Jude Turner

Ch. 8 Notes
11/20/2022
Biology
8.1-Life is Cellular
Discovery of the Cell
• For most of human history, the cell remained unknown until the invention of the
microscope.
Early Microscopes
• During the late 1500s eyeglass makers in Europe discovered that using several glass
lenses in combination could magnify even the smallest things.
• The first microscopes came out of this idea.
• In 1665. Robert Hooke, an Englishman used an early microscope to look at a non-living
slice of cork, Hooke saw tiny little chambers that he called cells.
• Around the same time in Holland, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a single lens
microscope to observe pond water and other things.
• He found in the water, tiny, microscopic organisms everywhere, some in his mouth.
Cell Theory
• By 1838 it became clear that cells with the basic units of all living things. German
botanist Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants were made of cells.
• The next year, German biologist Theodor Schwann stated that all animals would be
cells.
• In 1855 German physician Rudolf Virchow published the idea that new cells can be
produced only from the division of existing cells.
• Cell theory is a fundamental concept of biology. It states:
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
3. New cells are produced from existing cells.
Light Microscopes
• A light microscope allows light to pass through a specimen and uses two lenses to form
an image.
• The first lens, called the objective lens, is located just above the specimen and it
enlarges the image of the specimen.
• The second lens, called the ocular lens, magnifies this image further.
• Can only produce clear images up to 1000 times.
• Chemical stains or dyes are used to help make cells visible.
• A powerful variation on the staining techniques uses dyes that give off light of a
particular color when viewed under specific wavelengths of light, a property called
fluorescence.
Electron Microscopes
• Electron microscopes use beams of electrons focused by magnetic fields.
• Electron microscopes offer much higher resolution than light microscopes. Some types
of electron microscopes can be used to study cellular structures that are one billionth of a
meter in size.
• Samples must be placed in a vacuum to be studied with an electron microscope because
the electrons can be easily scattered by air molecules.
• Can only be used to examine non-living cells that have been chemically preserved.
Transmission Electron Scope
 • Transmission electron microscopes make it possible to explore cell structures and large
protein molecules.
• The electrons can only pass through thin samples of cells that must be cut into
extremely thin slices.
Scanning electron microscopes.
• Pencil like beam of electrons is scanned over the surface of the specimen
• The image is formed at the specimen's surface, so samples do not have to be cut into
thin slices.
• In the past decade, new microscopes have been developed that use precise computer-
controlled laser beams to scan across samples and gather remarkably high resolution
information
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Cells come in different shapes and sizes. Typical cells range from 5 to 50 micrometers in
diameter.
• All cells at some point in their lives contain DNA. And all are surrounded by a thin,
flexible barrier called a cell membrane.
• They fall under 2 categories depending on whether they have a nucleus
Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler when compared to eukaryotes.
• Prokaryotes do not enclose their genetic material within a nucleus.
• Prokaryotes carry out every aspect associated with living things.
• Carry out important roles in the environment, The very first photosynthetic organisms
to appear on Earth were cyanobacteria, approximatley 3 billion years ago.
• The oxygen these prokaryotes released into the atmosphere forever changed earth
environment, making it possible for plant and animal life.
Eukaryotes
• Eucaryotic cells are generally larger and more complicated than prokaryotic cells
• Most eukaryotes contain dozens of structures and internal membranes and are highly
specialized.
• The nucleus separates the genetic material from the rest of the cell wall.
• Eukaryotes display wide variety. Some, known as protists, live solitary lives as unicellular
organisms. Others form large multicellular organisms, plants, animals, and fungi.
• In multicellular organisms, cells are specialized for specific tasks such support,
communication, movement, or the production of proteins or other cell products.
8.1 Cell Structure
Cell Organization
• Eukaryotes have two main parts the nucleus and the cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm is the portion outside of the nucleus
• Both work in tandem in the business of life
• The interior of a prokaryotic cell which lacks a nucleus is also referred to as the
cytoplasm.
The nucleus.
• The nucleus contains nearly all the cell's DNA and with it the coded instructions for
making proteins and other important molecules. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is found in the
cytoplasm.
• The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of two membranes. The
nuclear envelope is dotted with thousands of nuclear pores which allow material to move
 into and out of the nucleus, like messages, instructions and blueprints moving in and out of
factories head office.
• A steady stream of proteins, nucleic acid, RNA, and other molecules move through the
nuclear pores to and from the rest of the cell.
• Chromosomes, which carry the cell’s genetic information are also found in nucleus.
When a cell divides, its chromosomes condense and can be seen under a microscope. Most
nuclei also contain a small dense region called the nucleolus where the ribosome assembly
begins.
Organelles that build proteins
• Proteins carry out many of essential functions of living things, including the synthesis of
other macromolecules such as lipids and carbohydrates.
Ribosomes
• Proteins are assembled on ribosomes Which are smaller particles of RNA and protein
found throughout the cytoplasm in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
• Ribosomes produce proteins by following coded instructions that come from DNA, each
ribosome in its own way. It's like a small machine in a factory..
Endoplasmic reticulum
• Eukaryotic cells contain an internal membrane known as the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
• Proteins made on the rough ER include those that will be released or secreted from the
cell; many membrane proteins; and proteins destined for other specialized locations within
the cell.
• Other cellular proteins are made on free ribosomes which are not attached to
membranes.
• The other portion of the ER is known as smooth endoplasmic reticulum because
ribosomes they're not found on its surface
• In many cells, the smooth ER contains collections of enzymes that perform specialized
tasks, including the synthesis of lipids and detoxification of drugs
Golgi apparatus
• In eukaryotic cells proteins produced in rough yard move into the next organelle called
the golgi apparatus
• The golgi apparatus modifies sorts and packages proteins and other materials from the
endoplasmic reticulum for storage in the cell or release from the cell.
• From the golgi apparatus proteins are shipped to their final destinations inside or
outside the cell
Organelles at store, clean up, and support
• Structures such as vacuoles, vesicles and lysosomes and cytoskeleton represents cellular
factory storage space cleanup crew and support vehicles.
Vacuoles and vesicles
• Many cells contain vacuoles which are large sack like membrane enclosed structures
that store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.
• In many plant cells there is a single large central vacuole filled with liquid the pressure of
the central vacuole in these cells increases their rigidity making it possible for plants to
support or to leaves and flowers
• Nearly all eukaryotic cells contain smaller membrane enclosed structures called vesicles
• Vesicles store and move materials between cell organelles, as well as to form the cell
surface
Lysosomes
 • Liza zones are small organelles filled with enzymes that breakdown lipids,
carbohydrates, and proteins into small molecules that can be used by the rest of the cell.
• They are also involved in the breaking down of organelles that have outlived their
usefulness. Lysosomes perform the vital function of removing junk that might otherwise
accumulate or clutter up the cell.
• Several rare but serious human diseases can be traced to lysosomes that fail to function
properly
Cytoskeleton
• Yukari iotic cells are given their shape and internal organization find network of protein
filaments known as cytoskeleton, also help with transportation of material.
• Cytoskeletal components may also be involved in moving the entire cell as in cell flagella
and cilia
• In short the cytoskeleton helps the cell maintain its shape and is also involved in the
movement.
• Microfilaments are threadlike structures made-up of protein called actin. They form
extensive networks in some cells and produce a tough flexible network that supports the
cell.
• Microfilament assembly and disassembly are responsible for the cytoplasmic
movements that allow amoebas and other cells to crawl along the surface.
• Microtubes are hollow structures made-up of proteins called tubulins. In many cells they
play critical roles in maintaining cell shape
• They are also important in cell division where they form a structure known as the
mitotic spindle which helps separate chromosomes.
• In animal cells organelles called centrioles are also formed from tubulins and are located
near the nucleus and help organize cell division but are not found in plant cells
• Microtubes also help build projections from the cell surface known as cilia and flagella
• small cross bridges between the microtubes in these organelles use chemical energy to
pull on, or slide on, the microtubes producing controlled movements.
Organelles that capture and release energy
• Energy conversion is one of the most important processes in the cell. Most cells are
powered by food molecules that are built using energy that comes from sunlight.
Chloroplasts
• Plants and some other organisms contain chloroplasts, which capture energy from the
sun and convert it into chemical energy stored in food during photosynthesis.
• Two membranes surround chloroplasts, inside the organelle are large stacks of other
membranes which contain the green pigment chlorophyll
Mitochondria!
• Nearly all eukaryotic cells, including plants, contain mitochondria which convert the
chemical energy stored in food molecules into compounds that are more convenient for the
cell to use
• Mitochondria are the power generators of the cell.
• Mitochondria have two membranes an outer membrane and an inner membrane
inclose mitochondria. The inner membrane is folded up inside the organelle.
• One of the most interesting aspects of mitochondria is how they are inherited. In
humans, all or nearly all of our mitochondria originate from the cytoplasm of the ovum or
egg cell.
• Chloroplasts and mitochondria contain some of their own genetic information in small
DNA molecules.
 • This observation led biologist Lynn Margulis to suggest that both organelles are
descended from prokaryotic cells that once lived independently, this is known as the
endosymbiotic theory
• it says that an ancient bacteria and photosynthetic cyanobacteria took up residence
inside the earliest eukaryotes, meaning that both chloroplasts and our own mitochondria
owe their existence to the mutualistic relationship established between these cells more
than a billion years ago
• This means that genetic changes in human mitochondria can affect the health of our
cells and our bodies. One such change in mitochondrial DNA is responsible for the disorder
LHON.
Cellular boundaries
• Many cells, including most prokaryotes, also produce a strong supporting layer around
the membrane known as a cell wall.
Cell membranes
• All cells contain cell membranes are made-up of double layered sheet called a lipid
bilayer which gives cell membranes a flexible structure that forms a strong barrier between
cell and its surroundings
• The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell and protects and supports
the cell
• The layered structure of cell membranes reflects the chemical properties of the lipids
that make them up. Hydrophobic fatty acids clustered together away from water whereas
hydrophilic heads attract
• A lipid bilayer is the result, the head groups of lipids are exposed on both sides of the
membrane while the fatty acid tails form an oily layer inside the membrane that keeps
water from passing across it.
• Although many substances can cross cell membranes some are too large or too strongly
charged to cross the lipid bilayer
• Most cells are selectively permeable meaning that most substances can pass across
them and others cannot
• Protein molecules are embedded in the lipid bilayer of most membranes. Carbohydrate
molecules are attached to many of these proteins.
• Because the proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer can move around and float among
the lipids because so many kinds of molecules make up the cell membrane scientists
described the cell membrane as a fluid mosaic.
8.3 Cell Transport
Passive Transport
• One of the most important processes carried out by the cell membrane is to keep the
cell in homeostasis because every living cell exists in a living environment
• The movement of molecules across the cell membrane without using cellular energy is
called passive transport.
Diffusion
• Cytoplasm consists of many different substances dissolved in water. In any solution,
solute particles move constantly and collide with each other and tend to spread out
randomly
• Particles tend to move from an area where there are more concentrated to an area
where they are less concentrated
• The process by which particles move from an area of higher concentration to a lower
concentration is called diffusion and is the driving force behind the movement of many
substances across the cell membrane.
• Equilibrium is reached when the substance's concentration on both sides of the cell
membrane is the same, but even at equilibrium molecules continue to move across the
membrane in both directions.
Facilitated diffusion
• Since some membranes are built around the lipid bilayers, the molecules have passed
through them most easily are small and uncharged. These properties allow them to dissolve
in the membranes lipid environment
 • Proteins in the cell membrane act as carriers, or channels, making it easy for certain
molecules to cross.
• These channels facilitate, or help, the diffusion of glucose across the membrane.
• In facilitated diffusion molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the membrane pass
through special protein channels
• There are hundreds of different protein channels that allow substances to cross cell
membranes.
• It is still diffusion, so it does not require any use of the cells energy.
Osmosis
• Water is a molecule that enters cells by facilitated diffusion.
• Water molecules cannot easily diffuse through a cell membrane because the inside of
the cells lipid bilayer is hydrophobic
• However, many cells contain water channel proteins known as aquaporins that allow
water to pass right through them
• the movement of water through cell membranes by facilitated diffusion plays a role in
an extremely important biological process, osmosis
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Molecules
move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, the only
difference is that the molecules moving in the case of osmosis are water molecules not
solute molecules.
• Osmosis works like this: the Berry is permeable to water but not to sugar, this means
that water can cross the barrier in both directions but sugar cannot.
• There are more sugar molecules on the right side of the barrier than on the left side,
therefore the concentration of water is lower on the right where more of the solution is
made of sugar.
• Although water molecules move in both directions across the membrane, there is a net
transport of water toward the concentrated sugar solution
• Water will tend to move across the membrane until equilibrium is reached, the
concentrations of water and sugar will be the same on both sides of the membrane when
this happens the two solutions will be isotonic which means same strength.
• At the beginning the more concentrated sugar solution on the right side was hypertonic
or above strength compared to the left side so that doll I loot sugar solution was hypotonic
or below strength
Osmotic Pressure
• Driven by differences in solute concentration, the net movement of water out of or into
a cell produces a force known as osmotic pressure
• Osmotic pressure can cause an animal cell in a hypertonic solution to shrink and one in a
hypotonic solution to swell
• Because cells contain salt sugars proteins and other dissolved molecules they are always
hypertonic to fresh water as a result water tends to move quickly into a cell surrounded by
fresh water causing it to swell
• Fortunately, cells and large organisms are not in danger of bursting because most of
them do not meet fresh water instead the cells are bathed in blood or other isotonic fluids
the concentrations of dissolved material
Active Transport
• The movement of materials against a concentration difference is known as active
transport and it requires energy
 • The active transport of cell molecules or ions across the cell membrane is done by
transport proteins- protein pumps- found in the membrane.
• Larger molecules and clumps of material can also be actively transported across the cell
membrane by processes known as endocytosis and exocytosis.
Molecular transport
• Small molecules and ions are carried across membranes by proteins in the membrane
that act like pumps many cells use protein pumps to move calcium potassium and sodium
ions cross cell membranes shall spend a considerable portion of their energy use on
molecular transport.
Bulk Transport
• Larger molecules and even solid clumps of material can be transported by movements
of the cell membrane known as bulk transport
• Bulk transport can take several forms depending on the size and shape of the material
moved in or out of the cell
• Endocytosis is the process of taking material into the cell by means of infolding, or
pockets of the cell membrane.
• Phagocytosis is the type of endocytosis in which extensions of cytoplasm surround a
particle and package it within a food vacuole. The cell then engulfs it. White blood cells use
phagocytosis to remove damaged or foreign cells and destroy them. Some use this method
to eat like amoebas
• It is considered a form of active transport
• Many cells take up liquid from the surrounding environment and process like
phagocytosis during endocytosis called pinocytosis, tiny pockets form along the cell
membrane, filled with liquid, and pinch off to form vacuoles.
• Exocytosis is a process when cells release copious amounts of material, during
exocytosis, the membrane of the vesicle or vacuole surrounding the material fuses with the
cell membrane, forcing the contents out of the cell
8.4 Homeostasis and Cells
The cells as an Organism
• Sometimes a single cell is the organism, unicellular organisms dominate all life on earth
• Just like other living things, unicellular organisms must maintain homeostasis, and to do
this they grow, respond to the environment, transform energy, and reproduce
• Multicellular organisms include both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
• Prokaryotes, especially bacteria, are remarkably adaptable. Bacteria live almost
everywhere- in the soil, on leaves, in the ocean, in the air, and in the human body.
• Many eukaryotes, like amoebas and many algae, also live as single cells. Yeasts or other
unicellular fungi, are common worldwide
• The microscopic world around us is filled with unicellular organisms that successfully
maintain homeostatic balance.
Multicellular Life
• Unlike most unicellular organisms, the cells of humans and other multicellular organisms
do not live on their own. They are independent but work together.
• To keep everything working in unison each cell communicates with each other by
sending and receiving signals
• The cells of multicellular organisms become specialized for particular tasks and
communicate with one another to maintain homeostasis
Cell Specialtion
 • Although we began life as a single cell, that cell grew and divided to give rise to many
other cells.
• The new cells became specialized, with different cell types playing different roles. Some
become specialized to move, others react to the environment and others produce
substances needed by the rest of the body.
Levels of Organization
• The specialized cells of multicellular organisms or organized into tissues, then it organs
and then finally into organ systems.
• The organization of the body cells and the tissues organs and organ systems creates a
division of Labor among those cells that allows the Organism to maintain homeostasis.
• Specialization and interdependence are two of the remarkable attributes of living
things.
Cellular communication
• Cells in large organism communicate by means of chemical signals that are passed from
one cell to another
• These cellular signals can speed up or slow down the activities of the cells that receive
them and can even cause a cell to change what it is doing in a most drastic way
• Certain cells in the heart, liver, and other organs form connections, or cellular junctions,
to neighboring cells.
• Some of these junctions hold cells firmly together. Others allow small molecules carrying
chemical messages or signals to pass directly from one cell to the next.
• To respond to one of these chemical signals, a cell must have a receptor to which the
signaling molecule can bind. Some receptors are on the cell membrane. While others for
other types of signals are inside the cytoplasm.
• In many animals, impulses carried by nerve cells comma or neurons comma carrying
messages rapidly from one part of the body to another.
• For example, the optic nerve, which carries visual information from the eye to the brain.
A steady supply of energy, produced by mitochondria, is necessary to keep neurons
functioning.
• Without enough energy neurons may fail to function and even die. This is what happens
because of the defective mitochondria caused by LHON.