Steel

Steel is an alloy made up of iron with typically a few tenths of a percent of carbon to improve its
strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be
present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant need typically an
additional 11% chromium. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is used in
buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, machines, electrical appliances, weapons, and
rockets. Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline
forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the
allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their
range of unique properties.
The steel cable of a colliery winding tower

In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past
one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts
of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent
the movement of dislocations. The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of
its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as
controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as
precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and
thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching
behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the
resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by
reducing iron's ductility.

Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial
use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with
the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the
open-hearth furnace and then the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century. With the
invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced
wrought iron. The German states saw major steel prowess over Europe in the 19th century.[1]

Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced
earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final
product. Today, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world, with
more than 1.6 billion tons produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various
grades defined by assorted standards organisations. The modern steel industry is one of the
largest manufacturing industries in the world, but is one of the most energy and greenhouse gas
emission intense industries, contributing 8 % of global emissions.[2] However, steel is also very
reusable: Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60%
globally.[3]

Definitions and related materials

Incandescent steel workpiece in this depiction of the blacksmith's art

The noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stahliją or stakhlijan 'made of steel',
which is related to stahlaz or stahliją 'standing firm'.[4]

The carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (iron-
carbon alloys). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon
contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called pig iron. Alloy steel is
steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the
characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include: manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium.[5] Additional elements,
most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: phosphorus, sulfur, silicon,
and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper.

Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron. With
modern steelmaking techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-
carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable
even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and
good castability properties.[5] Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies
of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron
objects. Steel is distinguishable from wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which may contain a
small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag.

Material properties

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases. Martensite is not shown, as it is
not a stable phase.

Origins and production

Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust in the form of an ore, usually an iron oxide, such as
magnetite or hematite. Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing the oxygen through its
combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with
lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and copper, which melts
at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than
1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F).[6] Small
quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a
charcoal fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing
out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the
fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.

All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age.
Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that
smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides,
results in an alloy (pig iron) that retains too much carbon to be called steel.[6] The excess carbon
and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step.

Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with the desired
properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make the austenite
form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, chromium increases hardness and melting
temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while making it less prone to metal
fatigue.[7]

To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on
the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten slows the formation of cementite,
keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower
quench rates, resulting in high-speed steel. The addition of lead and sulfur decrease grain size,
thereby making the steel easier to turn, but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys
are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in
applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the most part,
however, p-block elements such as sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and lead are considered
contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from the steel melt during
processing.[7]

Properties
The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750
and 8,050 kg/m3 (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).[8]

Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make steel, several
different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such
properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of
pure iron is the body-centred cubic (BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft
metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C
(32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ferrite.
At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a face-centred cubic (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or
γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure
of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%[9] (38 times that of ferrite)
carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is
cast iron.[10] When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle
material called cementite (Fe3C).

When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the austenitic
phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer
fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to
leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as cementite, leaving behind a
surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The
two, ferrite and cementite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called
pearlite, named for its resemblance to mother of pearl. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater
than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the
austenite grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has decreased to the
eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that
have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the
remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No
large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeuctoid steel.[11] The above
assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.

As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at
the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer
structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip
of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates
produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred
austenite and forms martensite. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated
form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the
martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal
form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no
thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is
no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.[12]

Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the
transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs.
Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of
martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both
constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter
as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic
imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although
they may not always be visible.[13]

Heat treatment

Fe-C phase diagram for carbon steels; showing the A0, A1, A2 and A3 critical temperatures for heat treatments.
There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are
annealing, quenching, and tempering.

Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local
internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves
strains and stresses locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases:
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal a particular
steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents.[14]

Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or
oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure.[12] The steel is then
tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application
the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or
spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile
and fracture-resistant steel.[15]

Steel production

Iron ore pellets for the production of steel

When iron is smelted from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it
must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements
can be added. In the past, steel facilities would cast the raw steel product into ingots which
would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In
modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is continuously cast
into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final
product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as
ingots.[16]

The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, billets, or blooms. Slabs are
hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire.
Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern steel
mills these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel
products coming out.[17] Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength;
however, this is relatively rare.[18]

History of steelmaking

Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages

Ancient steel

Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in bloomeries and crucibles.[19][20]

The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an
archaeological site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kalehöyük) and are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from
1800 BC.[21][22] Horace identifies steel weapons such as the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula,
while Noric steel was used by the Roman military.[23]

The reputation of Seric iron of South India (wootz steel) grew considerably in the rest of the
world.[20] Metal production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon
winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale Wootz steel production in India using
crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production
and metallurgy.[19][20]

The Chinese of the Warring States period (403–221 BC) had quench-hardened steel,[24] while
Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron
with cast iron, thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD.[25][26]

There is evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya
people as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures
inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.[27][28][29][30][31][32]

Wootz steel and Damascus steel

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in India are found in Kodumanal in Tamil
Nadu, the Golconda area in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and in the Samanalawewa, Dehigaha
Alakanda, areas of Sri Lanka.[33] This came to be known as Wootz steel, produced in South India
by about the sixth century BC and exported globally.[34][35] The steel technology existed prior to
326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of Sangam Tamil, Arabic, and Latin as
the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that
time – what they called Seric Iron.[36] A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South
East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production
processes to the island from the classical period.[37][38][39] The Chinese and locals in
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel from
the Chera Dynasty Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD.[40][41] In Sri Lanka, this early steel-
making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of
producing high-carbon steel.[42][43] Since the technology was acquired from the Tamilians from
South India, the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500
BC.[34][43]

The manufacture of what came to be called Wootz, or Damascus steel, famous for its durability
and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from
India. It was originally created from several different materials including various trace elements,
apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great
was rewarded by the defeated King Porus, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel.[44]
A recent study has speculated that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might
explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given the technology of that time, such qualities
were produced by chance rather than by design.[45] Natural wind was used where the soil
containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton
of steel for every 2 tons of soil,[42] a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in
Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.[42][46]

Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form
of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD.[35] In the 11th
century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a
"berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the
modern Bessemer process that used partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold
blast.[47]

Modern steelmaking

A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England

Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron
ore into pig iron in a blast furnace.[48] Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use coke,
which has proven more economical.[49][50][51]

Processes starting from bar iron

In these processes pig iron was refined (fined) in a finery forge to produce bar iron, which was
then used in steel-making.[48]

The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in
Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening
armor and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was
introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir Basil Brooke at
Coalbrookdale during the 1610s.[52]

The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century, it was realized that
the best steel came from oregrounds iron of a region north of Stockholm, Sweden. This was still
the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used.[53][54]

Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged, with the
result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough
temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the
invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a
crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.[54][55]

Processes starting from pig iron

A Siemens-Martin open hearth furnace in the Brandenburg Museum of Industry.

The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's process in
1855, the raw material for which was pig iron.[56] His method let him produce steel in large
quantities cheaply, thus mild steel came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron
was formerly used.[57] The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an
improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a basic material to
remove phosphorus.

Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the Siemens-Martin process, which

complemented the Bessemer process.[54] It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with
pig iron.

White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace.

These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of
basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), developed in 1952,[58] and other oxygen steel making methods.
Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen
pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from
the air used,[59] and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel
from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time.[58] Today, electric arc furnaces
(EAF) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be
used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per
metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap
electricity.[60]

Steel industry
Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2007

The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical
role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development.[61] In 1980, there were
more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to
224,000.[62]

The economic boom in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel.
Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian[63] and
Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence, such as Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in
2007), Baosteel Group and Shagang Group. As of 2017, though, ArcelorMittal is the world's
largest steel producer.[64] In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel
producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed
respectively.[65] The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of
carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2019, it was
estimated that 7 to 9 % of the global carbon dioxide emissions resulted from the steel
industry.[66] Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main
production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and
storage or carbon capture and utilization technology.

In 2008, steel began trading as a commodity on the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008,
the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.[67]
Recycling

Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally;[3] in
the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short
tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.[68]

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40%
of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602 × 109 long tons; 1.795 × 109
short tons) of crude steel was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long
tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled.[69]

Contemporary steel

Bethlehem Steel (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania facility pictured) was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before
its closure in 2003

Carbon steels

Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes.[7]
Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production.[5] Low
alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel,
in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections.[5] High strength
low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5%
manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.[70]

Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of
steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so
that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There
are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat
treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high
strength steel.[71] Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and
heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite-
free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a phase transition to
martensite without the addition of heat.[72] Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a
specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.[73]

Carbon Steels are often galvanized, through hot-dip or electroplating in zinc for protection
against rust.[74]

Alloy steels

Forging a structural member out of steel

Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist
corrosion. Some stainless steels, such as the ferritic stainless steels are magnetic, while others,
such as the austenitic, are nonmagnetic.[75] Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES.
Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying elements like chromium
and vanadium have been added. Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed
with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening.
This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's temperature
resistance.[5] Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp,
long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-
ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.[76]
Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains little
carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but still malleable steel.[77]

Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a
relatively low-cost steel for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert
Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 12–14% manganese which when abraded strain-hardens
to form a very hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade
edges, and cutting blades on the jaws of life.[78]

Standards

Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards
organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining
many types of steel.[79] The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of
standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in
the United States.[80] The JIS also defines a series of steel grades that are being used
extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries.

Uses
A roll of steel wool

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure,
appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers,
bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure
employ steel for reinforcing. In addition, it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars.
Despite the growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is
used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails and screws and other
household products and cooking utensils.[81]

Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipelines, mining, offshore construction,

aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office
furniture, steel wool, tool, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better
known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role).

Historical

A carbon steel knife

Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel
was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the
cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It
was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches.[54]

With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has become easier to obtain
and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the
availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace
steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.[82] Carbon fiber is
replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high-end
automobiles.

Long steel

A steel bridge

A steel pylon suspending overhead power lines

As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete

Railroad tracks

Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges

Wires

Input to reforging applications

Flat carbon steel
Major appliances

Magnetic cores

The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

Weathering steel (COR-TEN)

Intermodal containers

Outdoor sculptures

Architecture

Highliner train cars

Stainless steel

A stainless steel gravy boat

Cutlery Tablets

Rulers Trash Cans

Surgical instruments Body piercing jewellery

Watches Inexpensive rings

Guns Components of spacecraft and space

stations
Rail passenger vehicles

Low-background steel
Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with radionuclides by nuclear
weapons testing. Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain
radiation-sensitive applications such as Geiger counters and radiation shielding.

See also

Bulat steel Rolling mill

Carbon steel Rust Belt

Damascus steel Second Industrial Revolution

Galvanising Silicon steel

Global steel industry trends Steel abrasive

Iron in folklore Steel mill

Knife metal Tamahagane, used in Japanese swords

Machinability Tinplate

Noric steel Toledo steel

Pelletizing Wootz steel

Rolling

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Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 75—2.11%.

Ashby & Jones 1992—2.14%.

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Further reading

Mark Reutter, Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might
(https://books.google.com/books?id=bdkUfDoY24QC) . University of Illinois Press, 2005.

Duncan Burn, The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition (http://
questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930) . Cambridge University Press, 1961.

Harukiyu Hasegawa, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain (http://questia.com/
PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046) . Routledge, 1996.

J.C. Carr and W. Taplin, History of the British Steel Industry (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=
808791) . Harvard University Press, 1962.

H. Lee Scamehorn, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century (http://questia.com/PM.qst?a
=o&d=94821694) . University of Nebraska Press, 1992.

Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001
(http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558) . University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001.
External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Steel.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Steel.

Look up steel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Official website (http://www.worldsteel.org/) of the World Steel Association (worldsteel)

steeluniversity.org (http://steeluniversity.org/) : Online steel education resources, an
initiative of World Steel Association

Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist (https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=P

A26&lpg=PA26&d#v=onepage&q&f=true,) from the American Society for Metals

MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels (http://www.m

atdat.com) – obtained from published results of material testing

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