew, providing farmers with an
affordable and sustainable alternative to chemical fungicides (Ghimire et al., 2021). These
natural remedies are not only effective in managing disease but also minimize environmental
damage, contributing to more sustainable agricultural practices. When applied correctly, these
methods can reduce the impact of powdery mildew, enabling tomato plants to thrive, resulting in
healthier crops and increased yields.

In addition to plant-based treatments, cultural practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and
proper plant spacing play a pivotal role in managing the spread of powdery mildew. Crop
rotation prevents the accumulation of pathogens in the soil, which is a significant factor in the
persistence of fungal diseases like powdery mildew (Mulugeta et al., 2020). Intercropping with
plants like marigolds or garlic has been shown to help disrupt the growth cycles of mildew
pathogens, while the strategic spacing of tomato plants improves airflow, reducing the high
humidity conditions that promote the spread of the fungus. The combination of these cultural
practices significantly enhances the effectiveness of disease management, not only by directly
reducing disease incidence but also by improving the overall health of the soil and the plants.

The effectiveness of indigenous disease management practices is also influenced by the farmers'
knowledge and experience. In Waldaya Kebele, farmers' ability to identify and manage powdery
mildew using traditional methods is crucial to the success of these practices. Research suggests
that farmers who possess a deep understanding of the local ecological context are better able to
apply indigenous methods effectively, adjusting their strategies based on the specific challenges
posed by the local environment (Bengtsson et al., 2020). Training and on-farm demonstrations

13
further enhance farmers' capacity to implement these practices. However, the lack of access to
formal agricultural education can sometimes limit the effectiveness of these methods, as some
farmers may not fully understand the optimal timing and application techniques needed to
maximize disease control. Therefore, integrating indigenous knowledge with modern agricultural
practices through training and extension services can significantly enhance the overall
effectiveness of these disease management strategies.

Despite the benefits, the widespread adoption of indigenous disease management practices faces
several challenges that can undermine their effectiveness. One key limitation is the variability in
the success of these methods, which can depend on factors such as climate conditions, soil
health, and the severity of disease outbreaks. For instance, while plant-based remedies can be
effective in controlling low to moderate levels of powdery mildew, they may not be sufficient
during high disease pressure or in conditions that favor rapid disease spread (Sharma et al.,
2021). Additionally, the limited availability of some plant-based treatments, such as neem or
garlic, can restrict their use, especially in remote areas where access to resources is constrained.
These challenges highlight the need for a more integrated approach that combines indigenous
practices with scientific research and modern disease management strategies. Such an approach
can address the limitations of traditional methods and improve the resilience of tomato
production systems in Waldaya Kebele.

2.5 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for this study is grounded in several key concepts that are essential
for understanding the relationship between indigenous disease management practices, powdery
mildew control, and tomato productivity. The framework integrates agricultural extension
theory, indigenous knowledge systems, and sustainable agriculture principles. Agricultural
extension theory emphasizes the role of education and knowledge transfer in improving farming
practices. According to Rogers (2003), innovations in agriculture are most successfully adopted
when there is effective communication between farmers, extension agents, and researchers. In
the context of this study, extension theory underpins the objective of improving farmers'
knowledge of indigenous disease management practices, which is crucial for achieving improved
disease control and increased tomato yield. The theory asserts that the adoption of new practices

14
is more likely when farmers have access to reliable information and hands-on training, which
aligns with the study’s goal of improving farmers’ capacity through training and on-farm
demonstrations (Ali et al., 2017).

Indigenous knowledge systems, which form the core of this study's focus, offer a valuable
framework for understanding local agricultural practices that have been developed over
generations. These knowledge systems are often context-specific and involve practices that are
well-suited to the local environment and socio-economic conditions. According to Berkes
(2008), indigenous knowledge is holistic, encompassing not only agricultural techniques but also
cultural, spiritual, and ecological dimensions. This framework is crucial for assessing how
indigenous disease management practices, such as the use of local plant extracts and cultural
practices, can control powdery mildew. By promoting these practices, the study aims to
demonstrate that local knowledge can be integrated with modern scientific approaches to
enhance disease management and increase tomato productivity. Indigenous knowledge also
provides insights into sustainable farming practices that reduce dependency on chemical inputs,
which is essential for long-term environmental sustainability (Kareiva & Marvier, 2012).

The sustainable agriculture framework is another important component of the theoretical

framework for this study. Sustainable agriculture focuses on maintaining and improving farm
productivity while minimizing environmental degradation and enhancing social equity (Pretty,
2008). By adopting indigenous disease management practices, such as crop rotation,
intercropping, and the use of organic plant treatments, this study aligns with sustainable
agriculture principles. These practices not only help to control powdery mildew but also promote
soil health and biodiversity, making them more environmentally sustainable compared to
chemical-based methods. Furthermore, sustainable agriculture emphasizes the need for
participatory approaches to knowledge sharing and decision-making. This aligns with the study's
objective of improving farmers' knowledge and fostering community-level adoption of
indigenous disease management practices.

The diffusion of innovations theory, also relevant to this study, provides a lens through which to
analyze the adoption and spread of indigenous disease management practices. According to
Rogers (2003), the diffusion process is influenced by factors such as perceived advantage,

15
compatibility with existing practices, simplicity, trialability, and observable results. In the
context of Waldaya Kebele, the adoption of indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew
is likely influenced by these factors. Farmers are more likely to adopt practices that are seen as
effective in controlling disease, compatible with their existing knowledge, easy to implement,
and able to yield observable improvements in tomato productivity. This framework will help
assess the factors that either facilitate or hinder the adoption of these practices in the study area.
Understanding these factors is critical for tailoring interventions that will enhance the adoption
of effective disease management practices, leading to increased tomato productivity and better
disease control (Moser et al., 2010).

16
 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Description of the Study Area
3.1.1. Location of the Study Area

Waldaya Kebele, situated within the Erer Woreda in the Harari Region of Ethiopia, is the focal
point of this research on indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew in tomato
production. The kebele is located in the eastern part of the country, where agriculture remains a
central aspect of the local economy. The region is accessible by both road and local transport
systems, making it feasible for both the community and researchers to engage in field studies.
Waldaya's geographic location offers a unique combination of resources and challenges for
tomato farming, particularly in relation to the spread of crop diseases such as powdery mildew.
The study aims to assess the impact of indigenous practices in this specific area, considering its
geographical context and how it influences agricultural productivity. Understanding the local
geography, in combination with climatic factors, will provide a clearer picture of how the
community adapts to disease pressures.

3.1.2. Population

The population of Waldaya Kebele, according to the most recent census, is approximately 5,000
individuals, with a significant portion engaged in agricultural activities. This population consists
mainly of smallholder farmers, many of whom rely on traditional agricultural methods, including
indigenous practices for managing crop diseases such as powdery mildew. The demographic
structure of the kebele is predominantly rural, with most households living in close proximity to
their farming lands. The gender balance is fairly equal, and the majority of farmers are involved
in both crop production and livestock rearing. For the purpose of this study, farmers from the
kebele will be engaged through surveys and interviews to understand their knowledge and
application of indigenous methods for controlling powdery mildew in tomato farming. The
population density and the farming practices in the area are critical factors in assessing the
adoption of these practices and their impact on tomato yield.

17
3.1.3. Climate

The climate of Waldaya Kebele is classified as semi-arid, with distinct wet and dry seasons that
significantly influence agricultural activities. The region experiences an average annual rainfall
of approximately 800 mm, with the wet season occurring between June and September, followed
by a long dry season. The temperature in Waldaya ranges from 15°C to 30°C, creating an
environment conducive to both crop growth and disease development. The warm and moderately
humid climate supports tomato production but also provides ideal conditions for the spread of
powdery mildew, a fungal disease that can severely affect yields if left uncontrolled. The
climatic conditions are, therefore, a key variable in this study, as they influence both the
prevalence of powdery mildew and the effectiveness of the indigenous disease management
practices employed by farmers.

3.1.4. Soil Type

Soil types in Waldaya Kebele are predominantly clayey, with a relatively high nutrient content
due to organic matter from traditional farming practices. This soil type supports various crops,
including tomatoes, which benefit from the good moisture retention properties of clay soils.
However, these soils are also prone to waterlogging during heavy rains, which can affect plant
health and exacerbate the spread of diseases like powdery mildew. Farmers in the area employ
various soil management techniques, including composting and mulching, to improve soil
structure and fertility. The health of the soil is crucial for tomato production, as fertile, well-
managed soil can enhance crop resilience against diseases. Soil health is, therefore, an important
aspect of this study, as it influences the effectiveness of indigenous practices for managing
powdery mildew and improving overall productivity.

3.1.5. Topography

The topography of Waldaya Kebele is characterized by gently sloping land, with altitudes
ranging from 1,500 to 2,000 meters above sea level. These slopes provide natural drainage,
which helps prevent waterlogging and allows for better water management during the rainy
season. The region’s topography is also conducive to farming, as the gentle slopes facilitate the
cultivation of a wide variety of crops, including tomatoes. However, the slopes may also pose
challenges for certain agricultural practices, as erosion can occur during heavy rainfall. Farmers

18
in the area have adapted to these topographic features by implementing various erosion control
techniques, such as terracing and planting cover crops. These adaptations not only protect the
soil but also contribute to the sustainability of farming practices, including the management of
plant diseases such as powdery mildew.

3.1.6. Vegetation

The vegetation in Waldaya Kebele is a mix of natural and cultivated plants, with agricultural
crops like tomatoes, onions, and maize being the most significant in terms of production.
Indigenous plants, including trees and shrubs, are also present and contribute to the ecological
balance of the region. These plants are valuable for various purposes, including medicinal use
and the provision of fodder for livestock. Vegetation in the area plays a crucial role in integrated
farming systems, where crops and livestock complement each other. The diversity of plant
species in Waldaya provides a rich source of indigenous knowledge related to pest and disease
management. This study will explore how local farmers incorporate vegetation into their disease
management strategies and how these practices can contribute to controlling powdery mildew in
tomato production.

3.1.7. Livestock Production

Livestock production is a significant aspect of the agricultural economy in Waldaya Kebele, with
cattle, goats, sheep, and poultry being the primary livestock types raised in the area. These
animals serve various purposes, including providing meat, milk, and manure, which is used as
fertilizer for crops. The integration of livestock with crop production, especially in the context of
disease management, is an important feature of the region’s agricultural system. Livestock
manure, when properly managed, can improve soil fertility and enhance crop growth, thereby
increasing resilience to diseases like powdery mildew. The study will consider the role of
livestock in the farming system, examining how manure and other livestock-related practices
may contribute to or hinder the effectiveness of indigenous disease management methods.

3.1.8. Major Agricultural Production

Agricultural production in Waldaya Kebele is diverse, with a strong focus on cereal crops,
legumes, and vegetables. Tomatoes, in particular, are an important cash crop for the local

19
farmers, contributing to household income and food security. However, tomato production faces
several challenges, including susceptibility to diseases such as powdery mildew, which can
reduce yield and quality. Indigenous disease management practices have been historically
employed to address these challenges, ranging from the use of plant-based treatments to cultural
practices aimed at preventing disease outbreaks. This research aims to assess the effectiveness of
these indigenous practices in improving tomato productivity. By focusing on tomatoes, the study
will explore how local knowledge and practices can contribute to disease control, helping to
increase productivity from 85 quintals per hectare to 130 quintals per hectare.

3.2. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size

In this qualitative action research, purposive sampling will be employed to select participants
who possess rich insights into the indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew in tomato
production. This approach is particularly suited for qualitative research as it enables the
researcher to focus on individuals or groups who are directly involved in the phenomenon being
studied and have firsthand knowledge or experience. In the case of Waldaya Kebele, the sample
will consist of a group of 15-20 tomato farmers, including both male and female participants,
ensuring a gender-balanced perspective. This small sample size allows for an in-depth
exploration of participants’ experiences and insights (Creswell, 2014). The sample will include
farmers with varying levels of engagement in indigenous disease management practices, which
will provide a nuanced understanding of how these practices are applied, adapted, or resisted
within the community. The selection criteria will also include farmers who are actively engaged
in tomato production and have experienced powdery mildew issues, ensuring that the data
gathered is directly relevant to the research objectives.

3.3. Data Collection Methods

Data collection in this qualitative action research will be primarily based on participatory
methods, which allow the researcher to engage directly with the participants while emphasizing
their involvement in the research process. Semi-structured interviews will be the primary method
for collecting data from the farmers, enabling them to share their knowledge, experiences, and
challenges regarding the management of powdery mildew. The semi-structured format allows
flexibility, permitting the interviewer to explore emerging themes and adjust questions as

20
necessary to elicit deeper responses (Maxwell, 2013). In addition to interviews, participant
observation will be used to observe the actual practices that farmers implement in managing
powdery mildew in their tomato fields. This approach helps the researcher understand the
context in which these practices are applied and identify any discrepancies between reported and
observed practices. Field notes and reflective journaling will complement the observations,
providing further insights into the dynamics and challenges observed in the field. The researcher
will also facilitate on-farm demonstrations and group discussions to allow farmers to collectively
reflect on their practices and experiences, promoting an interactive and collaborative approach to
data collection (Reason & Bradbury, 2008).

3.4. Data Analysis Techniques

Given the qualitative nature of this action research, data analysis will follow a thematic
approach, which allows for the identification of patterns and themes across the interview
transcripts, field notes, and observational data. Thematic analysis will involve coding the data to
categorize and identify recurring themes related to indigenous practices, challenges, and the
perceived effectiveness of these practices in managing powdery mildew (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
The researcher will immerse themselves in the data by reading and rereading the transcripts and
field notes to identify commonalities and divergences. Through this process, key themes will
emerge regarding the farmers’ experiences with indigenous practices, their decision-making
processes, and the barriers they face in adopting certain methods. Data will also be triangulated
by comparing insights from interviews, observations, and field notes, which will enhance the
credibility and trustworthiness of the findings (Patton, 2002). This triangulation allows for a
comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation, ensuring that the analysis
captures multiple perspectives and offers a deep, contextualized interpretation of the data.

3.5. Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are critical in qualitative action research, especially when working closely
with participants in their own environment. Informed consent will be obtained from all
participants, ensuring that they are fully aware of the study's objectives, the voluntary nature of
participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without any negative consequences. The
informed consent process will be conducted in a clear and culturally appropriate manner,

21
ensuring that participants understand how their data will be used and the potential benefits and
risks of participating (APA, 2020). To ensure the confidentiality and privacy of participants, all
identifying information will be removed from the data, and pseudonyms will be used in the
reporting of results. Given the participatory nature of action research, the researcher will also
ensure that participants have a role in reviewing and interpreting the findings, which fosters
transparency and builds trust (Reason & Bradbury, 2008). Ethical approval will be sought from
the relevant institutional review board (IRB), and throughout the research process, the researcher
will remain sensitive to the cultural norms and values of the local community, ensuring
respectful engagement and minimizing any potential harm to participants.

3.8. Project Implementation Strategies

The implementation of this research will involve a combination of training, method

demonstration, and a field day event to ensure the successful adoption of indigenous practices for
managing powdery mildew in tomato production in Waldaya Kebele, Erer Woreda, Harari
Region.

Training: Training sessions will be organized for 10 selected farmers and three development
agents (DAs). These sessions will be conducted before the sowing period and during the critical
stages of disease management, particularly when tomato crops are susceptible to powdery
mildew. These training sessions will aim to equip participants with the necessary knowledge and
skills on the best indigenous practices for managing powdery mildew, such as the use of plant-
based remedies, proper spacing, and crop rotation techniques. This will enable the farmers to
improve disease control and enhance their tomato yield.

Method Demonstration: Demonstrations will be conducted on 10 selected farmers’ fields to

showcase the application of indigenous disease management practices. These demonstrations
will include proper land preparation, the application of indigenous treatments, and the use of
cultural practices to minimize powdery mildew outbreaks. Other farmers will have the
opportunity to observe these demonstrations and later apply the learned practices on their own
farms.

22
Field Day: A field day event will be held in September 2025, during which selected farmers will
visit demonstration plots and observe the impact of indigenous disease management practices on
tomato crops. This event will serve as a platform for experience-sharing, discussions, and
evaluation of the effectiveness of the promoted practices. Farmers will also have the chance to
engage with experts and fellow farmers to share their experiences and challenges in managing
powdery mildew using indigenous methods.

3.9. Materials and Inputs to Be Used

The following materials and inputs will be utilized for the project:

Water – for irrigation purposes, especially during dry periods when powdery mildew is
more likely to occur.
Plough (Dongora) – for land preparation to ensure optimal soil conditions for tomato
growth and disease management.
Pegs (Shikaala) – for marking plot boundaries to clearly define demonstration areas.
Measuring Tape – for ensuring accurate spacing between tomato plants, which is crucial
for reducing the spread of powdery mildew.
Improved Tomato Seed – for cultivation of high-quality tomato plants that are more
resistant to powdery mildew.
Land Plot (1000m²) – for conducting demonstrations and cultivation of tomato crops,
allowing space to implement the indigenous practices.
Hoes – for land preparation, weeding, and maintaining soil health.
Fertilizer (Urea & DAP/NPS) – for nutrient management to ensure the tomatoes are
healthy and resilient against diseases.
Containers – for the proper application of fertilizers and indigenous treatments, ensuring
accurate and effective use.

23
 4. BUDGET AND TIME PLAN
4.1. Time Plan

The following time plan outlines the key activities and their scheduled dates for the successful
implementation of the project:

Table 2 Time Plan

No. Activities Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun Jul Au Sep Oct Nov
y g
1 Proposal Preparation X
2 Identification of Target X
Farmers
3 Data Collection X X
4 Training for Farmers & X
DAs
5 Provision of X X
Agricultural Inputs
6 Land Preparation X X
7 Harrowing X
8 Sowing X X
9 Weeding X X
10 Fertilizer Application X X
11 Method Demonstration X
12 Field Day X
13 Assessments & Follow- X X
up Activities
14 Evaluation of Results X
15 Data Organization & X X
Analysis
16 Data Interpretation X X
17 Report Writing & X
Submission

4.2. Budget

The project budget is structured into four main cost categories: stationery, farm inputs and
materials, training, and fuel/lubricants.

24
4.2.1. Stationery Cost
Table 3 Stationery Cost

No. Item Unit Quantity Unit Price (ETB) Total Price (ETB)

1 Pen No. 11 20 220

2 Typing Page 60 3 180

3 CD-RW No. 3 32 96

4 Marker Pack 1 200 200

5 Flash Card GB 16 400 400

6 Notebook No. 11 50 550

Total 1,646

4.2.2. Farm Input and Material Cost

Table 4 Farm Input and Material Cost

No. Item Unit Quantity Unit Price (ETB) Total Price (ETB)

1 Improved Tomato Seed kg 150 30 4,500

2 Fertilizer (DAP) kg 25 25 625

3 Fertilizer (Urea) kg 25 25 625

4 Chemical L 2 90 180

5 Measuring Tape No. 1 200 200

6 Rope M 20 10 200

Total 6,330

25
4.2.3. Training Cost
Table 5 Training Cost

Number of Training Budget per Person Total Cost

No. Description
People Days (ETB) (ETB)

1 Farmers 5 3 150 2,250

Development Agents
2 3 3 200 1,800
(DAs)

3 Student 1 2 150 300

4 Expert 1 2 400 800

5 Follow-up Student 1 50 132 6,600

Total 11,750

4.2.4. Fuel and Lubricant Cost

Table 6 Fuel and Lubricant Cost

No. Item Unit Quantity Unit Price (ETB) Total Price (ETB)

1 Fuel L 30 50 1,500

2 Lubricant L 3 125 375

Total 1,875

4.2.5. Budget Summary

Table 7 Budget Summary

No. Budget Category Total Cost (ETB)

1 Stationery Cost 1,646

2 Farm Input and Material 6,330

3 Training Cost 11,750

26
No. Budget Category Total Cost (ETB)

4 Fuel and Lubricant Cost 1,875

Total 21,601

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