Basu and Mishra  Journal of Engineering

Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62

https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-024-00393-y and Applied Science

RESEARCH Open Access

Mine reclamation practices and effects

of stakeholder perception — a case study
of Saoner mines, Maharashtra, India
Debasmita Basu1*   and Smriti Mishra1

*Correspondence:
[email protected] Abstract
1
Department of Architecture The Saoner mine reclamation study conducted in Maharashtra, India, meticulously
and Planning, Birla Institute investigates the practicality and efficacy of ecological restoration initiatives post-
of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, mining operations. Employing multifaceted research approach, including field observa-
Jharkhand 835215, India
tions, interviews, and questionnaires, the study captures a diverse array of perspectives
from stakeholders representing local communities, mining companies, regulatory
bodies, and environmental organizations. Within this complexity, the research uncov-
ers spectrum of viewpoints. Encouragingly, positive outcomes emerge from specific
reclamation practices like revegetation and soil stabilization. However, substantial
challenges linger in vital areas such as water management, soil quality restoration,
and post-reclamation monitoring, demanding targeted interventions. Stakeholders’
diverse concerns reflect varying priorities. Local communities express apprehen-
sion about the adequacy of reclamation efforts and potential health implications,
underscoring immediate impact on their lives. Mining companies prioritize regula-
tory compliance and economic contributions, emphasizing their immediate obliga-
tions. Simultaneously, environmental organizations advocate for stringent monitoring
and the adoption of more robust practices, reflecting long-term ecological perspective.
The study suggests a holistic approach to mining, beyond regulatory compliance,
involving integrated planning, ongoing monitoring, and stakeholder engagement.
This approach can reduce the industry’s environmental footprint, promote sustainable
development, and foster harmony between mining activities and local communities,
making it a crucial foundation for Saoner and other Indian mining regions.
Keywords: Mine reclamation, Stakeholder perception, Environmental impacts,
Ecological restoration, Saoner mines

Introduction
Mining has a rich historical legacy, dating back to 4000 B.C., with coal mining in India
officially documented since 1774 [79, 85, 86]. Coal stands as India’s primary fossil fuel,
crucial for its burgeoning population and growing economy [12]. While catering to the
escalating energy demands, mining significantly contributes to economic growth, with
coal predominantly consumed by the power sector, followed by iron, steel, and cement
industries [94, 99, 108, 127, 130]. Despite its benefits, coal mining engenders detrimental

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Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 2 of 33

environmental impacts, affecting terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and nearby commu-
nities [146, 136]. Chemical alterations influence groundwater and surface water, reshap-
ing land morphology and topography [154, 156]. Microclimate changes disrupt wind
patterns, flora, fauna, and soil productivity, exacerbating ecological degradation [164,
167]. Human activities, driven by population growth and development, further exacer-
bate environmental degradation through activities like deforestation, mining, and land
clearing for agriculture and settlement [148, 152, 159, 153]. Environmental preserva-
tion efforts, including ecosystem rehabilitation, are imperative to mitigate these adverse
effects, aiming to restore damaged ecosystems [118, 121, 131]. Such measures are pro-
jected to not only restore ecosystems but potentially enhance them beyond their original
state.
Mine reclamation refers to the process of restoring a mined-out area to a state that
is safe, environmentally sustainable, and suitable for future land use [117, 119]. It is an
essential step in mitigating the negative impacts of mining activities on ecosystems and
communities [161, 163]. Reclamation efforts involve a series of comprehensive meas-
ures aimed at minimizing erosion, restoring vegetation, rehabilitating water bodies, and
addressing any potential contamination [158, 160].
Mine reclamation aims to restore land’s physical characteristics and stability by reshap-
ing land, regrading slopes, and stabilizing soil to prevent erosion and landslides [10, 18,
124]. This restoration facilitates various activities like agriculture, recreation, and sup-
ports diverse vegetation and wildlife habitats [98]. Replanting native species enhances
ecosystem resilience, aesthetic value, and soil stability while considering local ecological
factors [77, 82–84, 90, 92, 91, 97]. Additionally, reclamation efforts focus on rehabilitat-
ing water bodies impacted by mining, ensuring water quality and the health of aquatic
ecosystems [81, 87, 88, 100, 101, 104]. Contaminated areas are addressed through reme-
diation measures to clean up and restore soils, sediments, and groundwater, safeguard-
ing human and ecological health [78, 80]. Community engagement throughout the
reclamation process, including indigenous peoples’ involvement, ensures long-term sus-
tainability and compatibility with local needs and aspirations [57, 59, 60, 64–67, 70].
In conclusion, mine reclamation is a multifaceted process that aims to restore mined-
out areas to a state of ecological and social well-being. Through careful planning,
implementation of remediation techniques, and collaboration with communities, mine
reclamation strives to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining and create sustain-
able landscapes for future generations [168].
Mine reclamation practices and stakeholder perception are closely intertwined and
can have significant effects on each other [44, 61, 74, 76]. The perception of mine recla-
mation can have several effects, including social, economic, and environmental impacts
[1, 3–5, 20, 21]. Here are some key points regarding the relationship between mine recla-
mation practices and the effects of stakeholder perception:

1. Stakeholder involvement: Stakeholder perception of mine reclamation practices

hinges on their involvement in planning and decision-making processes [8]. Active
engagement of stakeholders such as local communities, indigenous groups, envi-
ronmental organizations, and government agencies, where their concerns are con-
sidered, leads to positive perceptions of reclamation efforts. Conversely, excluding
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stakeholders or not addressing their concerns adequately can engender negative per-
ceptions and potential conflicts [7, 11].
2. Trust and credibility: The perception of mine reclamation practices is closely linked
to the trust and credibility of the mining industry and the companies involved [16].
If stakeholders perceive that mining companies are committed to responsible mining
practices and prioritize effective reclamation, it can enhance trust and improve per-
ceptions [3]. Conversely, if stakeholders perceive that the industry is not transparent,
accountable, or committed to environmental stewardship, it can lead to skepticism
and negative perceptions [2, 5, 6].
3. Communication and transparency: Effective communication and transparency
about mine reclamation practices can significantly impact stakeholder perception
[15]. Mining companies should proactively communicate their reclamation plans,
progress, and outcomes to stakeholders, providing clear and accessible information.
Transparent reporting on monitoring data, environmental impacts, and remediation
efforts can help build trust and improve stakeholder perception [9, 13].
4. Demonstrated results: The actual outcomes of mine reclamation efforts play a crucial
role in shaping stakeholder perception. When stakeholders observe successful rec-
lamation projects that result in the restoration of ecosystems, improved water qual-
ity, and the creation of sustainable land uses, it can foster positive perceptions. Con-
versely, if stakeholders perceive that reclamation efforts are inadequate, ineffective,
or result in long-term environmental harm, it can lead to negative perceptions and
distrust [22].
5. Long-term monitoring and maintenance: Stakeholder perception can be influenced
by the commitment of mining companies to long-term monitoring and maintenance
of reclaimed mine sites [30, 34]. Demonstrating ongoing efforts to ensure the sta-
bility, safety, and ecological integrity of the reclaimed land can enhance stakeholder
confidence in the reclamation practices. Neglecting long-term monitoring and main-
tenance can result in negative perceptions and concerns about the sustainability of
the reclamation efforts [37].
6. Social and economic benefits: Stakeholder perception of mine reclamation practices
can also be influenced by the social and economic benefits generated by reclaimed
mine sites [4]. When reclamation efforts result in job creation, community develop-
ment, and sustainable land uses, it can contribute to positive perceptions. Mining
companies that actively engage with local communities and share the benefits of rec-
lamation efforts can build stronger relationships and improve stakeholder perception
[28, 33, 40].

It is essential for mining companies to prioritize stakeholder engagement, transpar-

ency, and the effective implementation of mine reclamation practices to ensure positive
perceptions among stakeholders [32, 36]. By addressing concerns, demonstrating envi-
ronmental responsibility, and delivering successful reclamation outcomes, companies
can foster trust, gain social acceptance, and contribute to sustainable mining practices
[165].
Mine reclamation in India is gaining increasing attention and importance due to the
country’s extensive mining activities and the need to address their environmental and
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 4 of 33

social impacts. The government and mining companies are actively involved in reclama-
tion efforts to restore mined-out areas and mitigate the damage caused by mining opera-
tions [150, 151].
One of the primary goals of mine reclamation in India is the rehabilitation of aban-
doned mines, which pose significant environmental and safety hazards [155]. Efforts
concentrate on stabilizing slopes, backfilling open pits, and implementing erosion con-
trol measures to prevent soil degradation and water pollution [147]. Identifying and pri-
oritizing reclamation sites are crucial for restoring affected areas. Sustainable practices
are increasingly emphasized, including ecological restoration with native plant species
and soil remediation to address fertility issues and contamination [144]. These measures
aim to restore biodiversity and promote long-term land health. Water management is
another critical aspect, addressing impacts on local water sources through sedimenta-
tion ponds, water treatment systems, and conservation practices [122]. The goal is to
restore and preserve water quality and availability in mining areas. Community engage-
ment is integral, involving local communities in decision-making and activities to ensure
plans respect their cultural practices and livelihoods [116]. Creating sustainable eco-
nomic opportunities post-mining, such as agriculture or tourism, benefits local commu-
nities in the long term.
Mine reclamation and geotourism are two interconnected concepts that can work
hand in hand to promote sustainable development and environmental conservation in
mining regions. Visiting scenic natural areas is a long-standing tradition. However, the
concept of geotourism has only recently emerged. Geotourism is a novel addition to the
rapidly expanding niche or special interest tourism [74] that uses landscapes with sig-
nificant geological and geographical significance as the focal point of tourism appeal.
Unlike ecotourism, which emphasizes biotic aspects (flora and fauna), geotourism
emphasizes abiotic elements of nature and focuses on the interpretation and preserva-
tion of these earthly features by boosting their touristic value [47, 114]. Thomas Hose
coined the phrase in 1995, defining it as “geology-based tourism,” which allows tourists
to get in-depth understanding of a location’s geology and geomorphology through inter-
pretive and service facilities.
In the context of India, mine reclamation practices and stakeholder perception have
significant implications for the mining industry and the environment. Here are some key
points specific to India:

1. Regulatory framework: India has established a regulatory framework for mine recla-
mation, including guidelines and regulations for environmental impact assessments,
mine closure plans, and reclamation activities. Stakeholders, including government
agencies, local communities, and environmental organizations, closely monitor and
evaluate mining companies’ compliance with these regulations. The perception of
how well these regulations are enforced and implemented can influence stakeholder
perception of mine reclamation practices [19].
2. Community engagement: In India, mining operations often directly impact local
communities, especially in tribal and rural areas. Effective engagement with these
communities is crucial for successful mine reclamation practices and positive stake-
holder perception. Engaging stakeholders through consultations, information shar-
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 5 of 33

ing, and incorporating their traditional knowledge and concerns into the reclamation
plans can build trust and foster positive perceptions [23].
3. Environmental impacts: Mining activities in India can have significant environmental
impacts, including land degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution.
Stakeholder perception of mine reclamation practices is influenced by the extent to
which these environmental impacts are addressed and mitigated. Effective reclama-
tion practices, such as revegetation, soil stabilization, and water treatment measures,
can improve stakeholder perception by demonstrating a commitment to minimizing
environmental harm [25, 27].
4. Social and economic benefits: Stakeholder perception is also shaped by the social
and economic benefits generated through mine reclamation. In India, reclaimed
mine sites can be repurposed for agriculture, forestry, renewable energy, or other
sustainable land uses, providing opportunities for employment, income generation,
and community development. Ensuring that local communities benefit from these
opportunities and sharing the economic benefits can contribute to positive stake-
holder perception [31, 35].
5. Transparency and accountability: Transparent reporting on mine reclamation pro-
gress, monitoring data, and environmental outcomes is essential for building trust
and improving stakeholder perception. Mining companies should provide accessible
information to stakeholders, including local communities, environmental organiza-
tions, and government agencies, to demonstrate their commitment to responsible
mining practices and the effectiveness of reclamation efforts [38].
6. Traditional knowledge and cultural heritage: In India, mining activities often impact
areas with rich cultural heritage and traditional knowledge systems. Incorporating
traditional knowledge into mine reclamation practices and respecting cultural sen-
sitivities can positively influence stakeholder perception. Engaging with indigenous
communities and incorporating their perspectives and practices into reclamation
plans can help preserve cultural heritage and foster positive relationships with stake-
holders [39, 41, 42].

In summary, mine reclamation practices and stakeholder perception in India are

influenced by regulatory frameworks, community engagement, environmental impacts,
social and economic benefits, transparency, and the preservation of traditional knowl-
edge. Mining companies that prioritize sustainable and responsible reclamation prac-
tices, engage with stakeholders, address environmental concerns, and share the benefits
of reclamation efforts can improve stakeholder perception and contribute to the sustain-
able development of the mining industry in India [143].
Studying mine reclamation measures in India is essential for several reasons. Firstly,
it enables us to mitigate the environmental impacts caused by mining activities, such
as land degradation and water pollution. By understanding effective reclamation tech-
niques, we can restore ecosystems and promote sustainable land use. Secondly, studying
mine reclamation measures helps ensure compliance with regulations and guidelines set
by the government, ensuring responsible mining practices [138, 140]. It also enables the
development of best practices and innovative approaches to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of reclamation efforts [137, 139, 141]. Finally, studying mine reclamation
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 6 of 33

in India fosters stakeholder engagement, including mining companies, government bod-

ies, and local communities, to address their concerns and aspirations [135]. Overall,
this knowledge contributes to sustainable development, environmental protection, and
responsible land management in the mining sector.

Literature review on mine reclamation

Mine reclamation stands as a pivotal process aiming to restore both ecological integrity
and socio-economic value to land affected by mining activities. This review delves into
pertinent studies, encapsulating best practices, challenges, and environmental consid-
erations surrounding mine reclamation [129].
Numerous studies underscore the significance of early planning, site-specific
approaches, and ecosystem-based restoration in mine reclamation. Strategies such as
recontouring land to match original topography; stabilizing soil through amendments,
erosion control; and utilizing native plant species foster successful vegetation establish-
ment and biodiversity recovery. Water management techniques like constructed wet-
lands and sedimentation ponds play crucial roles in preserving water quality and aquatic
habitats [123, 134, 162].
Evaluations of ecological impacts post-reclamation reveal the potential for restoring
soil fertility, establishing diverse plant communities, and reinstating native fauna [107].
However, the timeframe for ecosystem recovery varies based on mining operations, soil
characteristics, and climate conditions [115]. Considering socio-economic factors, com-
munity engagement and integration of traditional knowledge are found to enhance the
success and sustainability of reclamation efforts. Positive outcomes include employment
creation, infrastructure development, and local economy revitalization [106]. Yet, bal-
ancing short-term economic gains with long-term environmental sustainability remains
a challenge [102]. Robust environmental regulations and policy frameworks guide
responsible mine reclamation practices. Incorporating impact assessments, reclama-
tion plans, and monitoring protocols within regulatory frameworks enhances outcomes.
However, ongoing monitoring, enforcement, and adaptive management are crucial for
compliance and addressing emerging challenges [89, 93].
Recent studies explore emerging technologies like remote sensing, GIS-based mode-
ling, and biotechnology for soil remediation to enhance reclamation efficiency, resource
optimization, and minimize environmental impacts [55]. In conclusion, leveraging exist-
ing knowledge and addressing research gaps are pivotal for enhancing mine reclamation
effectiveness and promoting sustainable mining practices.

Literature review on perception modeling and its connection to mine reclamation

Perception is a crucial cognitive process that involves the brain’s intricate mechanisms
for interpreting sensory input and understanding the world. It begins with sensation,
where sensory receptors detect stimuli from the environment [89, 93]. These stimuli
are then transmitted to the brain, where they undergo organization and interpretation.
The brain categorizes, integrates, and synthesizes incoming data into coherent patterns,
creating a structured representation of the sensory input. Selective attention is cru-
cial, as individuals prioritize stimuli based on their relevance or significance [55]. The
brain then assigns meaning to the perceived stimuli, relying heavily on prior knowledge,
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 7 of 33

experiences, and expectations. Contextual cues, emotional states, and individual beliefs
also influence the interpretation process, leading to subjective perceptions. Factors such
as sensory thresholds, individual differences, cultural norms, and societal influences fur-
ther shape perception [115]. Cultural relativism highlights the role of culture in shaping
perceptual experiences and behaviors. Perceptual illusions and biases also influence the
brain’s interpretation of sensory information. Illusions, such as the Müller-Lyer illusion,
distort individuals’ perceptions of line lengths, while cognitive biases, like confirmation
bias or stereotyping, favor information that confirms preexisting beliefs or stereotypes
[123]. Understanding the intricacies of perception and its underlying mechanisms is
essential for comprehending human behavior, designing effective communication strate-
gies, and improving decision-making processes across diverse fields.
Perception modeling, essential for understanding how individuals interpret informa-
tion, is widely used across psychology, marketing, and decision-making fields [24]. By
employing theoretical frameworks and statistical techniques, researchers analyze data
to simulate and predict human perception [75]. This modeling aids in understanding
consumer behavior in marketing, assessing public opinion in public policy, and design-
ing user interfaces in human–computer interaction [50]. The complexity of perception
requires interdisciplinary approaches, integrating insights from psychology, neurosci-
ence, and sociology [53]. Understanding how individuals perceive the world enables
decision-makers to develop effective strategies and interventions across various domains
[103].
In the context of mine reclamation, perception modeling is crucial for understand-
ing stakeholder perceptions [105, 120, 134]. Identifying relevant stakeholders, collecting
comprehensive data on their perceptions, and understanding factors influencing percep-
tion are essential [111, 128, 142, 157].
Factors influencing stakeholder perception include environmental impacts, economic
benefits, and trust in the mining industry [166]. Employing appropriate techniques like
statistical analysis or machine learning ensures an accurate representation of stakeholder
perception [17].
Overall, perception modeling in mine reclamation requires a multidimensional under-
standing of stakeholder perspectives, robust data collection, identification of influential
factors, and appropriate modeling techniques. This approach provides valuable insights
to inform decision-making and promote sustainable mine reclamation practices. How-
ever, a standardized framework to determine applicable reclamation strategies based on
stakeholder perceptions is currently lacking.

Literature review on Saoner mines

Extensive research and accumulated knowledge on mine reclamation practices provide
valuable insights into restoring mined lands and mitigating environmental impacts [52,
54, 56]. These practices aim to rehabilitate disturbed areas, promote ecological restora-
tion, and ensure the sustainable use of reclaimed lands. Studies have emphasized the
significance of early planning, site-specific reclamation plans, and the integration of eco-
logical, social, and economic factors in the reclamation process.
One key aspect of mine reclamation is land recontouring, which involves reshaping
the land to its original topography or creating landforms that mimic natural landscapes.
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 8 of 33

This helps to prevent erosion, enhance soil stability, and facilitate the establishment of
vegetation [49, 51]. Soil stabilization techniques, such as the use of soil amendments and
erosion control measures, contribute to the successful establishment of healthy soil con-
ditions for plant growth. Vegetation establishment is another critical component of mine
reclamation [48]. Native plant species are preferred for their ability to adapt to local con-
ditions, support biodiversity, and restore ecological functions. Studies have highlighted
the importance of selecting appropriate plant species and using techniques like seed-
ing, planting, and ecological succession to ensure successful vegetation establishment.
Water management is another essential aspect of mine reclamation [46]. Proper con-
trol and treatment of water flows, including runoff and discharge from reclaimed areas,
play a crucial role in maintaining water quality and preventing pollution of surrounding
water bodies. Techniques such as constructed wetlands and sedimentation ponds can be
employed to manage water effectively and promote habitat creation [43, 45].

Relevant environmental regulations

India has implemented stringent environmental regulations to govern mine reclama-
tion activities and ensure sustainable mining practices. The Mines and Minerals (Devel-
opment and Regulation) Act, 1957, serves as a primary legislation governing mining
operations in the country. It outlines provisions for environmental protection, safety
measures, and the sustainable development of mineral resources.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2006, mandates the assess-
ment of potential environmental impacts of mining projects, including mine reclama-
tion activities. This regulation requires mining companies to undergo an EIA process
before obtaining environmental clearances. The EIA process involves evaluating the pro-
ject’s environmental impacts, proposing mitigation measures, and incorporating public
consultation and stakeholder engagement.
Reclamation plans are a key requirement under the EIA process. These plans outline
the measures and strategies to be undertaken for restoring the mined areas after the
cessation of mining operations. They specify the intended land use, reclamation meth-
ods, and monitoring protocols to ensure the successful implementation of reclamation
measures.

Previous studies on Saoner mine and similar reclamation projects

Previous studies have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of reclamation meas-
ures and assess the environmental and socio-economic impacts of the Saoner mine and
similar reclamation projects. These studies provide valuable insights into the challenges
faced and successes achieved in the reclamation efforts [109, 110, 112]. Environmen-
tal impact assessments have examined changes in soil quality, water quality, vegetation
cover, and biodiversity before and after reclamation [63]. They have assessed the extent
to which reclamation measures have restored or improved the environmental conditions
in the Saoner mine area.
Studies have also investigated the socio-economic impacts of mine reclamation on
local communities. These include evaluating changes in employment opportunities,
income levels, infrastructure development, and community well-being. The socio-eco-
nomic analysis helps to understand the benefits and challenges associated with mine
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 9 of 33

reclamation projects and enables the formulation of sustainable development plans for
affected communities [113, 126].
In conclusion, the existing knowledge on mine reclamation practices, relevant envi-
ronmental regulations, and previous studies related to the Saoner mine and similar
reclamation projects provide essential insights into effective reclamation strategies, reg-
ulatory compliance, and the evaluation of environmental and socio-economic impacts.
By building upon this knowledge, policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders can con-
tinue to improve mine reclamation practices, ensure environmental sustainability, and
promote the well-being of affected communities.

Methods
The following structure was followed to study mine reclamation of Saoner mines in
India. First, defining of the objective of the case study, such as evaluating the effec-
tiveness of reclamation measures or analyzing the environmental and socio-economic
impacts of the Saoner mine reclamation project, was done. Relevant data through vari-
ous methods were gathered. This included site visits to Saoner mine to observe the recla-
mation activities first hand, interviews with key stakeholders involved in the reclamation
process (such as mining company representatives, government officials, and local com-
munity members), and collection of documents and reports related to the reclamation
project.

• Analyzing the collected data using appropriate analytical methods. This involved
qualitative analysis of interview transcripts and document content, as well as quanti-
tative analysis of environmental parameters, socio-economic indicators, or other rel-
evant data.
• Identifying patterns, trends, and key insights from the data analysis
• Providing a comprehensive description of the Saoner mine reclamation project
• Including details about the mining history, reclamation objectives, strategies
employed, timeline of activities, challenges encountered during the reclamation pro-
cess, and present information on the environmental conditions pre- and post-recla-
mation
• Evaluating the effectiveness of the reclamation measures implemented at Saoner
mine
• Assessing the degree of ecological restoration, land stability, and habitat rehabilita-
tion achieved
• Considering the success of the reclamation project in meeting its intended objectives
and any gaps or areas for improvement
• Examining the environmental, socio-economic, and community impacts of the
Saoner mine reclamation
• Assessing changes in water quality, soil fertility, vegetation cover, and biodiversity
• Analyzing the socio-economic effects on local communities, such as employment
opportunities, infrastructure development, and changes in livelihood patterns
• Discussing the findings of the case study in relation to the research objective and
broader context
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 10 of 33

• Comparing the Saoner mine reclamation project with other similar projects or
industry best practices
• Addressing any limitations or challenges encountered during the case study
• Concluding the case study by summarizing the key findings and their implications
for mine reclamation practices and future research (refer to Fig. 1).

In assessing the effectiveness and sustainability of mine reclamation efforts, various

criteria play pivotal roles, each highlighting important dimensions of the relationship
between mining activities, reclamation strategies, and the surrounding environment. The
dependence between mine surroundings and non-mine-related activities underscores
the interconnectedness of mining operations with broader socio-economic systems,
emphasizing the need for integrated planning. Resident satisfaction with living near
mines reflects the quality-of-life impact, necessitating reclamation efforts that enhance
community well-being. The influence of reclamation on residents’ daily lives underscores
the importance of ensuring that reclaimed areas support functional and safe environ-
ments. Additionally, the level of involvement in reclaimed mine activities and resident
support for mine closure signify community engagement and acceptance, vital for suc-
cessful reclamation outcomes. The connection of resident participation to mine activi-
ties emphasizes the need for inclusive decision-making processes that consider local
perspectives. Economic generation influenced by reclamation highlights the potential
for reclaimed sites to contribute to sustainable economic development. Satisfaction with
reclamation’s economic outcomes underscores the importance of balancing economic
benefits with environmental and social considerations. The dependence between recla-
mation strategies and mine type highlights the need for tailored approaches that address
site-specific challenges and opportunities. Reuse sufficiency and the requirement of
closed mines emphasize the importance of maximizing the utilization of reclaimed land
while minimizing environmental impacts. Environmental factors such as water and air
quality, soil fertility, and climate conditions underscore the ecological considerations
crucial for successful reclamation. Socio-economic factors, including agricultural pro-
ductivity, livelihood availability, and community resilience, highlight the broader societal
implications of reclamation efforts. Stakeholder involvement, expenditure dependence,

Fig. 1 Research methodology adopted for the study

Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 11 of 33

and the provision of non-mining activities reflect the multi-stakeholder nature of recla-
mation planning and implementation. Ultimately, these criteria collectively inform the
formulation of comprehensive and sustainable mine reclamation strategies that balance
environmental protection, social equity, and economic development, ensuring the long-
term well-being of both human and ecological communities (see Table 5 in Appendix).

Research objectives
To assess the effectiveness of the Saoner mine reclamation project by analyzing its envi-
ronmental and socio-economic impacts through the establishment of clear criteria,
including parameters such as vegetation establishment, water quality improvement,
habitat restoration, community engagement, economic benefits, and social well-being.

Data collection — settings and methodology

Collecting data manually for a survey conducted among mine residents and workers is
a common practice in many research studies. Manual data collection involves directly
interacting with participants and recording their responses using paper-based or other
non-digital methods. While manual data collection has its advantages, such as cost-
effectiveness and ease of implementation, it also poses some challenges and limitations.

Advantages of manual data collection

• Personal interaction: Manual data collection allows for face-to-face interaction

with participants, which can help build rapport and encourage open and honest
responses.
• Flexibility: Researchers can adapt the survey process and ask follow-up questions
based on participants’ responses, enabling deeper exploration of specific topics.
• Cost-effectiveness: Manual data collection eliminates the need for expensive digital
tools or software, making it a more affordable option, especially in resource-con-
strained settings.
• Accessibility: Participants who may not have access to digital devices or are unfamil-
iar with technology can comfortably participate in the survey.

Challenges and limitations of manual data collection

• Human error: Manual data collection is prone to errors during data entry and tran-
scription, potentially leading to inaccuracies in the recorded data.
• Time-consuming: Manual data collection can be time-consuming, especially when
dealing with large sample sizes or complex questionnaires. It requires adequate
resources and manpower to efficiently collect, record, and manage the data.
• Data security: Manual data collection may raise concerns about data security and
privacy, as physical documents can be lost, damaged, or accessed by unauthorized
individuals.
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 12 of 33

• Limited data analysis capabilities: Manual data collection often requires additional
effort for data entry and cleaning before analysis, which can prolong the research
process and delay the dissemination of findings.

Mitigating challenges

• To address the limitations of manual data collection, researchers can implement

strategies to minimize human errors, such as double-checking data entries and con-
ducting data quality checks. Additionally, ensuring the security and confidentiality
of collected data through proper storage and restricted access is essential. Exploring
data digitization options at a later stage can facilitate data analysis and interpretation.

While manual data collection for a survey conducted among mine residents and work-
ers may have certain limitations, it remains a viable and commonly used method in
research studies. Researchers must carefully consider the advantages, challenges, and
limitations associated with manual data collection and implement strategies to mitigate
potential issues. By acknowledging these considerations, researchers can effectively uti-
lize the collected data to generate meaningful insights and contribute to the field of mine
reclamation.
For the current study, a 33-point questionnaire was prepared for the survey. As per
SEM sample size formula and 33 Likert scale questions, sample size should be 330,
but the formula yields 382. Hence, 428 participants have been surveyed manually after
removal of any incomplete questionnaires and double checking of data.

Case study area description

Saoner is a town located in the Nagpur district of Maharashtra, India. Situated in the
central part of the country, Saoner lies approximately 33 km south of Nagpur, the largest
city in the region. The town is characterized by its serene rural surroundings, with vast
stretches of agricultural land and the Nag River flowing nearby (refer to Fig. 2).
As for its population, Saoner is estimated to have around 63,462 residents (refer to
Fig. 3 and Table 1). The town has experienced gradual population growth over the years,
with a mix of diverse communities residing within its boundaries. The predominant lan-
guage spoken in Saoner is Marathi, which serves as the official language of Maharash-
tra. Saoner’s geography is marked by its average elevation of around 272 m (892 feet)
above sea level. It is nestled amidst the fertile plains of the region, which contribute to
the town’s strong agricultural base. Farmers cultivate a variety of crops such as cotton,
soybeans, wheat, and vegetables, contributing to the local economy (Fig. 4).
The city has 70% population employed, 25% unemployed, and 5% population are chil-
dren. Among the 70% employed population, 60% are mine workers, and 40% are other
workers.
In terms of connectivity, Saoner is well-connected to neighboring areas. The town
has a railway station on the Nagpur-Mumbai main line, enabling convenient travel
to and from major cities. Additionally, the Nagpur airport, located in close proxim-
ity, provides air connectivity to domestic and international destinations. Saoner
also caters to the educational and healthcare needs of its residents. The town boasts
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 13 of 33

Fig. 2 Nagpur district map (source: https://​www.​gem.​wiki/​Saoner_​coal_​mine)

Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 14 of 33

Fig. 3 Saoner population 1975–2015

Table 1 Saoner population 1975–2015

Data 1975 1990 2000 2015

Population 18,172 38,886 52,099 63,462

Population density 1886/km2 4037/km2 5409/km2 6589/km2

Fig. 4 Saoner eco-park

several schools and educational institutions that impart knowledge and facilitate the
growth of its young population. Healthcare facilities, including hospitals and clinics,
are available to provide medical services and ensure the well-being of the community.
These demographic and geographic details provide a glimpse into the characteris-
tics of Saoner, showcasing its rural charm, agricultural significance, and connectivity
to the wider region.
Saoner in Maharashtra, India, is known for the Saoner coal mines. The Saoner coal
mine is part of the Western Coalfields Limited (WCL), a subsidiary of Coal India Lim-
ited (CIL). It is situated in the Nagpur Coalfield region, which is one of the major coal-
producing areas in the country. The Saoner coal mine contributes to the production
of coal, which is an important natural resource used for various purposes, including
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 15 of 33

electricity generation, industrial processes, and domestic fuel. The mine plays a sig-
nificant role in meeting the energy demands of the region and supporting economic
activities associated with coal mining. The mining operations in Saoner involve the
extraction of coal from underground mines. These mines employ various techniques
and equipment to extract the coal, ensuring safety standards and environmental regu-
lations are followed. The extracted coal is transported for processing and distribution
to meet the requirements of different industries and consumers. It is important to
note that specific details regarding the Saoner coal mine, such as production capacity,
mining methods employed, or environmental management practices, may be subject
to change and may require more up-to-date information from the authorities respon-
sible for overseeing mining operations in the area.
The Saoner coal mine, located in Maharashtra, India, is an important site for mine
reclamation efforts. The mine has been the focus of initiatives aimed at restoring the
land and mitigating the environmental impacts caused by coal mining activities. The
reclamation efforts at the Saoner mine include various measures to restore the land’s
physical characteristics and stability. This involves reshaping the land, regrading slopes,
and implementing erosion control measures to prevent soil degradation and landslides.
These actions are crucial for creating a safe and stable environment that can support
future land use and minimize the risks associated with mining operations.
Additionally, reclamation efforts at the Saoner mine aim to rehabilitate the vegeta-
tion in the area. Native plant species are being reintroduced to restore biodiversity and
promote the development of a self-sustaining ecosystem. This helps in preventing soil
erosion, improving air quality, and providing habitat for wildlife. The reestablishment of
vegetation also enhances the aesthetic value of the reclaimed land. Water management
is another critical aspect of mine reclamation at the Saoner mine. Measures are being
taken to address water pollution and ensure the restoration of water bodies affected by
mining activities. This includes implementing water treatment systems, constructing
sedimentation ponds, and managing water runoff to preserve water quality and sup-
port the health of aquatic ecosystems. Community engagement is an integral part of the
Saoner mine reclamation efforts. Local communities and stakeholders are involved in
the decision-making process, providing valuable insights into the social and economic
aspects of the land. Their involvement ensures that the reclamation plans align with
their needs and aspirations, fostering sustainable development and benefiting the local
community [133].
The reclamation of the Saoner mine showcases the commitment of the government,
mining companies, and local stakeholders to mitigate the environmental impacts of
mining activities and restore the land to a state that is safe, ecologically balanced, and
suitable for future use. Through these efforts, the Saoner mine is being transformed into
a reclaimed area that contributes to the sustainable development and preservation of the
region’s natural resources.

Saoner survey
Collecting data from 428 participants within a 5-km radius of the Saoner mines provided
valuable insights into stakeholder perceptions and attitudes towards mine reclamation
practices in that specific area. This manual survey involved designing a questionnaire
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 16 of 33

or interview guide to gather information from participants. The survey covered vari-
ous aspects related to mine reclamation, such as environmental impacts, community
engagement, economic benefits, transparency, cultural heritage, and overall satisfaction
with the reclamation efforts. Questions were structured to assess participants’ knowl-
edge, beliefs, concerns, and opinions regarding these aspects. To ensure the survey’s
reliability and validity, it was important to employ appropriate sampling techniques to
ensure a representative sample from the target population. Additionally, ensuring the
confidentiality and anonymity of participants’ responses promoted honest and unbiased
feedback.
Once the survey data was collected, it was analyzed using statistical methods (SEM
in this particular case) to identify patterns, trends, and correlations within the data set.
This analysis provided insights into the overall perception of mine reclamation practices
in the area and helped identify key factors that influence stakeholders’ opinions.
Among the surveyed participants, a random mix of mine area residents and other
neighboring stakeholders were taken (refer to Fig. 5 for the participant mix as per resi-
dency and nativity).

Survey analysis
Analyzing survey data involves several steps to derive meaningful insights and draw con-
clusions (refer to Table 2).
It is important to select appropriate statistical methods and consult with experts or
resources familiar with survey data analysis to ensure accurate interpretation of the find-
ings. For this particular study, data cleaning was conducting where nonresponses were
removed from the dataset to be analyzed. Then a descriptive analysis was conducted
where the questions as ranked by the participants were checked for measure of central
tendency of the indicated rankings to get an overview of participants’ characteristics and
initial insights into their perceptions (refer to Table 5 in Appendix for criteria label and
Table 3 for criteria average).
Since the survey included multiple variables, inferential analysis was conducted to
examine relationships and associations between variables. Statistical techniques such as

Fig. 5 Saoner survey participant mix as per residency and nativity

Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 17 of 33

Table 2 Steps of survey data analysis

Data cleaning Before starting the analysis, it is important to clean and prepare the survey data.
This involves checking for missing or incomplete responses, ensuring data accu-
racy, and organizing the data in a structured format for analysis
Descriptive analysis Conduct descriptive analysis to summarize and describe the survey data. This
includes calculating frequencies, percentages, and measures of central tendency
(e.g., mean, median) for each survey question. Descriptive analysis helps provide
an overview of participants’ characteristics and initial insights into their percep-
tions
Data visualization Use charts, graphs, and other visualizations to present survey findings effectively.
Bar charts, pie charts, and histograms can be used to visually represent the distri-
bution of responses. This visual representation helps to highlight patterns, trends,
and differences in perceptions across different survey questions or participant
groups
Inferential analysis If the survey includes multiple variables, inferential analysis can be conducted to
examine relationships and associations between variables. Statistical techniques
such as chi-square tests, t-tests, correlation analysis, or regression analysis can be
applied to identify significant relationships or differences between variables
Segmentation analysis If relevant to the research objectives, segment the survey data based on partici-
pant characteristics or responses. This allows for a more detailed analysis of differ-
ent subgroups or clusters within the sample, which can provide deeper insights
into variations in perceptions
Qualitative analysis If the survey includes open-ended questions or qualitative data, qualitative
analysis techniques such as thematic analysis or content analysis can be used to
identify recurring themes, patterns, or key topics from participants’ responses.
This qualitative analysis complements the quantitative analysis and provides
richer insights into participants’ perceptions
Interpretation and conclusion After analyzing the survey data, interpret the findings in the context of the
research objectives and draw conclusions. Identify key insights, patterns, and
trends that emerge from the analysis. Discuss the implications of the findings and
how they align with existing literature or theoretical frameworks
Reporting Summarize the survey analysis results in a clear and concise manner. Present the
findings in a report or presentation format, including tables, charts, and interpre-
tations. It is essential to accurately report the analysis methods used, limitations,
and recommendations for future research or actions based on the findings

Table 3 Survey criteria ranking average as per stakeholder and expert rankings on Likert scale of
1–5
Criteria A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
AVG 3.308411215 3.502336449 3.663551402 2.964953271 3.142523364 3.08411215 3.341121495 3.044392523
Criteria A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16
AVG 3.046728972 3.563084112 3.553738318 3.780373832 3.390186916 3.35046729 3.567757009 3.728971963
Criteria A17 A18 A19 A20 A21 A22 A23 A24
AVG 3.726635514 3.801401869 3.478971963 3.147196262 3.614485981 3.654205607 3.448598131 3.455607477
Criteria A25 A26 A27 A28 A29 A30 A31 A32
AVG 3.58411215 3.193925234 3.38317757 3.981308411 3.161214953 3.186915888 3.436915888 2.918224299
Criteria A33 A34 A35 A36 A37 A38 A39 A40
AVG 3.296728972 3.644859813 3.369158879 3.028037383 3.462616822 3.406542056 3.574766355 3.628504673
Criteria A41 A42 A43
AVG 3.549065421 3.182242991 3.408878505

ANOVA, correlation analysis, and covariance analysis were applied to identify signifi-
cant relationships or differences between variables.
ANOVA is a statistical technique used to compare means between three or more cri-
teria, typically with a categorical independent variable and a continuous dependent var-
iable. It determines significant differences in means among criteria by calculating the
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 18 of 33

F-value and associated p-value. If the p-value is below the chosen significance level, it
indicates a significant difference in at least one criterion mean. ANOVA is a valuable
tool for understanding criteria differences and is often followed by post hoc tests to
identify specific criteria differences.
The single-factor ANOVA analysis revealed a p-value of 5.9E-149 and F crit of
1.384589 (refer to Table 4).
Correlation analysis is a statistical method used to measure the relationship between
two or more variables, assessing their degree and direction of association. It uses correla-
tion coefficients like Pearson’s or Spearman’s rank to quantify the strength and direction
of the relationship. Correlation analysis is useful in fields like psychology, economics,
and social sciences to understand interdependence and patterns between variables.
However, it is important to note that correlation does not imply causation, and other
factors may also contribute to the observed relationship. A correlation analysis was car-
ried out for the 428 participant responses to understand the level of relation between
each criteria.
Covariance analysis, also known as ANCOVA, is a statistical technique that combines
elements of ANOVA and regression analysis to examine criteria differences while con-
trolling for the effects of continuous covariates. It involves regressing the dependent
variable on both the categorical independent variable and the continuous covariate(s).
The goal is to determine significant criteria differences in the dependent variable while
accounting for the influence of the covariate(s). This helps reduce confounding effects
and increase the precision of criteria comparisons. Key statistics like F-values, p-values,
and adjusted means provide insights into the significance of criteria differences after
accounting for the covariate(s).
Covariance analysis is commonly used in research fields where there is a need to
examine criteria differences while controlling for relevant covariates. It is especially use-
ful when there are potential confounding factors that may influence the relationship
between the independent variable and the dependent variable. A covariance analysis
was carried out for the 428 participant responses to understand the direction of relation
between each criteria.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique used to analyze com-
plex relationships between observed and latent variables. It combines elements of factor
analysis, path analysis, and regression analysis to provide a comprehensive understand-
ing of the relationships among variables within a theoretical framework. Researchers
specify a hypothesized model that represents the relationships between variables, which
can include both observed variables and unobserved constructs inferred from multiple
indicators. Path diagrams visually represent the directional links between variables. SEM

Table 4 ANOVA analysis of Saoner for p-value and F crit

ANOVA

Source of variation SS df MS F p-value F crit

Between criteria 1111.033 42 26.45317 20.43315 5.9E-149 1.384589
Within criteria 23,770.52 18,361 1.29462
Total 24,881.55 18,403
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 19 of 33

estimates the relationships between variables using maximum likelihood estimation or

other suitable methods, providing estimates of the strength, direction, and significance
of these relationships. It also assesses model fit through various fit indices, such as chi-
square, comparative fit index (CFI), root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA),
and standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR). SEM has wide-ranging applica-
tions in social sciences, psychology, and economics, enabling researchers to test com-
plex theories, examine causal relationships, and explore mediating or moderating effects
among variables. It provides a powerful tool for investigating complex models and con-
tributes to theory development and hypothesis testing in various disciplines. For this
particular study, after constructing the conceptual SEM in SmartPls4, the survey data
was fed into the model to understand the variable relationship strength, significance, and
skewness (refer to Fig. 6).
In conclusion, the survey conducted with 428 stakeholders to analyze their satisfaction
and other related criteria regarding Saoner mine reclamation provides valuable insights
into the perceptions and opinions of the key individuals and groups involved in the rec-
lamation process. The findings of the survey indicate that overall stakeholder satisfaction
with the Saoner mine reclamation efforts is varied. While some stakeholders expressed
satisfaction with the progress and outcomes of the reclamation activities, others raised
concerns and expressed dissatisfaction with certain aspects of the process. Overall, the
conceptual SEM proposed showcases the level of current relationship significance and
how the stakeholders perceive the reclamation opportunity in relation to other factors.
The survey revealed several key factors that influence stakeholder satisfaction. Effec-
tive communication and engagement emerged as a crucial element, with stakeholders
expressing a desire for more transparent and timely information about the reclamation
progress, objectives, and potential environmental and social impacts. Regular updates
and opportunities for meaningful participation were also highlighted as important
factors for stakeholder satisfaction. Furthermore, the survey shed light on the impor-
tance of environmental and social outcomes in determining stakeholder satisfaction.
Stakeholders emphasized the need for effective restoration of ecosystems, including
biodiversity conservation, soil quality improvement, and water resource management.

Fig. 6 Conceptual SEM model for Saoner survey analysis

Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 20 of 33

Additionally, the impact on local communities, such as job creation, livelihood oppor-
tunities, and social infrastructure development, played a significant role in determin-
ing stakeholder satisfaction. The survey also highlighted areas where improvements are
needed to enhance stakeholder satisfaction. These include addressing concerns related
to the effectiveness of reclamation measures, ensuring compliance with environmental
regulations, and providing clear guidelines and accountability mechanisms for mining
companies involved in reclamation activities. Stakeholders also expressed the need for
long-term monitoring and maintenance of reclaimed sites to ensure the sustainability of
the reclamation efforts.
Overall, the survey findings emphasize the importance of actively involving stakehold-
ers in the decision-making process, addressing their concerns and expectations, and
ensuring transparency and accountability throughout the reclamation process. By incor-
porating stakeholder feedback, implementing sustainable practices, and demonstrating
a commitment to environmental and social well-being, the Saoner mine reclamation
efforts can work towards achieving higher stakeholder satisfaction and greater overall
success in restoring the site’s ecological and socio-economic value.

Results
The Saoner mine reclamation survey data from 428 stakeholders revealed mixed
responses, with some expressing satisfaction and others expressing concerns. Effective
communication and engagement were identified as critical factors influencing satisfac-
tion, emphasizing the importance of transparent information sharing and opportunities
for stakeholder participation. Environmental and social outcomes significantly impacted
satisfaction, emphasizing ecosystem restoration and community benefits. Improvements
include addressing concerns about reclamation effectiveness, ensuring regulatory com-
pliance, and establishing long-term monitoring mechanisms. The findings emphasize
the importance of stakeholder involvement, sustainable practices, and accountability in
enhancing satisfaction and achieving success in mine reclamation efforts. A single-factor
ANOVA analysis showed a significant correlation between selected criteria, indicating
a relationship between stakeholder satisfaction and various aspects of the reclamation
process. The survey findings underscore the complexity of stakeholder satisfaction in
mine reclamation projects and the need for comprehensive analysis incorporating mul-
tiple criteria.
Constructing a conceptual SEM allowed for a deeper exploration of complex rela-
tionships between observed and latent variables. SEM provided a comprehensive
understanding, assessing relationships’ strength, direction, and significance, aiding in
evaluating the fit of the theoretical model to observed data. The survey uncovered piv-
otal factors influencing stakeholder satisfaction:

1. Effective communication and engagement

Effective communication and engagement are crucial for stakeholder satisfaction in

reclamation efforts. Transparent and timely information about progress, objectives,
and environmental and social impacts is essential. Stakeholders desire open channels
for information and meaningful participation in decision-making processes. Inclusivity
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 21 of 33

fosters ownership and integration of concerns into strategies. A culture of transparency

and engagement can build trust and credibility, leading to greater satisfaction and sup-
port for reclamation efforts [14, 132].

2. Environmental and social outcomes

The study emphasizes the importance of environmental and social outcomes in deter-
mining stakeholder satisfaction. Environmental aspects include ecosystem restoration,
biodiversity conservation, soil quality improvement, and sustainable water resource
management. Social impacts include job creation, livelihood support, and social infra-
structure development. Stakeholders evaluate reclamation efforts based on their positive
impact on local communities. Addressing these concerns directly contributes to stake-
holder satisfaction, ensuring reclamation aligns with community well-being. Therefore,
comprehensive efforts are crucial for reclaiming land and rejuvenating ecological bal-
ance [29, 69, 73].

3. Concerns and improvements

Stakeholders expressed concerns about the effectiveness of reclamation measures,

highlighting the need for clear guidelines and accountability mechanisms to ensure min-
ing companies adhere to environmental regulations and industry standards. Long-term
monitoring and maintenance of reclaimed sites are also crucial. Addressing these con-
cerns directly through robust monitoring systems and strict adherence to regulations
would alleviate doubts and boost stakeholders’ confidence in the reclamation process
[62, 96].
The main findings of the Saoner mine reclamation study emphasize the need of stake-
holder participation, environmental stewardship, and proactive actions to resolve con-
cerns. The reclamation operations can not only satisfy legislative requirements but also
acquire the support and satisfaction of the communities affected by actively involving
stakeholders, establishing transparent communication, and maintaining high environ-
mental and social standards. The study offers practical findings that will guide future
efforts to have a positive and long-term influence on both the environment and the lives
of the local people.

Discussion
The Saoner mines in Maharashtra, India, have a long history of mining activities that
have caused significant environmental and socio-economic damage. The extraction of
minerals like coal and limestone has led to extensive land disturbances and ecological
degradation. To restore the site’s ecological balance and socio-economic well-being,
reclamation efforts have been undertaken. The primary objectives of the reclamation
process are to promote biodiversity conservation [149], provide social and economic
benefits to local communities, and restore the mined areas to a state of environmental
sustainability.
Strategies employed in the reclamation process include site characterization, stake-
holder engagement, vegetation establishment, soil reclamation techniques, and water
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 22 of 33

management measures. The timeline of activities in the reclamation process typically

follows a structured approach, starting with pre-reclamation assessments, followed by
planning and permitting stages, land grading, infrastructure removal, soil stabilization,
vegetation establishment, and water management [26].
However, the reclamation process in Saoner mines faces several challenges. Secur-
ing sufficient financial resources; addressing stakeholder perceptions; fostering effec-
tive engagement among local communities, environmental organizations, and mining
companies; and ensuring regulatory compliance with environmental regulations are
all significant challenges. Addressing these challenges is crucial for the success of the
reclamation efforts in Saoner mines. By overcoming financial constraints, promoting
stakeholder collaboration, leveraging technical expertise, and ensuring regulatory com-
pliance, sustainable and effective mine reclamation can be achieved, restoring the site’s
ecological integrity and providing long-term benefits to local communities [145].

1. Importance of stakeholder engagement

The study underscores the pivotal role of stakeholder engagement in reclamation pro-
jects. Transparent communication and active involvement empower stakeholders, ena-
bling them to become advocates for the reclamation efforts. By integrating their insights
and addressing concerns promptly, mining companies can foster a sense of shared
responsibility. This engagement not only ensures the success of the reclamation process
but also establishes a foundation for sustainable relationships between mining opera-
tions and the community [95, 149].

2. Environmental and social sustainability

The study’s focus on environmental and social outcomes highlights a shifting para-
digm in reclamation efforts. It is no longer sufficient to merely reclaim land; the quality
of the reclamation, particularly its ecological impact and socio-economic contributions,
is under scrutiny. Environmental restoration, encompassing biodiversity conservation,
soil quality improvement, and water resource management, must align with community
needs and expectations. Moreover, the creation of job opportunities, supporting local
livelihoods, and enhancing social infrastructure are integral components of success-
ful reclamation initiatives. Companies must recognize that their responsibility extends
beyond ecological remediation; it encompasses enriching the lives of the communities in
which they operate [58, 71].

3. Addressing concerns and ensuring accountability

The study reveals specific concerns among stakeholders regarding the effectiveness
of reclamation measures. Addressing these concerns requires a proactive approach.
Implementing rigorous monitoring systems, adhering to environmental regulations,
and demonstrating accountability are essential. Establishing clear guidelines and robust
accountability mechanisms can instill confidence among stakeholders. Long-term moni-
toring and maintenance, often underestimated, are critical components that ensure the
sustained success of reclamation projects. Regular assessments and adjustments based
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 23 of 33

on monitoring data are essential for adaptive management and continuous improvement
[26, 125].

4. Integrating findings into policy and practice

The insights from this study offer valuable input for policymakers, mining companies,
and environmental agencies involved in reclamation projects. Policymakers can utilize
these findings to create frameworks that emphasize stakeholder engagement, stringent
environmental standards, and long-term sustainability. Mining companies can incor-
porate these insights into their corporate social responsibility initiatives, ensuring that
their reclamation efforts are not only compliant but also beneficial to the communi-
ties they serve. Environmental agencies can use these findings to shape regulations that
encourage comprehensive and impactful reclamation strategies [68, 72, 145].
Finally, the Saoner mine rehabilitation study offers a road plan for effective and long-
term mine rehabilitation. Reclamation operations may go beyond basic compliance
to significant, community-driven programs by prioritizing stakeholder participation,
emphasizing environmental and social results, resolving concerns, and guaranteeing
accountability. The study’s findings highlight the need of a holistic strategy in which eco-
logical and socioeconomic variables are inextricably connected, ensuring that reclama-
tion efforts benefit both the environment and the populations they serve. As the mining
sector progresses, these insights will serve as a guidepost, directing efforts towards a
future in which ethical mining and reclamation practises are associated with environ-
mental preservation and community well-being.

Conclusions
The environmental conditions in Saoner mines underwent significant changes both
pre- and post-reclamation efforts. Prior to reclamation, the mining activities had caused
severe environmental degradation and disturbances to the natural ecosystem. Pre-recla-
mation, the mined areas suffered from land degradation, soil erosion, and loss of vegeta-
tion cover. The removal of topsoil during mining operations led to barren land surfaces
and exposed subsoils, rendering them susceptible to erosion and compromising soil
quality. The disruption of natural drainage patterns and the creation of open pits and
mine waste dumps further disrupted the hydrological system, potentially causing water
pollution and affecting local water resources. The loss of vegetation cover also resulted
in a decline in biodiversity, impacting the ecological balance of the area. Post-reclama-
tion, the environmental conditions in Saoner mines showed significant improvements.
The reclamation efforts aimed to restore the ecological integrity of the mined areas and
promote sustainable land use practices. Key changes observed include the following:

1. Vegetation restoration: Through reseeding, planting native species, and implement-

ing soil stabilization techniques, vegetation cover was restored in the reclaimed
areas. This contributed to enhanced biodiversity, improved soil quality, and reduced
soil erosion.
2. Soil stabilization: Measures such as contouring, regrading, and the addition of
organic matter helped stabilize the soils, preventing erosion and facilitating vegeta-
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 24 of 33

tion growth. This led to improved soil structure, increased water-holding capacity,
and reduced nutrient loss.
3. Water management: Reclamation activities incorporated drainage systems, sedi-
ment control measures, and water treatment facilities to manage water resources and
minimize potential pollution. Restoration of natural watercourses and the creation of
retention ponds helped restore the hydrological balance.
4. Habitat creation: Reclamation efforts aimed to recreate suitable habitats for wildlife
and promote biodiversity conservation. The restoration of native vegetation and the
establishment of diverse ecosystems provided nesting sites, food sources, and shelter
for various species.
5. Landform reconstruction: The reshaping of the landscape to approximate pre-mining
topography and the rehabilitation of infrastructure, such as roads and waste disposal
areas, contributed to the aesthetic and functional improvements of the reclaimed
areas.

Overall, the post-reclamation environmental conditions in Saoner mines showed

significant positive changes. The restoration of vegetation, stabilization of soils,
improved water management, and habitat creation contributed to the recovery of the
ecosystem and the overall ecological balance. However, long-term monitoring and
maintenance efforts will be necessary to ensure the sustained success of the reclama-
tion efforts and the preservation of the restored environmental conditions.
The reclamation measures implemented at Saoner mine have shown promising
effectiveness in restoring the ecological balance and providing socio-economic ben-
efits. Through the establishment of native vegetation, soil stabilization techniques,
and water management strategies, significant progress has been made in ecological
restoration. The reclaimed areas have witnessed increased vegetation cover, improved
soil quality, and enhanced water resources. Stakeholder engagement efforts have con-
tributed to socio-economic benefits, including job creation and community infra-
structure development. However, long-term monitoring and adaptive management
are necessary to ensure the sustained effectiveness and ecological sustainability of the
reclamation measures at Saoner mine.
Assessing the degree of ecological restoration, land stability, and habitat rehabilita-
tion achieved at Saoner mines requires careful evaluation based on monitoring data
and indicators. Positive progress has been observed in ecological restoration, with
the establishment of native vegetation and an increase in vegetation cover. Measures
aimed at land stability, such as contouring and soil stabilization techniques, have con-
tributed to mitigating erosion and enhancing land stability. In terms of habitat reha-
bilitation, efforts to create suitable habitats for flora and fauna have shown promising
results, as indicated by the return of wildlife populations and the presence of indica-
tor species. Regular monitoring and adaptive management will be crucial to assess
the overall effectiveness and ensure the long-term sustainability of the restoration
efforts at Saoner mines.
While the reclamation efforts at Saoner mines have shown progress, there are still
gaps and areas for improvement that can enhance the effectiveness and sustainability
of the reclamation process. Some key areas for improvement include the following:
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 25 of 33

1. Long-term monitoring and maintenance: Establishing a robust and long-term moni-

toring program is crucial to assess the ongoing effectiveness of reclamation meas-
ures and identify any emerging issues. Regular monitoring of ecological indicators,
soil erosion rates, water quality, and vegetation health will help detect potential chal-
lenges and allow for timely interventions.
2. Biodiversity enhancement: While efforts have been made to restore native vegeta-
tion, there may be room for further enhancing biodiversity by incorporating a wider
range of plant species and creating diverse habitats. This can include the identifica-
tion and incorporation of species that are important for supporting specific wildlife
populations and enhancing ecosystem resilience.
3. Community engagement and collaboration: Strengthening community engagement
and fostering collaboration among stakeholders are essential for successful recla-
mation. This includes involving local communities in decision-making processes,
addressing their concerns, and incorporating traditional ecological knowledge. Effec-
tive communication and partnerships with relevant stakeholders, such as environ-
mental organizations and government agencies, can contribute to better outcomes.
4. Adaptive management: Implementing adaptive management practices allows for
flexibility and the ability to adjust strategies based on evolving conditions and new
knowledge. Regular evaluations and the incorporation of lessons learned can help
refine reclamation plans and improve their effectiveness over time.
5. Financial aid institutional support: Adequate financial resources and institutional
support are crucial for implementing comprehensive reclamation measures. Ensur-
ing sufficient funding and support for monitoring, maintenance, and adaptive man-
agement activities is vital for long-term success.
6. Integration of sustainable land-use practices: Going beyond mere restoration, inte-
grating sustainable land use practices can further enhance the effectiveness of recla-
mation efforts. This can include exploring opportunities for sustainable agriculture,
renewable energy projects, or other economic activities that align with the restored
ecological conditions.

Addressing these gaps and focusing on continuous improvement will contribute to the
long-term success of the reclamation efforts at Saoner mines, leading to a more sustain-
able and resilient post-mining landscape.
The Saoner mine reclamation has restored habitats, improved soil and water qual-
ity, and promoted ecological connectivity. It has also generated job opportunities, sup-
ported economic development through alternative land uses, and improved community
infrastructure. The process involves stakeholder engagement, improved health and
well-being through green spaces and better environmental conditions, and contributed
to the preservation of cultural heritage. The reclamation process has resulted in posi-
tive changes in water quality, soil fertility, vegetation cover, and biodiversity. It has also
created employment opportunities in land rehabilitation, vegetation management, and
infrastructure development, contributing to local economic growth and income gener-
ation. The reclamation process has also led to changes in livelihood patterns for local
communities, with potential shifts from mining-related work to alternative sectors like
agriculture, renewable energy projects, or tourism. These socio-economic effects have
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 26 of 33

the potential to contribute to the well-being and economic development of the commu-
nities surrounding the mine site.

Future prospects and implications

The Saoner mine reclamation project presents promising opportunities for environmen-
tal restoration, sustainable development, and community revitalization. As mining activ-
ities end, the focus shifts to rehabilitation and reclamation, aiming to mitigate adverse
impacts and restore ecological balance. The process involves land reclamation, water
management, and ecosystem restoration and can be repurposed for agriculture, forestry,
or renewable energy generation. The reclamation also holds the potential to uplift the
local community. With proper planning, collaboration among stakeholders, and adher-
ence to sustainable practices, the Saoner mine reclamation can serve as a shining exam-
ple of environmental stewardship and holistic development. Collaborative efforts among
stakeholders bring together diverse perspectives, expertise, and resources, leading to
more effective and sustainable outcomes. This fosters trust, transparency, and account-
ability, minimizing conflicts and maximizing the chances of success. The engagement of
local communities empowers them to participate actively in decision-making, enhancing
social cohesion, and promoting sustainable development. Collaboration also facilitates
knowledge exchange and innovation, enabling the implementation of best practices,
cutting-edge technologies, and novel approaches in mine reclamation. This cross-pol-
lination of ideas and experiences can lead to more efficient and cost-effective solutions,
accelerating the pace of reclamation and delivering better environmental outcomes.
Furthermore, stakeholder collaboration in the Saoner mine reclamation can act as a
catalyst for broader societal change. As the project demonstrates the benefits of col-
laborative and sustainable practices, it can inspire other mining regions, industries, and
communities to adopt similar approaches. The knowledge and lessons learned from the
Saoner mine reclamation can be shared as a blueprint for future endeavors, contrib-
uting to a more responsible and environmentally conscious mining sector. In conclu-
sion, the future prospects and implications of stakeholder collaboration in the Saoner
mine reclamation are transformative. By engaging diverse stakeholders, harnessing their
expertise, and promoting inclusivity, the project can achieve comprehensive and sustain-
able outcomes. Moreover, this collaboration sets a precedent for future mining reclama-
tion efforts, fostering a culture of shared responsibility, innovation, and environmental
stewardship.

Appendix

Table 5 Delete
Criteria surveyed Category Indicated as

Dependence between mine surroundings and non-mine-related activi- Experience A1

ties
Satisfaction of experience with residence near mines Experience A2
Influence of reclamation on daily lives of residents Experience A3
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 27 of 33

Criteria surveyed Category Indicated as

Level of involvement in reclaimed mine activities Involvement A4
Support of residents for mine closure Satisfaction level A5
Connection of resident participation to mine activities Satisfaction level A6
Influence of reclamation over economic generation Involvement A7
Satisfaction with reclamation over economic generation Satisfaction level A8
Influence of mine development on resident satisfaction Satisfaction level A9
Dependence between reclamation strategies and mine type Satisfaction level A10
Reuse sufficiency Satisfaction level A11
Reuse requirement of closed mines Satisfaction level A12
Influence of environment surroundings over reclamation Satisfaction level A13
Influence of temperature over reclamation Satisfaction level A14
Influence of climate over reclamation Satisfaction level A15
Influence of water quality over reclamation Satisfaction level A16
Influence of water availability over reclamation Satisfaction level A17
Influence of air quality over reclamation Satisfaction level A18
Influence of soil quality over reclamation Satisfaction level A19
Influence of land fertility over reclamation Satisfaction level A20
Influence of land availability over reclamation Satisfaction level A21
Influence of rainfall quantity over reclamation Satisfaction level A22
Influence of rainfall quality over reclamation Satisfaction level A23
Influence of agricultural yield over reclamation Satisfaction level A24
Influence of agricultural quality over reclamation Satisfaction level A25
Influence of socio-economic change over reclamation Satisfaction level A26
Inducing of improvement upon reclamation Outcome A27
Inducing of stakeholder involvement upon reclamation Outcome A28
Inducing of non-mining activities upon reclamation Involvement A29
Influence of expenditure dependence over mining activities Satisfaction level A30
Impact of mine closure over residents’ lives Impact A31
Impact of mine reclamation over economic output Impact A32
Impact of mine reclamation over health Impact A33
Impact of mine reclamation over facility availability in residing areas Satisfaction level A34
Influence of reclamation on living experiences of residents Availability/requirement A35
Impact of mine reclamation over livelihood availability in residing areas Satisfaction level A36
Impact of mine reclamation over livelihood sustainability in residing Satisfaction level A37
areas
Dependence between reclamation benefits and residing population Satisfaction level A38
Requirement levels of reclamation Availability/requirement A39
Impact of mine reclamation over neighborhood Impact A40
Involvement between environment and reclamation strategy formula- Involvement A41
tion
Requirement level of economic activity provision for reclaimed sites Availability/requirement A42
Use levels of reclaimed sites Outcome A43

Abbreviations
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
WCL Western Coalfields Limited
CIL Coal India Limited
SEM Structural equation modeling
CFI Comparative fit index
RMSEA Root-mean-square error of approximation
SRMR Standardized root-mean-square residual

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Birla Institute of Technology Mesra for providing the support required for conducting the study.
Basu and Mishra Journal of Engineering and Applied Science (2024) 71:62 Page 28 of 33

Authors’ contributions
DB — original writing, conceptualization, and data collection. SM — supervision and revision.

Authors’ information
Debasmita Basu is an Architect and Planner, currently pursuing PhD in the Department of Architecture and Planning,
at Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India. Smriti Mishra is an Architect and Urban Planner and is currently
working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Architecture and Planning, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra,
Ranchi, India. She has done her research in the field of urban and regional planning and has numerous publications in
her records.

Funding
The authors received no funding for this research.

Availability of data and materials

The survey data will be made available upon request, and the rest of the data utilized has been cited in the text itself.

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Informed verbal consent was obtained from the participants (due to limited literacy rate) during the anonymous survey-
ing for data collection and utilization of the survey data for research and publication. The survey was conducted as per
the norms of the governing institute and company, Birla Institute of Technology Mesra and Central Coalfields Limited,
India, respectively.

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Received: 4 October 2023 Accepted: 15 February 2024

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