Electric Potential Difference and Electric Current

Electric current

- Electric potential difference (p. d) is defined as the work done

per unit charge in moving charge from one point to another. It is

measured in volts.

- Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. P. d is measured

using a voltmeter while current is measured using an ammeter.

The SI units for charge is amperes (A).

Ammeters and voltmeters

- In a circuit an ammeter is always connected in series with the

battery while a voltmeter is always connected parallel to the

device whose voltage is being measured.

Ohm’s law

- This law gives the relationship between the voltage across a

conductor and the current flowing through it. Ohm’s law states
that the current flowing through a metal conductor is directly

proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the wire

provided that temperature and other physical conditions remain

constant.

Mathematically V ∝ I

So V/I = constant, this constant of proportionality is

called resistance

V/I = Resistance (R)

Resistance is measured in ohms and given the symbol Ω

Example 1

A current of 2mA flows through a conductor of resistance 2 kΩ.

Calculate the voltage across the conductor.

Solution

V = IR = (2 × 10-3) × (2 × 103) = 4 V.

Example 2

A wire of resistance 20Ω is connected across a battery of 5 V.

What current is flowing in the circuit?

I = V/R = 5 / 20 = 0.25 A

Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors

Ohmic conductors are those that obey Ohms law (V ∝ I) and a good

example is nichrome wire i.e. the nichrome wire is not affected by

temperature.

Non-ohmic conductors do not obey Ohms law i.e. bulb filament

(tungsten), thermistor couple, semi-conductor diode etc. They are

affected by temperature hence non-linear.

Factors affecting the resistance of a metallic conductor

1. Temperature – resistance increases with increase in

temperature.

2. Length of the conductor – increase in length increases

resistance.

3. Cross-sectional area – resistance is inversely proportional to

the cross-sectional area of a conductor of the same material.

Resistivity
The Resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance

of a material of unit length and unit cross-sectional area. It is

symbolized by ρ and the units are ohmmeter (Ωm). It is given by

the following formula;

ρ = AR /l where A – cross-sectional area, R – resistance, l – length

Example 3

Given that the resistivity of nichrome is 1.1× 10-6 Ωm, what length

of nichrome wire of diameter 0.42 mm is needed to make a

resistance of 20 Ω?

Solution

ρ = AR /l, hence l = RA/ ρ = 20 × 3.142 × (2.1 × 10 - 4) / 1.1 × 10 - 6 =

2.52 m

Resistors

Resistors are used to regulate or control the magnitude of current

and voltage in a circuit according to Ohms law.

Types of resistors
i) Fixed resistors – they are wire-wound or carbon resistors and

are designed to give a fixed resistance.

ii) Variable resistors – they consist of the rheostat and

potentiometer. The resistance can be varied by sliding a metal

contact to generate desirable resistance.

a) Series combination

Consider the following loop

VT = V1 + V2 + V3

The same current (I) flows through the circuit (resistors), hence

IRT = I (R1 + R2 + R3), dividing through by I, then

R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3

Therefore for resistors connected in series the equivalent

resistance (Req) is equal to the total sum of their individual

resistances.

Req = R1 + R2 + R3

b) Parallel combination

Consider the following circuit

IT = I1 + I2 + I3. But IT = VT/RT = V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3

Since in parallel, VT = V1 = V2 = V3

Then 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3, for 'n' resistors in parallel

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3 ………… 1/R n

If only two resistors are involved then the equivalent resistance

becomes

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = (R1 + R2)/ R1 R2

Example 4
1. Calculate the effective resistance in the following

Solution

This reduces to:

Combining the two in parallel;

1/Req = (R1 + R2)/R1 R1 = 20/96

1/Req = 20/96, therefore Req = 96/20 = 4.8 Ω

Lastly combining the two in series;

Then Req = 4 Ω + 4.8 Ω = 8.8 Ω

Example 5

In the diagram below, a current of 0.8 A, passing through an

the 10 Ω resistor.

Solution

Combining those in series then this can be replaced by two resistors of

60 Ω and 40 Ω.

Current through 10 Ω = (p.d. between P and R)/ (30 + 10) Ω

p.d between P and R = 0.8 × Req. Req = (40 × 60)/ 40 + 60 = 2400/

100 = 24 Ω

p.d across R and P = 0.8 × 24 (V = IR)

therefore, current through 10 Ω = 19.2 / 10 + 30 = 0.48 A

Electromotive force and internal resistance

current is being drawn from the cell.

Consider the following diagram;

The current flowing through the circuit is given by the equation,

Current = e.m.f / total resistance

I = E / R + r where E – e.m.f of the cell

Therefore E = I (R + r) = IR + I r = V + I r

Example 6

A cell drives a current of 0.6 A through a resistance of 2 Ω. if the

value of resistance is increased to 7 Ω the current becomes 0.2 A.

calculate the value of e.m.f of the cell and its internal resistance.

Solution
Let the internal resistance be 'r' and e.m.f be 'E'.

Using E = V + I r = IR + Ir

Substitute for the two sets of values for I and R

E = 0.6 × (2 + 0.6 r) = 1.2 + 0.36 r

E = 0.6 × (7 × 0.2 r) = 1.4 + 0.12 r

Solving the two simultaneously, we have,

E = 1.5 v and R = 0.5 Ω

Example 7

A battery consists of two identical cells, each of e.m.f 1.5 v and

internal resistance of 0.6 Ω, connected in parallel. Calculate the

current the battery drives through a 0.7 Ω resistor.

Solution

When two identical cells are connected in series, the equivalent e.m.f is

equal to that of only one cell. The equivalent internal resistance is

equal to that of two such resistance connected in parallel. Hence Req =

R1 R2 / R1 + R2 = (0.6 × 0.6) / 0.6 + 0.6 = 0.36 / 1.2 = 0.3 Ω

Equivalent e.m.f =1.5 / (0.7 + 0.3) = 1.5 A

Hence current flowing through 0.7 Ω resistor is 1.5 A