C. V.

RAMAN POLYTECHNIC
Lecture Notes

Subject name- Refrigeration and Air

conditioning
Semester-5th , Branch- Mechanical Engineering

Prepared by- Dr Shubhashree Mohapatra

Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering
Department
Compressors
The compressor is the main moving component of the vapour-compression system. It provides the
system with the force to draw the vapour from the evaporator, to force it into the condenser by creating
a high pressure and to maintain circulation of the refrigerant. The compressor’s work begins by its
creating a low-pressure region on the low side of the system, which allows the low-temperature vapour
to flow from the evaporator through the suction line to the compressor. The compressor then
compresses the low-temperature vapour, raising its vapour pressure and temperature. This high-
temperature and high-pressure vapour, containing the heat absorbed from the evaporator and during
compression, is discharged to the condenser. The heat then flows from the hot vapour into the cooler
air or water around the condenser.

1. Reciprocating compressor
The compressor in which vapour refrigerant is compressed by reciprocating motion of the piston are
called reciprocating compressor.

 Piston and cylinder arrangement to provide compressive force - like IC engines.

 Reciprocating motion of the piston due to external power compresses the refrigerant inside the
cylinder.
 These compressors used for refrigerants which have low volume per kg such as ammonia, R-717,
R-12, R-22, R-40.
 In single acting reciprocating compressor, the suction, compression and discharge of refrigerant
takes place in one revolution of crank shaft. In double acting reciprocating compressor, the
suction, compression takes place on both side of piston

Working principle of single stage single acting reciprocating compressor

The reciprocating compressor basically consists of a cylinder with a piston fitting closely inside. When
the piston moves downwards, a low pressure is produced above it in the cylinder as the refrigerant left
in the clearance space expands. When the pressure becomes less than the suction line pressure, the
pressure in the suction line forces the suction valve open and vapour enters the cylinder. The flow
continues till the piston touches the bottom dead centre. The suction valve closes due to spring action
at this point. When the piston moves upwards, the vapour is compressed and, when its pressure is
greater than the pressure in the discharge line, the discharge valve is forced open and the high pressure
high temperature refrigerant is discharged.
Different parts of the Reciprocating compressor
Piston : The piston is generally made of cast-iron. Piston it fitted with close tolerance in cylinder. The
function of the piston is only to compress the refrigerant in an enclosed cylinder.
Crank shaft: Crank shaft is a moving lever. When it is used with the connecting rod it moves with the
reciprocating motion.
Connecting rod: Connecting rod is used for connecting the piston and crank shaft. One end is connected
to the piston by means of hardened, ground and highly polished steel wrist pin. The wrist pin upper end
of the connecting rod have an oscillating or reciprocating motion while the lower end of the connecting
rod combines a reciprocating and rotary motion.
Suction and discharge valve: The valve that controls the flow of refrigerant from the suction line into
cylinder head is known as suction valve. The valve that discharges the compressed gas towards the
discharged line is called discharged valve.

2. Rotary compressor
In rotary compressors, the vapour refrigerant from the evaporator is compressed due to the
movement of blades. The clearance in this type of compressor is negligible, thus, possesses high
volumetric efficiency. Common type refrigerants used are R-12, R-22, R-114 and ammonia.
Two types
A. Single stationary blade type rotary compressor
This consists of a stationary cylinder, a roller (or impeller) and a shaft. The shaft has an
eccentric on which the roller is mounted. A blade is set into the slot of a cylinder in such a
manner that it always maintains contacts with the roller by means of a spring. The blade
moves in and out of the slot to follow the rotor when it rotates. When the shaft rotates, the
roller also rotates so that it always touches the cylinder wall.
Figure (a) shows the completion of intake stroke (i.e. the cylinder is full of low pressure and
temperature vapour refrigerant) and the beginning of compression stroke. When the roller rotates, the
vapour refrigerant ahead of the roller is being compressed and the new intake from the evaporator is
drawn into the cylinder, as shown in figure (b). As the roller turns mid position as shown in figure
(c), more vapour refrigerant is drawn into the cylinder while the compressed refrigerant is discharged
to the condenser. At the end of compression stroke as shown in figure (d), most of the compressed
vapour refrigerant is passed through the discharge port to the condenser. A new charge of refrigerant
is drawn into the cylinder. This, in turn is compressed and discharged to the condenser. In this way,
the low pressure and temperature refrigerant is compressed gradually to a high pressure and
temperature.

B. Rotating blade type rotary compressor

This compressor consists of a cylinder and a slotted rotor containing a number of blades.
The centre of the rotor is eccentric with the centre of the cylinder. The blades are forced
against the cylinder wall by the centrifugal action during the rotation of the motor. The low
pressure and low temperature vapour refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn through the
 suction port. When the rotor turns, the vapour refrigerant entrapped between the two
adjacent blades is compressed and discharged through the discharge port to the condenser.

3. Centrifugal compressor
This compressor increases the pressure of low pressure vapour refrigerant to a high
pressure vapour refrigerant by means of centrifugal force. The centrifugal compressor is
generally used for refrigerant that require large displacement and low condensing pressure,
such as R-11 and R-113.

A single stage centrifugal compressor, in its simplest form, consists of an impeller to which a
number of curved vanes are fitted symmetrically, as shown in Fig. The impeller rotates in an
air tight volute casing with inlet and outlet points. The impeller draws in low pressure
 vapour refrigerant from the evaporator. When the impeller rotates, it pushes the vapour
refrigerant from the centre of the impeller to its periphery by centrifugal force. The high
speed of the impeller leaves vapour refrigerant at a high velocity at the vane tips of the
impeller. The kinetic energy thus attained at the impeller outlet is converted into pressure
energy when the high velocity vapour refrigerant passes over the diffuser. The volute casing
collects the refrigerant from the diffuser and it further converts the kinetic energy into
pressure energy before it leaves the refrigerant to the condenser.

Advantages and disadvantages of Centrifugal Compressors over reciprocating compressor

Advantages
 Since the centrifugal compressors have no valves, pistons, cylinders, connecting rod, etc.,
therefore the working life of these compressors is more as compared to Reciprocating
compressors.
 The operation of centrifugal compressors is quiet and calm.
 The centrifugal compressors run at high speeds (3000 r.p.m. and above), therefore these can
be directly connected to electric motors or steam turbines.
 Handle larger volume of vapour refrigerant as compared to reciprocating compressor
 The centrifugal compressors are especially adapted for systems ranging from 50 to 5000
tonnes. They are also used for temperature ranges between - 90°C and + 10°C.
 The efficiency of these compressors is considerably high.
 Requires less floor area

Disadvantages
 When refrigeration load decreases below 35 percent of the rated capacity, surging occurs.
Surging is the reverse flow of refrigerant from compressor to evaporator when refrigeration
load decreases.
 The increase in pressure per stage is less as compared to reciprocating compressors.
 The centrifugal compressors are practical below 50 tonnes capacity load.

4. Hermetic compressor
When compressor and motor operates on same shaft and enclosed in a common casing, these are
known as hermetic compressor. These compressors may operate on reciprocating or rotary
principle. These are widely used in domestic refrigerators, home freezers and window AC.
 Refrigerant condensers
Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the refrigerant undergoes a
phase change. In condensers the refrigerant vapour condenses by rejecting heat to an external
fluid, which acts as a heat sink. In a typical refrigerant condenser, the refrigerant enters the
condenser in a superheated state. It is first de-superheated and then condensed by rejecting heat
to an external medium. The refrigerant may leave the condenser as a saturated or a sub-cooled
liquid, depending upon the temperature of the external medium and design of the condenser.
Figure 22.1 shows the variation of refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram. In the figure, the heat
rejection process is represented by 2-2’-3’-3. It can be seen that process 2-2’ is a de-superheating
process, during which the refrigerant is cooled from a temperature T to the saturation temperature
2
corresponding condensing pressure, T . Process 2’-3’ is the condensation process, during which the
2’
temperature of the refrigerant remains constant as it undergoes a phase change process. Process
3’-3 is a sub cooling process, during which the refrigerant temperature drops from T3’ to T3.

2
2’
3’

1
4

Classification of condensers:
Based on the external fluid, condensers can be classified as:
1. Air cooled condensers
2. Water cooled condensers, and
3. Evaporative condensers

a. Air-cooled condensers:
In air-cooled condensers air is the external fluid, i.e., the refrigerant rejects heat to air flowing over
the condenser. it consists of steel or copper tubing through which refrigerant flows. Copper tubes
are generally preferred due to its good heat transfer ability. Steel tubes used for ammonia
refrigerant system. The tubes are provided with plate type fins to increase the surface area for heat
transfer. The fins are made of aluminium. The air cooled condenser may have tubes up to 6 or 7
rows. More than 8 rows of tubing are not efficient because air temperature will get too close to the
condenser temperature and heat absorption rate of air decreases. Air-cooled condensers can be
further classified into natural convection type or forced convection type.

Natural convection type:

In natural convection type, heat transfer from the condenser is done by natural convection. As the
air comes in contact with the warm condenser tubes, it absorbs heat from the refrigerant and
temperature of air increases. The warm air got lighter and rises up taking away heat. The cold air
from the surrounding takes the place to take away the heat from the condenser. The rate of heat
transfer in natural convention type condenser is low.

Forced convection type:

In forced convection type condensers, the circulation of air over the condenser surface is
maintained by using a fan or a blower. Forced convection type condensers are commonly used in
window air conditioners, water coolers and packaged air conditioning plants. These are either
chassis mounted or remote mounted. In chassis mounted type, the compressor, induction motor,
condenser with condenser fan, accumulator, HP/LP cut- out switch and pressure gauges are
mounted on a single chassis. It is called condensing unit of rated capacity. The remote mounted
type, is either vertical or roof mounted horizontal type. They can be located either inside or outside
the building. This system is used for capacity above 10 tonnes. For above 125 tonnes two or more
condensers are used.

2. Water Cooled Condensers:

In water cooled condensers water is the external fluid. These are commonly used in commercial and
industrial application. The water cooled condensers uses either of the following two water systems:
1. Waste water system, 2. Re-circulated water system.

In waste water system, the water circulated in the condenser is discharged into sewer. This system
is used where large quantities of waste water are available. In re-circulated water system, the same
water circulated on condenser again and again after cooling. This system requires some water
cooling system such as cooling tower or spray ponds. The warm water from the condenser is passed
through cooling tower/spray pond, cooled there by self evaporation and then re-circulated in
condenser. Additional make up water is required to replace the water that evaporates from the
cooling tower.

Water cooled condensers can be further classified into:

1. Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
2. Shell-and-coil type
3. Shell-and-tube type

a. Double Pipe or tube-in-tube type:

Double pipe condensers are normally used up to 10 TR capacities. In these condensers the cold
water flows through the inner tube, while the refrigerant enters at the top. The water absorbs the
heat from the refrigerant and liquid refrigerant flows at the bottom. The refrigerant in the tubes
rejects a part of its heat to the surroundings by free convection and radiation. The water in this type
of system may flow in either direction. If the water flows in the same direction of refrigerant then it
is called parallel flow system, when the water flow is opposite to the refrigerant then called
counter flow system. In parallel flow system the temperature difference will be maximum at the
inlet side and will be minimum at outlet side. I.e. the heat transfer rate decrease as it passes
through the condenser. Thus, counter flow condenser is preferred in type of water-cooled
condenser.
 b. Shell-and-coil type

The refrigerant flows through the shell and water flows through multiple coils. In smaller capacity
condensers, refrigerant flows through coils while water flows through the shell. These type condensers
may be either vertical or horizontal. The hot vapour refrigerant enters at the top of the shell and
surrounds the water coil. The vapour condenses when it comes in contact with coil with cooling water
supply and collects at the bottom of the shell. Counter flow water system is mostly preferred as it is more
efficient than parallel flow water system. The coil inside the shell is allowed to expand and contract with
temperature rise and fall. This spring action coil helps it to withstand temperature strain.

C. Shell-and-tube type

Shell and tube is the most common type of condenser in large chemical processing plants. In this type of
condenser number of straight water tubes are enclosed a large cylindrical shell. The shell may be with or
without fins. The common materials for shell are steel and copper. In ammonia refrigerating system steel tube
is used because ammonia corrodes the copper. The water tubes are extended to the groove of tube sheet to
achieve vapour tight fit. Intermediate support is provided to avoid bending of water tube. The hot refrigerant
enters the shell at top. Refrigerant reject heat to the water when it contacts with water tubes. Finally, the
condensed refrigerant drops to the bottom of shell.
3. Evaporative condensers

It uses both water and air for cooling of the

refrigerant. In this system the water is
pumped from sump to spray header and
sprayed through nozzles over the condenser
coils. The heat transfers from the refrigerant
to the water droplets through the tube walls.
A fan also used at the top of the condenser
which draws the surrounding air from the
bottom of the condenser. The air causes water
droplets on the surface of the coil evaporates
and absorbs latent heat of evaporation from
the remaining water to cool it. In this way the
refrigerant rejects its latent heat and
condenses into liquid. The cold water drops
down is collected at the sump where it is re-
circulated. The eliminator is provided above
the spray header to stop the water particle
escaping with air.

 Comparison between water cooled and air cooled condenser

Water cooled condenser Air cooled condenser
Complicated construction Simple construction
Maintenance cost high Maintenance cost low
Piping arrangement required to carry No requirement of piping arrangement
water
High fouling effect Low fouling effect as no corrosion is there
 Heat transfer capacity high Heat transfer capacity low
No fan noise Forced convection air condenser fan noise
is there
Even distribution of water on condensing Distribution of air in condenser is not
surface uniform
Used for large capacity plant Used for low capacity plant

*
Fouling factor: The water used in water cooled condenser contains minerals and foreign
material which deposits on the tubes. These are called water fouling. This insulates the tube
causing reduction in heat transfer rate and water flow rate.

 Heat Rejection factor: it is the ratio of load on condenser to refrigeration effect.

HRF=Qc/RE
Where Qc= RE+ work done at compressor
HRF=1+(W/RE) =1+(1/COP)

 Cooling tower and spray ponds

 A cooling tower is enclosed tower like structure through which atmospheric air
circulates to cool warm water by direct contact
 A spray pond consists of nozzle and piping arrangement placed over a pond or
reservoir

Cooling towers are divided into two main groups: natural draft cooling towers and mechanical
draft cooling towers.

Natural draft cooling towers

1. Natural Draft Atmospheric Spray Towers: This tower should be located in open space or
on the roof of the building where the movement of air is best. Hot water that needs
cooling in the natural draft cooling tower is pumped in via the hot water inlet. The inlet is
connected to nozzles that spray the water which provides a large surface area for heat transfer.
At the bottom of the tower, the structure is open to draw in fresh air, which then flows upward
and allows for direct-contact heat transfer between the warm water and the air. The hot water
releases heat after coming into direct contact with the fresh air, and some of the hot water is
evaporated. Cold water is collected at the bottom of the tower. The warm and moist air is
discharged from the top of the tower into the atmosphere.
 2. Natural Draft Atmospheric splash deck type Towers: It is similar to the atmospheric spray
tower except that water-distributing troughs are used, which helps to break the water into small
droplets. The object of the decks is to provide additional evaporation area. It gives 20–30%
greater efficiency than the atmospheric spray tower for the same size and for the same quantity
of water flow. The water splashes on the decking from the holes of the bottom of the water box
placed in top of the tower. The decking helps to break the water into small droplets and slow
down the fall of water to the bottom.

Mechanical draft cooling towers

It is similar to Natural draft cooling towers except the fan is used to force the air through them.
It uses either propeller or centrifugal fans. This type of towers generally is smaller in size and
increased cooling capacity than natural draft cooling towers. However, it requires additional
operating cost and power requirement as fan is used.

1. Forced draft cooling tower: In the forced draft cooling towers the blower type fans are
mounted on the lower side of the tower. The warm water from the condenser is
sprayed through nozzle. The air is forced upward by the fan presented at the bottom of
the tower. The cooling of the water takes place by means of heat transfer and
evaporation.

2. Induced draft towers: In induced draft towers the fans are located at the discharge (at
the top) and pull the air through the tower. Air enters the sides of the tower at low
velocity through large openings and passes through the fill, whereas the hot humid air is
exhausted to the atmosphere through the ventilator.

 Spray pond: Ponds are located on the ground or on the treated roofs. The water intake
from the pond to the condenser is done by using some mechanical pump. The hot water
coming out from the condenser is sprayed through the nozzle as fine droplets into the
atmospheric air. It is thus cooled and collected at the pond for recirculation.
Evaporator
The evaporator works the opposite of the condenser, here refrigerant liquid is converted to gas,
absorbing heat from the air in the compartment. This causes the refrigerant to absorb heat
from the warm air and reach its low boiling point rapidly. The refrigerant then vaporizes,
absorbing the maximum amount of heat.

While the refrigerant is changing the phase from Liquid to vapor in the evaporator, it absorbs heat from
the space/ substance kept in space to be cooled. Evaporator is kept between the Expansion valve and
the Compressor.

Principle of working of an evaporator

The liquid refrigerant from the Expansion valve with low temperature and pressure enters into the
Evaporator (point 6). As the liquid refrigerant passes through evaporator coil, it absorbs the heat from
the evaporator coil walls and from the medium to be cooled. Due to this, the liquid refrigerant continues
to boil and evaporate. Finally at point 1’, all refrigerants are evaporated and only vapour refrigerant is
present in the evaporator coil. Here liquid refrigerant absorbs the latent heat. Since, the vapour
refrigerant available is still colder, it keeps absorbing heat (sensible heat) and becomes super heated
prior to entering to the compressor suction line (point 1).
The temperature of refrigerant remains constant during evaporation process with steady increase in
enthalpy. Here, latent heat is absorbed by the refrigerant and it is converted into vapour from liquid at
constant temperature (6-1’). After all liquid refrigerants are evaporated, sensible heating of the
refrigerant vapour is performed which increases both temperature and enthalpy and makes the vapour
superheated (1’-1).

Types of Evaporator
1. According to types of construction
 Bare tube coil evaporator
 Finned tube evaporator
  Plate evaporator
 Shell and tube evaporator
 Shell and coil evaporator
 Tube-in-tube evaporator
2. According to mode of heat transfer
 Natural convection evaporator
 Forced convection evaporator
3. According to operating conditions
 Frosting evaporator
 Non-frosting evaporator
 De-frosting evaporator
4. According to manner in which liquid refrigerant is fed
 Flooded evaporator
 Dry expansion evaporator

Bare tube coil evaporator

These evaporators are usually constructed of either steel pipe or copper tubings. Copper tubing
is used in small evaporators where Freon is used as refrigerant where as steel pipes are used
where ammonia is used. This type of evaporator is also called prime-surface evaporator. The
bare tube coil evaporators are extensively used in household refrigerators because they are
easier to keep clean. Its use is limited to applications where the box temperatures are under
0C and in liquid cooling, because the accumulation of ice or frost on these evaporators has less
effect on heat transfer than on those equipped with fins.

These types of evaporators offer relatively little surface contact area as compared to other
types of coil. The amount of surface area may be increased by increasing the length of tubes.
But, there is a limitation in extension of length as too long tubes results in vaporise the liquid
refrigerant completely earlier which leads to excess superheat. This also results in greater
pressure drop between inlet and outlet of evaporator. Proper selection of tube diameter is also
crucial. Too large diameter tube results in decrease in refrigerant velocity, rise in refrigerant
volume in relation to the surface area of the tube. This results in incomplete vaporisation of
refrigerant. Thus, liquid refrigerant may enter into the compressor and damage it. If the
diameter is too small, the pressure drop will be too high and reduce the system efficiency.
 Fig. Bare tube coil evaporator

Finned tube evaporator

Finned coils are bare –tube coils upon which metal plates or fins have been installed. The fins
increase the surface area of evaporator which means increased heat transfer and capacity. The
size and spacing of fins depends upon the type of application. The metal fins are constructed of
thin sheets of metal having good thermal conductivity. These evaporators are designed for air
conditioning applications where the refrigerator temperature is above 0C. A finned coil should
not be allowed to frost as accumulation of frost between the fins reduces the heat transfer
rate. Because of the rapid heat transfer of the finned evaporator, it will defrost itself on the off
cycle.

Fig. Finned tube evaporator

Shell and tube evaporator
The shell and tube types of evaporators are used in the large refrigeration and central air
conditioning systems. The evaporators in these systems are commonly known as the chillers.
The chillers comprise of large number of the tubes that are inserted inside the drum or the
shell. Depending on the direction of the flow of the refrigerant in the shell and tube type of
chillers, they are classified into two types: dry expansion type and flooded type of chillers. In
dry expansion type, the refrigerant flows through the tubes while in flooded type the
refrigerant is in the shell. A pump circulates the chilled water or brine. Dry expansion type uses
fins inside the tubes while flooded type uses fins outside the tube. Dry expansion type
evaporators are used for small and medium capacity refrigeration plants with capacity ranging
from 2 TR to 350 TR. The flooded type evaporators are available in larger capacities ranging
from 10 TR to thousands of TR. These evaporators are usually used to chill water or brine.

A flooded type of shell and tube type liquid chiller where the liquid (usually brine or water) to
be chilled flows through the tubes and refrigerant circulates around the tube. The refrigerant is
fed through a float valve, which maintains a constant level of liquid refrigerant in the shell.

In Dry expansion type Shell-and-Tube Evaporator, refrigerant flows through the tubes and
water flow through the shell. The liquid to be chilled flows through the shell around the baffles.
The presence of baffles turns the flow around creating some turbulence thereby increasing the
heat transfer coefficient.

Fig. Dry expansion Shell and tube evaporator

Expansion Devices
The basic functions of an expansion device used in refrigeration systems are to:

1. Reduce pressure from condenser pressure to evaporator pressure,

2. Regulate the refrigerant flow from the high-pressure liquid line into the evaporator at a rate equal to
the evaporation rate in the evaporator

3. It controls the flow of refrigerant according to the flow of evaporator

Types of expansion devices

- Capillary tube
- Hand operated expansion valve
- Automatic or constant pressure expansion valve
- Thermostatic expansion valve
- Low side float valve
- High side float valve

Capillary tube

A capillary tube is a long, narrow tube of constant diameter. Typical tube diameters of refrigerant
capillary tubes range from 0.5 mm to 3 mm and the length ranges from 1.0 m to 6 m.

Figure. Capillary tube

The pressure reduction in a capillary tube occurs due to the following two factors:

1. When refrigerant enters into the capillary tube, due to frictional resistance offered by tube
walls, its pressure drops. Frictional resistance is directly proportional to length and inversely
proportional to diameter. So small diameter and longer tube produces greater pressure drop.
2. The liquid refrigerant flashes (evaporates) into mixture of liquid and vapour as its pressure
reduces. The density of vapour is less than that of the liquid. Hence, the average density of
refrigerant decreases as it flows in the tube. The increase in velocity or acceleration of the
refrigerant also requires pressure drop.

Several combinations of length and bore are available for the same mass flow rate and pressure
drop. However, once a capillary tube of some diameter and length has been installed in a
refrigeration system, the mass flow rate through it will vary in such a manner that the total pressure
drop through it matches with the pressure difference between condenser and the evaporator. Its
mass flow rate is totally dependent upon the pressure difference across it; it cannot adjust itself to
variation of load effectively.

Advantages

- Low cost
- When compressor stops, the refrigerant continues to flow to the evaporator and
equalise the pressure between high side and low side of system. This decreases the
starting load on compressor. Thus, a low starting motor (low cost) can be used to drive
the compressor.

Automatic Expansion valve

Also known as a constant pressure expansion valve - maintain a constant pressure regardless
the load on the evaporator. Used with dry expansion evaporators where load is relatively
constant. This valve maintains a constant pressure throughout the varying load on the
evaporator controlling the quantity of refrigerant flowing into Evaporator.

Figure. Automatic Expansion valve

- It is a diaphragm operated valve with the evaporator pressure acting on the lower side of the
diaphragm and atmospheric pressure plus adjustable spring pressure acting on the upper side.
- As the compressor operates to remove the gas from the evaporator, it reduces the pressure in
the evaporator and under the diaphragm. In this case, the adjusting spring pressure pushes the
diaphragm down and opens the valve.
- This allows more liquid refrigerant to enter into the evaporator and thus increasing the
evaporator pressure till the desired evaporator pressure is reached.
- On the other hand, if the evaporator pressure rises, the diaphragm moves upward, reduces the
opening of valve and flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.
- This decrease of flow of refrigerant lowers the evaporator pressure till the desired evaporator
pressure reached
- When the compressor stops, the liquid refrigerant continues to flow into the evaporator and
increases the pressure in the evaporator. This increase in pressure causes diaphragm to move
upward and valve got closed. It remains closed until the compressor starts again.

Thermostatic expansion valve

A thermostatic expansion valve is a throttling device which works automatically,

maintaining proper and correct liquid flow.

Function of thermostatic expansion valve

- Reduces pressure of liquid refrigerant
- Keeps evaporator active
- Modulates the flow of liquid to the evaporator according to the load requirement of the
evaporator

Parts of thermostatic expansion valve

- Needle valve and a seat

- Diaphragm
- Spring and adjusting screw
- Feeler or thermal bulb

The feeler bulb is installed at the suction line, thus, it will be at same temperature as the
refrigerant at that point. Any changes in temperature at the feeler bulb, it will change the
pressure in the feeler bulb. Under normal condition, the feeler bulb pressure is balanced by
the spring pressure and evaporator pressure acting at the bottom the diaphragm. The force
tending to open the valve depends upon the feeler bulb pressure. The force tending to close
the valve depends upon the spring pressure and evaporator pressure.

When the load on the evaporator increases, it causes liquid refrigerant to boil faster. The
temperature of the feeler bulb increases due to the early vaporisation of refrigerant. This
increases the feeler bulb pressure. Thus, the diaphragm moves downward and opens the
valve. More quantity of liquid refrigerant is now entered into the evaporator. This will
continue when the pressure reaches the equilibrium position. On the other hand when the
load decreases, less liquid refrigerant evaporates. The excess liquid refrigerant flows
towards the outlet which cools the feeler tube. The feeler bulb pressure decreases due to
decrease in temperature. This moves the diaphragm upward and reduces the opening of
valve. In this way, the flow of liquid refrigerant to the evaporator decreases. This continues
till evaporator pressure and spring maintain equilibrium with feeler bulb pressure.

Figure. Thermostatic Expansion valve

There are two main types of thermal expansion valves: internally or externally equalized.
The difference between externally and internally equalized valves is how the evaporator
pressure affects the position of the needle. In internally equalized valves, the evaporator
pressure against the diaphragm is the pressure at the inlet of the evaporator, whereas in
externally equalized valves, the evaporator pressure against the diaphragm is the pressure
at the outlet of the evaporator. In internally equalized valves, a hole is drilled in the valve
body to transmit the pressure.

The standard thermostatic expansion valve works well on evaporators having low pressure
drop. If the pressure drop is high (above 0.14 bar), then, the pressure at the outlet of the
evaporator will be less by the amount equal to the pressure drop. In such case, feeler bulb
pressure should rise to maintain equilibrium with inlet evaporator pressure and spring
pressure. The rise in feeler bulb pressure increases the temperature and the degree of
 superheat. Thus, the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator reduces. In externally equalized
valves, the pressure at the bottom of the diaphragm is equal to outlet evaporator pressure.
Thus, the dis-advantages of evaporator pressure drop are overcome. In this case, a small
diameter equalizer tube connects the diaphragm with the evaporator outlet.

Application of refrigeration system and air conditioning

1. Cold storage
The cold storage is a building designed to store certain goods like food stuffs, fruits, vegetables and
dairy product within well defined temperature range and relative humidity. The temperature and
humidity condition maintained inside a cold storage depend upon the type of product stored inside.
Vegetables require the maintenance temperature of around 0°C to 5°C with high RH of 80 to 90%,
for milk 4°C to 5°C, -25°C to -30°C for quick freezing of fish. The refrigeration does not improve the
quality of food product, it only slow down the deterioration.

Advantages of cold storage

- Substances such as potato, butter can be stored when it is plentifully available and can be
supplied when needed.
- Transportation of perishable goods from distant places
- It reduces spoilage of products

It is of two types depending upon the requirement

- Long term ware houses with product in frozen or unfrozen state

- Short term ware houses or retail storage with products usually not frozen

Advantages of quick frozen food

- Limits the growth of bacteria

- Reduces the size of the ice crystal formed

- Reduces the separation of water from the cell

It is done by using cold air blast, brine spray or contact evaporators

Types of cooling plants for cold storage

1. Brine coils placed parallel to and near the centre of ceiling

2. Unit condenser with condensing unit outside

3. Small ceiling mounted unit.

1. Brine coils placed parallel to and near the centre of ceiling: In this arrangement, a central
brine pump supplies chilled brine to these coil situated in various rooms of a large cold
storage central plant. Thermal air circulation from the coils is employed. No fan is used.

2. Unit condenser with condensing unit outside: In this type of cooling plant the cooling coil is
placed inside the store and is supplied with direct refrigerant or secondary refrigerant.
Room air enters the coil at the bottom, passes over the coils, cools down and that chilled air
is blown to the room.

3. Small ceiling mounted unit. : These units consist of cooling coil backed by an electric fan. The
fan blows the chilled air horizontally or vertically down.

Figure. Cold storage plant

2. Water cooler
The purpose of water cooler is to make water available at a constant temperature irrespective of
ambient temperature. Water coolers are used to produce cold water at about 7°C to 13°C. The
temperature of cold water is controlled with the help of a thermostat switch set within 7°C to 13°C.

Water cooler may be classified as

1. Instantaneous type water cooler: In this type of water cooler, the evaporator consists of two
separate cylindrically wound coils made of copper or stainless steel tube, where the cooling coil
 is wrapped round the pipe line such that by the time water reaches the tank it is cooled to
desired temperature. it is subdivided into
 bottle type cooler
 Pressure type cooler
 Self contained or remote type cooler

Storage type water cooler

 Bottle type cooler: In this type, water to be cooled is stored in a bottle or reservoir. For filling,
glass tumblers or faucet are provided. The dripping water from the faucet is collected in the
waste water basin. Its usual size is 25 litres and is suitable for places where plumbing
installations is expensive and drains are available.

Figure. Bottle type cooler

 Pressure type cooler: In this type of water cooler, the water is supplied under pressure. For
filling glass tumblers or faucets are provided. The city main water enters the cooler through inlet
connection. It then passes through the pre-cooler. The pre cooling is done by the waste water of
the cooler. As waste water temperature is low, it is made use of cooling the supply water by
passing through a pipe coil wrapped around the drainage line. This arrangement helps to reduce
the cooling load for the cooler. The pre cooled water then enters the storage chamber and
losses its heat to the refrigerant. The outlet of water pipe is connected at the bottom of the
storage tank, which is fitted to a bubbler. Since the water is supplied under pressure the cold
water can be obtained from the top mounted at any height of the cooler. The refrigeration
system is generally mounted at the bottom of the cooler body and a cooling coil is wrapped
 around the water tank, where the refrigerants flow. Sometimes a helical or U shape coil is
immersed in the water tank. This arrangement gives high heat transfer rate but, it is possible to
form undesirable salt due to chemical reaction between water contaminants and copper surface
proves to be a great disadvantages.

Figure. Pressure type cooler

 Self contained or remote type cooler: This type of cooler employs a mechanical refrigeration
system. The water cooled from the remote cooler is supplied to desired drinking place, away
from the system. This type of arrangement does not require extra space near the place of work.

Figure. Remote type cooler

2. Storage type water cooler: Such types of coolers are used where continuous supply of water is
not available. Here the water is filled in the storage tank and level of water is kept same by the
use of a float valve. The storage tank is surrounded by an evaporator coil through which a low
 temperature refrigerant flows and takes away the heat and cools the water. When the water is
cooled to desired temperature, the thermostat operates and disconnects the power supply to
the motor.

Figure. Storage type water cooler

3. Desert cooler
 Used where humidity is quite low and temperature is high.
 Uses the principle of evaporative cooling. Here the sensible heat is removed and moisture is
added to the air.
 Air is allowed to pass through a spray of water. Water particle takes the heat equivalent to its
latent heat and evaporates. The vapour formed is carried away with air. Thus, the air is cooled
and humidified.

Main parts

 Blower/fan
 Water circulating pump
 Water wetted pads
 Water tank
 Float valve
 The water is filled in the sump of the cooler from water supply mains, the level is controlled by
the float valve. A water pump lifts the water and supplies it at the top of the cooler to the water
distribution system. The water distribution system consists of small branches of copper pipes
which delivers equal amount of water to the troughs and then to the wetted pads. The water
which drops back from the pads are collected at the sump and recirculated again. The pump is
generally made up of brass, stainless steel or plastic. The blower pulls the air through the wetted
pads and delivers it to the space to be cooled. The air which is drawn through the pads is cooled
by principle of evaporative cooling.

Figure. Desert cooler

4. ICE manufacture
The commercial ice is produced by freezing potable water in standard cans placed in a
rectangular tank. The tank is filled with chilled brine. For increasing heat transfer rate from
water to chilled brine, the brine solution is kept in constant motion by agitators. The brine
temperature is maintained at -10°C to -11°C. Ammonia gas is used as the refrigerant because of
its excellent thermal properties. The high pressure and high temperature ammonia vapour
enters the condenser, where it is condensed to liquid ammonia by releasing its latent heat. The
condensed liquid refrigerant is collected in a receiver and through expansion valve; it is supplied
to the evaporator. The expansion valve reduces the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant. When the low pressure and low temperature passes through the evaporator coil
surrounding the brine tank, it absorbs the latent heat from the brine solution and gets
converted to vapour state. The vapour ammonia is then fed to the compressor where it is
compressed and results in consequent increase in temperature and pressure of the vapour
refrigerant and the cycle continues.
 Figure. Ice manufacturing plant

The brine tanks are usually fabricated of 6 mm thick mild steel plate with tie rod welded end to
end. The tank is insulated on all four sides and from the bottom. The insulated wooden lids are
provided to cover the top to facilitate the removal and replacement of ice cans. The ice cans are
fabricated from galvanized steel sheets and are given chromium treatment in order to prevent
corrosion. In order to get transparent ice, water in the can is agitated by the use of low pressure
air through the tubes suspended from the tops. Due to agitation/stirring, the dissolved
impurities are collected at the centre, which should be removed and replaced with fresh water.
Brine solutions taken are generally NaCl (sodium chloride) or calcium chloride (CaCl) where as
NaCl is mostly preferred because of its low cost. It may be noted that the ice frozen at a
temperature lower than -12°C can crack. Therefore, brine temperature is kept at a higher level;
say -11°C and -10°C. The rate of freezing decreases as the thickness of the ice layer increases.

5. Domestic refrigerator
It is usually used to preserve foods. The Primary function of refrigerator is to store food at a space
maintained at low temperature. Its secondary function is to form the ice cubes for domestic
purpose. They are usually specified by internal gross volume and deep freezers volume. A storage
temperature of 0-4 °C required for preservation of food. For frozen food, freezers are generally
provided at the top or bottom portion of refrigerator space. It may be single door, double door top
freezer, double door bottom freezer and side by side door freezer. These refrigerators are divided
into two separate compartments, one for fresh foods and other for storage of frozen foods. With
double door refrigerators, the freezer space is not subjected to wide temperature variations. This
helps in maintaining a stable temperature for preservation of the frozen foods.
The mechanical vapour compression cycle as well as vapour absorption cycle may be adopted for
domestic refrigerators and freezers. But, vapour compression cycle is generally preferred because of
its compactness and more efficient use of electrical energy. Refrigerant used are generally R-12 or R-
22. Compressor is mounted at the bottom. Condenser is mounted at the back side of the
refrigerator. Capillary tube is kept in contact with evaporator inlet .Evaporator coil is wrapped
around the freezer. The cooling of lower space is done by free convection. The thermostatic sensing
element is provided to the evaporator coil which controls the temperature in the freezer. The
refrigerator body is provided with good quality insulation in order to prevent heat transfer into the
system.

The working of the refrigerator is as follows

- The low pressure and superheated vapour refrigerant is drawn through the suction line to the
compressor. The accumulator provided between the suction line and the evaporator, collects
liquid refrigerant coming out of the evaporator due to incomplete evaporation. The compressor
compresses the vapour to high pressure and high temperature. The compressed vapour is then
flow through the discharge valve to the condenser.
- In the condenser, the vapour refrigerant at high pressure and high temperature is condensed to
liquid refrigerant.
- The high pressure and high temperature liquid refrigerant is then flows through the filter and
then enters to the capillary tube. The capillary tube is attached to the cold suction line. The
warm refrigerant passing through the capillary tube gives some of its heat to the cold suction
line vapour. This increases the heat absorbing quality of the liquid refrigerant and increases the
super heat of the vapour entering the compressor. The capillary tube expands the liquid
refrigerant at high pressure to the liquid refrigerant at low pressure and low temperature and
supplies the required amount to the evaporator.
- In the evaporator, the liquid refrigerant gets evaporated by absorbing heat from the container
and from the articles placed in the evaporative chamber and converted to vapour. It is then
drawn back into the compressor and the cycle repeats.
 Electrical circuit of a refrigerator

Components
- Starting relay: The starting relay is used to provide necessary starting torque required to start
the motor. It disconnects the starting winding of the motor when the motor speed increases.
- Overload protector: The function of the overload protector is to protect the compressor motor
winding from damage due to excessive current. It consists of a bimetallic strip. During normal
working of the compressor, the contacts are closed. Whenever there is any abnormal behaviour,
the bimetallic strip gets heated and bends and thereby opening the motor contacts and de
energising it.
- Thermostat: Thermostat is used to control the temperature in the refrigerator. The bulb of the
thermostat is clamped to the evaporator. When the desired temperature obtained, the
thermostat bulb senses it, the liquid in it is compresses and operates the bellow of the
thermostat and opens the compressor motor contact. When the temperature increases, the
liquid in the bulb expands and the below closes the compressor motor contact. It allows the
flow of current.

Working:

When electric supply is given to the refrigerator, current passes through the thermostat switch,
thermal overload, starting relay coil and then to the main winding of the motor. When the
motor is at rest, it draws a very heavy current. When the heavy current flows through the coil of
the starting relay, the coil gets energised and it pulls up the armature and closing the starting
winding contact. The current flowing through the starting winding provides the starting torque
and motor starts. When motor gains normal speed, the current drawn by the main winding of
motor become normal. The current in the starting relay is no longer able to hold the relay and it
gets released and thereby opening the starting winding contacts. In case starting relay fails to
 close, the motor will not start. Once it closes and not fails to open, then either thermal overload
shall be trip out or fuse shall be blown off.

Defrosting in refrigerator
Since the evaporator in a refrigerator operates at a temperature below 0°C, therefore it is
subjected to the accumulation of frost or ice. The frost acts as an insulation that resists the heat
transfer to the evaporator and leads to further thickening of the frost. This reduces the
evaporator capacity and system efficiency. Thus, the removal of frost at regular interval is
necessary.
Methods:

• Manually defrosting by putting off button

• By using push button of defrost thermostat: It is provided at centre of the thermostat knob. It
breaks the electrical contact till the evaporator temperature rise and defrosting takes place. This
is done till the temperature rises above freezing temperature and defrosting occurs. The
refrigerator returns to normal functioning automatically once the defrosting is complete.

Defrost water flows to the condensate pan provided below the evaporator of fresh food
compartment. From that place it drains into a tray in the compressor compartment

6. Diary refrigeration:
The milk is known to be one of the perishable foods and if not maintained at sufficient low
temperature, it gets spoiled due to bacterial growth. As the temperature of the milk is reduced,
the bacterial growth decreases and practically ceases at 0°C to 5°C. But, the bacilli are not killed
even at very low temperature. The bacterial content can be eliminated to a great extent by
heating the milk to 62°C and holding it at that temperature for about 30 minute. Thereafter to
minimize the bacterial growth, the milk is cooled to 4°C to 5°C. This process is called as
pasteurization.
In case the heating is done by hot water, it is sprayed around the outside lining of the vat by a
distributer, which gets collected in a sump at the bottom of the vat, reheated and sprayed again.
In case of steam heating, the steam is allowed to flow in the space provided between lining and
the casing of the vat. The heated milk is then cooled, first by cooling tower water and then by
the chilled water or brine to 4°C to 5°C. The heating and cooling is done by passing the milk
through heat exchanger plates. The milk flows between two plates and the hot water or cooling
tower water or chilled brine is circulated through alternate pairs of plates. The direction of flow
of heating or cooling fluids is opposite to that of milk to get better heat transfer.
In order to control the fat content of the milk, it is desired to churn the milk. Such milk is known
as toned milk. The fat removed is processed as butter and stored at 4°C to 5°C. The cheese from
the milk is stored at about 4°C.
Psychrometry and Air conditioning
 Humidification and Dehumidification
The addition of moisture to the air without change in its DBT is known as humidification
and removal of moisture from the air without change in its DBT is called as
dehumidification.
Humidification Dehumidification

2 1

1 2

 RH increases, W increases and  RH decreases, W decreases and

enthalpy increases enthalpy decreases
 Latent heat LH= (h2-h1)= hfg (W2-  Latent heat LH= (h1-h2)= hfg (W1-
W1) W2)
 Humidification occurs either by  Dehumidification occurs either by
direct method or indirect method. introducing air washer or chemicals.
 In direct method, highly atomized  In air washer, chilled water having
water is directly sprayed into the temperature below the dew point
space to be cooled. temperature of entering air is
 In indirect method, the water is sprayed on the unconditioned air. In
introduced to the air washer. Here this process the excess water vapor
the humidification occurs by condenses and dehumidification
spraying heated water onto the air occurs. A heating coil is used after
to be conditioned. the air washer as the air coming out
from the air washer is in dew point
temperature.
 For chemical dehumidification
adsorbents (silica gel) or absorbents
(calcium chloride) is used to absorb
moisture from the unconditioned
air.

 Sensible heat factor:

It is the ratio of sensible heat to total heat.
 SHF=

 Cooling and Dehumidification

When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact with a cold surface, some of
the water vapor in the air condenses and leaves the air stream as liquid, as a result both the
temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases. The effective temperature of cold coil is less than
the dew point temperature of entering air. The effective surface temperature of coil is known as
apparatus dew point (ADP). This process undergoes in a typical summer air conditioning system. In
some commercial air-conditioning plants, chilled water (below the dew point temperature of the
mixture) is sprayed into the air to be dehumidified. Then the air leaves with less humidity at the
temperature of the chilled water. Next the air is heated to the desired temperature.

h1
hA

h2
h3
1

2 A
3

td3 td2 td1

BPF= = =
Total heat removed
 Q=h1-h2= (h1-hA) +(hA-h2) =LH+SH

SHF=

Cooling capacity = ma(h1-h2)

Efficiency = 1- BPF =

 Cooling and humidification (Evaporative cooling)

During this process, the air temperature drops and its humidity increases. This can be achieved
by spraying cool water in the air stream. The temperature of water should be lower than the
dry-bulb temperature of air but higher than its dew-point temperature to avoid condensation.
It can be seen that during this process there is sensible heat transfer from air to water and
latent heat transfer from water to air. Hence, the total heat transfer depends upon the water
temperature. If the temperature of the water sprayed is equal to the wetbulb temperature of
air, then the net transfer rate will be zero as the sensible heat transfer from air to water will be
equal to latent heat transfer from water to air. If the water temperature is greater than WBT,
then there will be a net heat transfer from water to air. If the water temperature is less than
WBT, then the net heat transfer will be from air to water. Under a special case when the spray
water is entirely recirculated and is neither heated nor cooled, the system is perfectly
insulated and the make-up water is supplied at WBT, then at steady-state, the air undergoes
an adiabatic saturation process, during which its WBT remains constant.

2
W2

1 W1

td2 td1
For mass balance
W2= W1+
Where mw= mass of water added
Ma=mass of dry air
Hw= enthalpy of water

For heat balance

h2= h1 + hw =h1 + (w2-w1) hw
(w2-w1) hw is neglected as it is very small. So the process is a constant
enthalpy process.

 Heating and dehumidification

This process can be achieved by using a hygroscopic material, which absorbs or adsorbs the water
vapor from the moisture. If this process is thermally isolated, then the enthalpy of air remains
constant, as a result the temperature of air increases as its moisture content decreases. This
hygroscopic material can be a solid or a liquid. In general, the absorption of water by the
hygroscopic material is an exothermic reaction, as a result heat is released during this process,
which is transferred to air and the enthalpy of air increases.
td 3  td1
  1  BPF 
td 2  td1

1
3

td1 td3 td2

 Heating and humidification

This process is used in winter air conditioning system. This is normally done by first sensibly
heating the air and then adding water vapour to the air stream through steam nozzles. The air
is passed through humidifier having spray water temperature higher than the DBT of entering
air. The heat of vaporization of water is absorbed from the spray water and it got cooled.

h2
hA

h1

A
1

td2 td1
Total heat added to the air
Q= h2-h1 = (hA-h1) +(h2-hA) =SH+LH

SHF=

Q1. 100 m3 of air per minute at 35°C DBT and 60% RH is cooled to 20°C DBT passing through a
cooling coil. Find the following
a. Capacity of cooling coil in kJ/hr
b. Amount of water vapour removed per hour
c. RH of air coming out and its WBT

Ans:

Given

Pb= atmospheric pressure =1.0132 bar

At 35 degree DBT and 60%RH

Ps=0.05628 bar (from steam table at 35C dbt)

  =Pv/Ps

Pv1= 0.6 *0.05628 =0.033768 bar

Tdp corresponding to pv1 = 26.25C (from steam table)

Find W1 = 0.622 0.0214 kg/kg of dry air

Find h1= 1.022*td1+ W1 (hfgdp +2.3 t dp) = 89.27 kj/kg

hfgdp (from steam table at dew point temperature of entering air) = 2440 KJ/Kg

Air is saturated as leaving air DBT is less than tdp of entering air

So at point 2 wbt=dbt=dpt= 20 C

Ps2=Pv2 =0.0234 bar (from steam table corresponding to 20C)

Find W2 and h2

W2== 0.622 0.0147 kg/kg of dry air

h2= 1.022*td2+ W2 (hfgdp +2.3 t dp2) =57.19 kj/kg

hfgdp (from steam table at dew point temperature of leaving air) = 2454 KJ/Kg

PaVa=Ma*R*td

Ma= = 110.8 kg/min

Capacity of cooling Q= ma (h1-h2) = 3554.46 kj/min =3554.46/210= 16.92 TR

Amount of water vapour removed Q= ma(W1-W2) =0.74 kg/min

Alternative way
From psychrometeric chart

At point 1

35C dbt and 60% RH

W1=0.0214 kg/kg of dry air

h1=89.9 kj/kg

tdp= 26C

Air is saturated as air leaving the coil has lower DBT than dew point temperature. Thus,
humidification occurred.

So, tdp=twb=tdp at point 2 as air is saturated.

At point 2

W2= 0.0148 kg/kg of air

h2= 57 kj/kg
 Air Conditioning
 Comfort chart

The Comfort Chart is a tool that helps operators determines how well air-handling equipment is
providing thermal comfort for the building occupants or for a process within the facility. In
designing winter or summer air conditioning system, the designer should be well conversant
with a number of factors which physiologically affect human comfort.

The important factors are as follows: 1. Effective temperature, 2. Heat production and
regulation in human body, 3. Heat and moisture losses from the human body, 4. Moisture
content of air, 5. Quality and quantity of air. 6. Air motion, 7. Hot and cold surfaces

Effective Temperature : The degree of warmth or cold felt by a human body depends mainly on the
following three factors:

1. Dry bulb temperature, 2. Relative humidity and 3. Air velocity.

 Too low humidity causes dryness of skin

 Too high humidity causes deposition of moisture in clothing
 High air velocity can cause un-comfort

In order to evaluate the combined effect of these factors, the effective temperature is
employed. It is defined as that index which collates the combined effects of air temperature,
relative humidity and air velocity on the human body. The numerical value of effective
temperate is made equal to the temperature of stills (i.e 5 to 8 m/min air velocity) saturated
air, which produces the same sensation of warmth as produced under the given conditions. The
practical application of the concept of effective temperature is presented by the comfort chart.
This chart is the result of research made on different kinds of people subjected to wide range of
environmental temperature, relative humidity and air movement by the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).

In the comfort chart, the dry bulb temperature is taken as abscissa and the wet bulb temperature of
ordinates.

 The effective temperature for summer air conditioning is 21C

 The effective temperature for winter air conditioning is 21.7C
 In slightly cool condition comfort of human beings is not influenced by moisture from
RH =30% to 90%
 With increase in temperature the comfort is influenced by moisture content.
 At tdb=25.3C, 70% feel comfortable from RH =25% to 70%.
  It has been found that for comfort, women require 0.5ºC higher effective temperature than
men.
 All men and women above 40 years of age prefer 0.5ºC higher effective temperature than the
persons below 40 years of age.

Factors Affecting Optimum Effective Temperature

a. Climatic and seasonal differences: It is a known fact that the people living in colder climates
feel comfortable at a lower effective temperature than those living in warmer regions. In
winter the optimum effective temperature is 19ºC whereas in summer this temperature is
22ºC.
b. Clothing: Light clothing need less optimum temperature than a person with heavy
clothing.
c. Age: The children need higher effective temperature than adults. Thus, the
maternity halls are always kept at an effective temperature of 2 to 3ºC higher than
the effective temperature used for adults.
d. Duration of stay It has been established that if the stay in a room is shorter, then
higher effective temperature is required than that needed for long stay.
e. Kind of activity: When the activity of the person is heavy such as people working in a
factory, dancing hall, then low effective temperature is needed than for the people
sitting in cinema hall or auditorium.

Heat Production and Regulation in Human Body: The human body produces heat from the
combustion of food. The rate of heat production depends upon the individual’s health, his physical
activity and his environment. Since the body has a thermal efficiency of 20 per cent, therefore the
remaining 80 per cent of the heat must be rejected to the surrounding environment, otherwise
accumulation of heat results which causes discomfort.

Moisture Content of Air: In general, for winter conditions in the average residence, relative humidity
above 35 to 40 per cent is not practical. In summer comfort cooling, the air of the occupied space should
not have a relative humidity above 60 per cent.

Quality and Quantity of Air: purity of air should be maintained as people do not feel comfortable while
breathing contaminated air. So proper filtration, cleaning and purification of air is necessary. For general
application, a minimum of 0.3 m 3 /min of outside air per person, mixed with 0.6m 3 /min of
recirculated air is good.

Air Motion: The air motion which includes the distribution of air is very important to maintain uniform
temperature in the conditioned space. No air conditioning system is satisfactory unless the air handled is
properly circulated and distributed. Ordinarily, the air velocity in the occupied zone should not exceed 8
to 12 m/min. The air velocities in the space above the occupied zone should be very high in order to
produce good distribution of air in the occupied zone.
 Equipments used in air conditioning:

1. Circulation fan: it moves air to and from the room

2. Air conditioning unit: it is a unit which consists of cooling and dehumidification in summer
and heating and humidification in winter
3. Supply duct: it directs conditioned air from circulating fan to room
4. Supply outlet: it distribute conditioned air in the room evenly
5. Return outlet: it allows room air to return duct
6. Filters: it removes dust, dirt, bacteria from the air.

 Classification of Air conditioning

1. According to purpose
- Comfort air conditioning
- Industrial air conditioning
2. According to season
- Winter air conditioning
- Summer air conditioning
- Year round air conditioning
3. According to arrangement of equipment
- Unitary air conditioning
- Central air conditioning
Winter Air conditioning system

In winter AC System, the inlet air is heated by the heater, and in winter season due to less
present of moisture in the air, we also need to add the moisture particle to the air, generally, a
humidification system is added to maintain the moisture quantity. The outside air flows
through a damper and mixes up with the recirculated air which is obtained from the
conditioned space.

The mixture here passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust, and other impurities. The air now
passes through a preheat coil to prevent the possible freezing of water and to control the
evaporation of water in the humidifier. After that, the air is made to pass through a reheat coil
to bring the air to the designed dry bulb temperature.

Now, the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned
space, a part of the air is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans. The remaining part
of the used air is again conditioned and this will repeat again and again.

Summer Air conditioning system

In this system, the air is cooled and generally dehumidified. The outside air flows through the
damper and mixed with recirculated air (which is collected from the conditioned space). The
mixed air passes through a filter to remove the dirt, dust and impurities.

The air is now passes through a cooling coil. The coil has a temperature much below the
required dry bulb temperature of the air in the conditioned space. The cooled air passes
through a perforated membrane and loses its moisture in the condensed which is collected in
the sump. After that, the air is made to pass through a heating coil which heats the air slowly.

This is done to bring the air to the designed dry bulb temperature and relative humidity. Now
the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space by a fan. From conditioned space, a
part of the used air is rejected to the atmosphere by the exhaust fan. The remaining air is again
conditioned and this repeated for again and again.

The outside air is sucked and made to mix with recirculated air to make for the loss of
conditioned air through exhaust fan from the conditioned space.