1.

Earth Movements

Let’s recall.

Observe the following pictures in figure 1.1 and discuss the questions in the class.

Photo 1 Photo 2

Photo 3 Photo 4
Fig. 1.1

1) What might be the reasons behind buildings Geographical explanation

collapsing in photo 1?
2) Which event is depicted in photo 2 ? Hills, mountains, plateaus, valleys, etc. are
What impact does it bring about in the the landforms we see on the earth’s surface. They
surroundings? have been developed and shaped by the internal
and external forces. The internal processes are
3) In photo 3, what could be the reason behind classified into slow movements and sudden
the bend in the rock strata? movements.
4) What could be the reason behind the The earth’s surface changes slowly but
difference in altitudes of the land and the continuously. These changes occur due to
steepness of the slope in photo 4? forces such as tension and compression. The
5) Classify the events in the photos into sudden internal processes cannot be observed. However,
their effects may be seen on the surface.
and slow movements.
Formation of mountains and distribution of
6) Example of which of these movements is continents are related to slow movements. There
not likely to be found in the mainland of the are also sudden processes that operate within the
Indian sub-continent? crustal part. Their effects can be noticed on the

1
surface within a few seconds or hours. Earthquake interrelated. The Earth’s movements which are
and volcanoes are sudden movements. the result of internal forces are known as tectonic
movements.
Evidences of Earth Movements :
Based on the direction of these movements,
The landforms are never permanent in
they are classified as vertical and horizontal
nature. They tend to change. There are evidences
movements.
to indicate that the earth movements have taken
place in the past and have affected the surface of 1) Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements : Due
the Earth. Some of them are: to the forces in the interior of the earth and the
a) After the Great Tsunami of 2004, the travel of energy, these movements occur.
coast around Sumatra island rose by few Slow movements keep on taking place either
centimetres.
towards the centre of the earth or away from it
b) The formation of three ranges in the
towards the crust. Due to such movements, an
Himalayas : the Siwaliks, the Middle
extensive portion of the crust is either raised up or
Himalayas and the Greater Himalayas.
it subsides. When a portion of the crust is raised
c) There is a report that says that due to volcanic
up above sea-level, it leads to the formation
eruption near Iceland an island appeared
above the sea surface in November 1963. of continents. Hence such movements are also
This event was witnessed by some sailors called continent-building movements. Such
who were passing by the area. movement can also cause formation of extensive
d) Some islands such as the Megapode Island plateaus. Though these movement are slow they
were reported to have been lost after the influence huge area. These movements are not
tsunami. related to development of tensions or pressure in
e) To the south east coast of Mumbai, near the earth crust.
Mazgaon Dockyard, there are evidences of
forest-covered land getting drowned. Even 2) Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements : These
today, trunks of those trees can be found at movements work in horizontal direction. As
some depth. per the direction, these movements produce
compression or tension in the rock strata. These
Do you know ? movements lead to either folds or cracks in the
surface of the earth. These movement gives
The Kachchh earthquake of June 16, 1819 rise to mountains. These movements are also
submerged the coastal areas. This inflicted slow movements. But their speed is more than
great damage to ships and country –made the continental-building movements. And their
boats of the fishermen. The fort of Sindree extent is also lesser. These movements produce
on the sea coast was completely submerged either folds or faults. Consequently, either fold
except a single turret which remained above mountains or block mountains are formed. They
the water level. The land measuring around are also called mountain-building processes.
1550 sq.km in area was raised upward These forces are further divided into two types :
because of this earthquake. This raised land
is known as “Allah’s Bund”. a) Tensional Forces : When the forces move
away from each other and cause stress in the
Slow Movements : rock strata. See fig 1.2. This process creates
It is important to understand that in ruptures, cracks, fractures and faults in the
reality, these processes are very complex and rock strata. This leads to crustal fracture

2
 and the formation of faults. Rift valleys or scale, folds are formed. Folding results into
block mountains are formed as a result of formation of fold mountains. For example,
these forces. Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, Andes, etc.
Compressional forces push two portions of
Tension crustal rocks together and tend to shorten and
thicken the crust. The affected rocks react to
compressional forces depending on the strength
of the rocks and the speed of the forces.
Folding occurs when compressional forces
Tension are applied to rocks that are ductile or flexible.
Rocks that lie deep within the crust and are
therefore under high pressure are generally
ductile and particularly susceptible to folding
without breaking. As a result rocks deep within
Fig. 1.2 : Tensional Forces the crust typically fold rather than break. Folding
is also likely to occur where compressional
b) Compressional Forces : When the forces
forces are applied slowly.
operate towards each other, they cause
compression and hence are called as
converging or compressional forces. See fig. Think about it.
1.3. These movements cause various types
of folding. These forces cause pressure on How will compressional forces affect
the layer of rocks. These lead to folding and brittle rocks?
faulting of the surface.
Parts of fold : Folds develop in earth's crust.
Both sides of a fold are called limbs. The axial
Compression
plane divides a fold into two parts. The axis may
be vertical, inclined or horizontal. A fold has
two limbs.
As and when limbs slope downward with
Compression central portion getting raised up, it is called
anticline. As against this, if limbs slope towards
each other and the central part located at lower
elevation, it is called synclines. See fig. 1.4.
limb

Fig. 1.3 : Compressional forces Anticline Anticline

Folding :
The nature of folding that occurs on the
earth's surface depends on many factors. These Axis of the fold Syncline Horizontal plane

include the nature of rocks, intensity and duration Axial plane

of force. Fig. 1.4 : Parts of fold
Soft and elastic rocks are affected Fold Mountains : Folding leads to development
more by these forces. When energy waves of fold mountains. e.g. the Himalayas, the
move through the layers of rocks on a large Alps, etc.

3
 They are classified as follows depending on B) Asymmetrical :
their age. i.e.
i) The axial plane is inclined.
1) Old fold mountains (over 200 million years
ii) The limbs are inclined at different
of age, e.g. the Aravalis in India (Highest
angles.
peak-1722m AMSL), the Urals in Russia
and the Appalachians in USA. C) Overturned :
2) Young fold mountains (10 to 25 million years i) One limb lies above the other limb.
of age, e.g. the Rockies and the Himalayas). ii) Limbs slope unequally in the same
The highest peak Mt. Everest 8848m AMSL. direction.
D) Recumbent :
Think about it. i) Axial plane is almost horizontal.
ii) One limb lies over the other in
'A mountain never remains a mountain'. horizontal direction.
Can you relate this idiom with the mountain E) Isoclinal :
building process?
i) The limbs slope in the same direction
Types of Folds : with same amount.
ii) The axial plane may be vertical,
Try this. inclined or horizontal.
   iii) Slope of some portion of limbs is near
Observe the following diagrams in fig.
1.5. Try to understand the different types vertical.
of fold shown in the diagram and match it
with its characteristics. Write the name of Faulting :
the fold in the space given below. In the earth's crust, the forces operating in
opposite direction lead to tension. As a result,
rocks develop cracks or fissures. In the regions
where cracks developed rocks get displaced such
Prior to folding displacement can occur in upward, downward or
1 ...................... horizontal direction. Faulting can be classified
according to displacement in rocks. Rock layers
that are near the Earth's surface and not under
high confining pressures are too rigid to bend
2 ...................... into folds. If the tectonic force is large enough,
3 ...................... these rocks will break rather than bend. Such
breaks may also be called fractures, ruptures or
faults. Also the rock masses will move relative
to each other along the fracture i.e. the zone
4 ...................... 5 ...................... where they break.
One part of the rock strata moves along the
Fig. 1.5 : Types of folds
plane of fracture upwards or downward relative
A) Symmetrical : to the other parts. The plane of fracture is called
i) The axial plane is vertical. fault. Faulting results in the formation of block
ii) Limbs are inclined at same angle. mountains and rift valleys.

4
Types of faults : D) Thrust fault : When the portion of the land
Try this. on one side of the fault plane gets detached
and moves over land on the other side.
Observe the diagrams in fig. 1.6 and read The angle of fault plane is generally low-
the explanation regarding the characteristics less than 45°.
of various faults given below. Identify the
faults and match each of them with their Block Mountain : Earth movements generate
characteristics. tensional forces that tend to pull the crust apart
A and faults are developed. If the block enclosed by
the faults rises above or the land on either side
subsides, the upstanding portion becomes the
horst or block mountain. The faulted edges are
very steep and the top portion is almost leveled.
Generally the block mountain does not have a
B peak but a flat top. See fig 1.7. For example, the
Vosges in France, the Black Forest Mountain in
Germany, the Satpuras in Maharashtra and the
Meghalaya Plateau in India are examples of
block mountains.
C

D
Fig. 1.7 : Block mountain
Rift Valley : The tension may also cause
subsidence in the central portion of the crust
between two adjacent faults, forming graben or
Fig. 1.6 : Types of faults rift valleys. These have steep walls. Their walls
A) Normal fault : It results when a portion are formed by fault planes. In most of the cases
of land slides down along the fault plane these walls of the rift valley face the sky. The
and when the exposed portion of the plane African Rift Valley is an example of this type of
faces the sky. landform. In India, valleys of the Narmada and
the Tapi are well known examples of rift valley.
B) Reverse fault : It results when a portion
See fig. 1.8.
of the land is thrown upward relative to
other side of the land. In such situation,
the fault plane faces the ground.
C) Tear fault : At times, the rock strata on
either sides of the fault plane do not have
vertical displacement. Instead movement
occurs along the plane in horizontal
direction. Fig. 1.8 : Rift valley

5
 Earthquake :
Think about it. Earthquake refers to shaking of the ground.
Movements occurring in the crust of the earth
1) When can faults form in fold mountains? produce a lot of stress in the rock strata. When
2) Can folds form in block mountains? Find this stress accumulates beyond a limit, it tends
the reasons and discuss. to get released in the crust. Release of stress
Sudden Movements : causes release of energy. Here, release of energy
produces energy waves. This makes the earth's
Beside the folding and faulting movements
crust to shake. This is called an earthquake.
responsible for the formation of fold mountains
and block mountain respectively, there are The point where the accumulated stress gets
other movements in the earth's crust. Due to released within the earth crust is called seismic
some internal forces at times, movements occur focus. A point directly above it, on the surface,
suddenly. Earthquake and volcanic eruptions are is called an epicentre. The intensity of the shock
the types of these movements which are episodic is maximum at the epicentre and decreases with
in nature. increasing distance from the epicentre in all
directions. The earthquake waves are recorded
Let’s recall. by an instrument called seismograph.

    On 19th August, 2018, around 300

people died in Indonesia. Many buildings Think about it.
collapsed. Many roads broke apart. A
tsunami was generated. Look at fig. 1.10. During an
a) What was the cause behind these events? earthquake, do you think the seismic waves
b) What actually happened during this reach entire portion of the earth? Is there
natural event? any region on the Earth's surface where a
c) Name the energy waves involved in this given earthquake will not be reported?
natural event. Epicenter
d) Observe the diagram in figure 1.9 and av
es
w
label the boxes. S-
d
na
es
av
P-w

Liquid Solid
outer inner core
A• core
105° 105°
P-wave P-wave
shadow zone shadow zone
No -wav

ve t
wa ec
P

s
P- dir

•B
dir es
ect

No

Mantle

140° 140°
C• Crust
No direct
S-waves P-wave
S-wave

Fig. 1.10 : Shadow zone of an earthquake

Fig. 1.9 : Earthquake

6
Shadow zone :
The waves which are caused by the Do you know ?
earthquake are called seismic waves. There are
three types of waves : P-waves, S-waves and Isoseismal line is an imaginary line,
longitudinal waves. P-waves pass through all drawn on the map, connecting the places of
mediums while S-waves pass only through solid uniform intensity of earthquake.
medium. Even though P-waves pass through all
mediums, they experience refraction as they pass
on one medium to another. Earthquake waves Always remember
get recorded in seismographs located at far off
locations. However, there exist some specific While the Mercalli scale describes
areas where the waves of that earthquake are not the intensity of an earthquake based on its
reported. Such a zone is called the ‘shadow zone’. observed effects, the Richter scale describes
The study of different events reveals that for each the earthquake's magnitude by measuring
earthquake, there exists an altogether different the seismic waves that are caused by the
shadow zone. Figure 1.10 shows the shadow earthquake. The two scales have different
zones of P and S-waves. Generally, seismographs applications and measurement techniques.
located at any distance within 105° from the The energy released in an earthquake of a
epicentre, record the arrival of both P-waves magnitude 5 is 32 times more than that of
and S-waves. However, the seismographs magnitude 4.
located beyond 140° from the epicentre; record
the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. Scale Mercalli Scale Richter Scale
Thus, a zone between 105° and 140° from the
epicentre is identified as the shadow zone for What The intensity The energy
does it of earthquake released during
both the types of waves. The entire zone beyond
measure? an earthquake
105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow
zone of S-waves is much larger than that of the Measuring Observation Seismograph
Tool
P-waves. The shadow zone of P-waves appears
as a band around the earth between 105° and Quanti- Quantified Logarithmic
140° away from the epicentre. The shadow zone fication from scale obtained
observation of by calculating
of S-waves is larger in extent. You can draw the
the effects on logarithm of the
shadow zone for any earthquake provided you
earth’s surface, amplitude of
know the location of the epicentre.
humans, waves.
objects and
Think about it. man-made
structures
Why has a shadow zone for L-waves not Unit I (not felt) From < 2.0 to
been shown in fig. 1.10? to XII (total 10.0+ (never
destruction) recorded). 3.0
earthquake
Can you tell ? releases 32
times more
In fig. 1.10 A, B, C are three points on the energy
earth's surface. Analyse their locations with than a 2.0
respect to epicentre and shadow zones. earthquake.

7
 Give it a try.
time lag, the earthquake is approximately
How to locate epicentre of a given 8 km away.)
earthquake? 2) Using the rule above, convert the time lag
into distance (seconds of time lag × 8) for
Take the given hypothetical data in the
each station.
table. The data shows the time of arrival
3) Convert this distance into centimetres as
of P-waves and S-waves at 3 seismograph
per the scale of the map.
stations. Assume the scale of the map as 1
4) On a map, locate the seismograph
cm : 18 km. See fig. 1.11.
stations.
Recording P-wave arrival S-wave
5) Draw circles, taking the seismograph
Station time ( IST) arrival time
stations as the centre, with the radius
Jalana 11: 06: 06 11: 06: 19
equal to the distance you have calculated
Washim 11: 06: 46 11: 07: 03 in the previous step.
Aurangabad 11: 07: 06 11: 07: 24 6) These arcs of circles will intersect one
Procedure : another at a point. This point is the
location of the epicentre.
1) Compute the time difference between the
In normal practice, an epicentre is
arrival of P-waves and S-waves for each
located using computer models. The
station; this is called time lag. (It shows
procedure outlined here is a much
the distance of the seismograph from the simplified version of what is normally
focus. Thumb rule: For every second of done, although the principle is the same.

WASHIM
Jafrabad
Khultabad Lonar
JALANA
AURANGABAD HINGOLI
Gangapur Jintur
Ambad
Nevasa Paithan Ghansawangi
Takli Ambad PARBHANI
Shevgaon
Gevrai Pathri
Mudgal
BEED N

0 80 160
KMS
Fig. 1.11

8
Causes of Earthquakes : Now you know that Volcanoes :
earthquakes are caused mainly due to the release Volcano is an opening in the earth's surface
of stress within the crust. Following are some of through which gases, molten lava and solid
the causes of an earthquake.
material are ejected from the upper mantle
1) Volcanicity : Some, but not all, earthquakes portion on to the surface of the earth.
are associated with volcanic eruptions. Such
On the basis of origin of eruption, volcanoes
earthquakes are generally shallow and their
effect is seen mostly in the areas close to can be classified into two types. i.e. 1) Eruption
eruption site. e.g. A volcanic earthquake in through cones, 2) Eruption through fissures. (fig
the Cascades near Mount St. Helens was of 1.12 and 1.13)
magnitude 5.5 in 1981.
2) Tectonic Movements : The earth’s crust
consists of several large and small unstable
tectonic plates. They float on denser
portion of the upper mantle zone. Due to
their movements, the earthquake generally
occurs along their margins (divergent and
convergent). Refer to the map in fig. 1.21.
The earthquakes which generally occur in
Indonesia, California (North America),
Chile (South America), Uttar Kashi and
Assam in India are examples of such Fig. 1.12 : Central or Conical Volcano
earthquakes.
3) Anthropogenic causes : In recent years,
earthquakes have occurred due to an atomic
explosion, large construction activity,
drilling, blasting, and large scale mining in
different parts of the world may also lead
to earthquakes. However, their effects are
highly localized.
Earthquake Zones in India :
On the basis of the intensity of damage risk,
India is classified into five risk zones. Use the
given weblink http://www.bmtpc.org/DataFiles/
CMS/file/map%20of%20india/eq-india.pdf and Fig. 1.13 : Fissure type volcano
complete the table accordingly. Volcanoes may also be classified on the
Seismic Zones in India basis of periodicity and continuance of the
eruption activity, like active volcanoes, dormant
Zone Degree of Risk States/UTs
volcanoes and extinct or dead volcanoes.
I Least
II Low
Find out !
III Moderate
IV High   Find out examples of active, dormant
V Very High and extinct volcanoes.

9
Volcanic Materials :
Geographical explanation
Read the following passage about the
Krakatoa volcanic eruption and answer the 1) Liquid material : It is the molten rock
following questions. material. When the molten rock material is
• Make a list of materials that came out below the earth surface it is called 'magma'.
during eruption. When it appears on the surface it is called
'lava'. On the basis of percentage of silica it
• Classify them into liquid, solid and gaseous
is classified into two types
forms.
a) Acidic Lava : It contains higher percentage
There is an island known as Krakatoa of silica. It has got high melting point. It is
between the islands of Java and Sumatra thick, fluid and moves slowly.
in Indonesia. There were frequent volcanic b) Basic Lava : It contains less percentage
eruptions here. From May 1883, massive of silica. It has low melting point. Its more
explosions began. The eruption that took place at fluid and can flow over longer distances.
about 10 in the morning on 28 August 1883 was
2) Solid material : It consists of dust particles
the largest ever recorded explosion. As a result
and rock fragments. When the material
of this explosion, the entire island disappeared.
is very fine it is called volcanic dust. The
During this eruption, rock particles and dust
small sized solid particles are called ash.
thrown up in the atmosphere was about 25
The solid angular fragments are known
km3. The column of this dust-ash rose as high
as breccias. Sometime, the lava material
as 80 km. The discharge of Krakatoa threw
thrown into the air solidifies into small
into the air nearly 21 km3 of rock fragments,
fragments before falling on the earth
and large quantities of ash fell over an area of
surface; it is called volcanic bombs.
some 800,000 km2. Near the volcano, masses of
floating pumice, were so thick that ships had to 3) Gaseous Material : At the time of volcanic
halt. The surrounding region was plunged into eruption, a dark cloud of smoke can be
darkness for two and a half days because of ash seen over the crater. On the basis of shape,
in the air. For some years after this, cloud kept cloud is called cauliflower cloud. Various
moving round the earth. About 36,000 people inflammable gases are found in these
died in these eruptions and the tsunami waves clouds. These gases produce flames.
created by it. Volcanic Landforms :
In 1927, volcanic eruptions began at the A number of landforms are formed due
same place and a new island rose in place of to cooling and solidification of magma. Some
the Krakatoa island that had vanished. It was important landforms are given below.
named 'Anak Krakatoa' or 'Child Krakatoa'.
1) Lava Domes : Domes are developed when
The volcano here constantly emits ash and
magma comes out and solidifies around
steam. This new island has now become a
its mouth. The shape of the dome depends
laboratory for geologists and biologists.
upon fluidity of lava. High dome with steep
There are mainly three types of material slopes are developed by acidic lava. Due
which come out in volcanic eruptions, namely, to basic lava, broad-based low domes are
liquid, solid and gaseous forms. developed. See fig. 1.14.

10
 4) Crater lake : When the funnel shaped
crater of an extinct volcano is filled with
rain water, its forms a crater lake. See fig.
1.17.

Fig. 1.14 : Lava Domes

2) Lava Plateaus : Due to spread of lava in
huge quantity from fissure volcano, it covers
large areas and plateaus are formed. The Fig. 1.17 : Crater lake
Deccan Trap in India has developed from
volcanic eruptions millions of years ago. 5) Volcanic plug : It is formed, when the lava
See fig. 1.15. solidifies in the volcanic neck.

Fig. 1.15 : Lava Plateaus Fig. 1.18 : Volcanic plug

3) Caldera : At times, the eruption of a volcano 6) Cinder Cone : Solid material is ejected
brings about large quantity of material and in large quantity. This material consists of
relieves lot of pressure. After the eruption, ash, cinder and breccias. Cinders are half
a large and deep depression remains in that burnt pieces of solid material. The solid
area. This large depression is called caldera. material is deposited around the mouth until
These can be around 10 km wide and a conical hill with steep slopes is formed.
hundreds of metres deep. They may later For example cone of Mt. Nuovo in Italy.
turn into lakes. Smaller calderas are known See fig. 1.19.
as craters. See fig. 1.16.

Fig. 1.16 : Caldera Fig. 1.19 : Cinder Cone

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 Make friends with maps!

12
Fig. 1.20
 7) Composite Cone : Composite cones are 1) Circum-Pacific Belt : This belt is also called
built up of alternate layers of lava and cinder. as “Ring of Fire”. It includes the volcanoes
This cone is composed of two materials and of Eastern and Western coastal areas of the
therefore it is called a composite cone. It is Pacific Ocean. Most of high volcanic cones
symmetrical in shape. e.g. Mt. St. Helens, and volcanic mountains are seen in this belt.
USA. See fig. 1.21. Cotopaxi is the highest volcanic mountain of
world found in this belt. Fujiyama (Japan),
Mt. St. Helens (Washington, USA), Pinatubo
and Mayon (Philippines) are other significant
volcanoes.
2) Mid-Atlantic Belt : This belt covers the
volcanoes mainly along the Mid-Atlantic
ridge. The most active volcanic area is
Iceland which is found on Mid-Atlantic
ridge.
Fig. 1.21 : Composite Cone 3) Mid-continental Belt : This belt includes
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes : the volcanoes of Alpine mountain chains,
the Mediterranean Sea and volcanoes of
There are three major belts or zones of
fault zone of eastern Africa. The famous
earthquake and volcanoes on the earth. Look at
volcanoes are Stromboli and Etna.
the map given in fig. 1.20.

Exercise

Q. 1) Complete the chain :

A B C
1) Widespread volcanic eruption 1) Zone V 1) I to XII
2) Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2) Fissure eruption 2) Block Mountain
3) Mercalli scale 3) Intensity 3) Very high seismic vulnerability
4) Slow movements 4) Faulting 4) Solid
5) Phillippines 5) Volcanic bombs 5) Deccan Trap
6) Volcanic material 6) Circum Pacific belt 6) Mayon

Q. 2) Identify the correct correlation : 3) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct
A : Assertion; R : Reasoning explanation of A.
1) A : Faulting leads to development of fold 4) Both A and R are correct but R is not the
mountains. correct explanation of A.
R : Faulting occurs when tensional forces move 2) A : Intensity of an earthquake is a measurement
away from each other. of the energy released during an earthquake.
1) Only A is correct R : Mercallis scale is used to measure intensity
2) Only R is correct of an earthquake.

13
 1) Only A is correct Q. 4) Give geographical reasons :
2) Only R is correct 1) Extinct conical volcanoes often form crater
3) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct lakes.
explanation of A. 2) People living in the Himalayas are more
vulnerable to earthquakes.
4) Both A and R are correct but R is not the
correct explanation of A. 3) L-waves do not have a shadow zone.
4) Soft rocks form folds while hard rocks form
3) A : South-East Asia, Japan and islands in faults.
the Pacific Ocean are most vulnerable to 5) Folds depend on the strength of rocks and
earthquakes and volcanic eruption. intensity of forces.
R : They are located in 'Ring of Fire'. Q. 5) Answer in detail :
1) Only A is correct 1) Explain different types of faults.
2) Only R is correct 2) Explain with examples, different types of
landforms produced by volcanic eruption.
3) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct
explanation of A. 3) Explain the concept of shadow zone.
4) Write a note on volcanic materials.
4) Both A and R are correct but R is not the
correct explanation of A. Q. 6) Differentiate between :
1) Folding and faulting
Q. 3) Identify the correct group : 2) Normal fault and Reverse fault
A) 1) Symmetrical fold   B) 1) Black Forest 3) Syncline and Anticline
2) Isoclinal fold 2) Vosges 4) Asymmetrical fold and Symmetrical fold
3) Overturned fold 3) Himalayas 5) Mercalli scale and Richter scale
6) Slow movements and sudden movements
4) Recumbent fault 4) Satpuras
Q. 7) Draw diagrams for :
C) 1) Narmada Valley   D) 1) Caldera
1) Types of folds
2) African Valley 2) Crater lake
2) Types of faults
3) Tapi Valley 3) Cinder Cone
3) Shadow zone
4) Rhine Valley 4) Lava plateau
4) Volcanic landforms



14