Challenges in Geotechnical investigation

BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

The emphasis in geotechnical engineering has always been on achieving appropriate solutions
to specific problems and projects using a number of steps such as site investigation, soil and
rock testing, modeling, empirical methods, mathematical analysis, field measurements,
observation (monitoring) and design.

Depending on the type and importance of the project and the availability of resources, some or
all of these elements may be considered essential. In the past , there was a tendency, in some
applications, to leave everything to the construction company.

For example, reviewing the historical practice with regard to deep foundations, Poulos (2003)
has observed that until the latter half of the 20th century, the foundation contractor controlled
many aspects ranging from investigation and design to construction and remediation .

However, he points out that the situation now is very different with analysis, design and
construction being handled by independent specialists. This has obvious advantages, yet the
disadvantages of fragmentation should not be overlooked and these might include ambiguity
and conflict in technical areas as well as challenges in communication.

One could safely generalize and say that these disadvantages can apply to all areas of
geotechnical engineering unless there is good teamwork on projects.

The more complex a geotechnical problem, the greater the care required in each of the steps
and elements mentioned above and the more sophisticated the method of analysis that would
be used today.

Yet one must remember that much of the success achieved by geotechnical engineers in
developing good methods of analysis and understanding performance was due to the significant
initial progress in theoretical concepts (e. g. Terzaghi, 1943).

This progress was highlighted by the discovery of the principle of effective stress for saturated
soil masses leading to a better understanding of shear strength concepts and the key role of
permeability of soil masses. These concepts led to a gradual appreciation of the role of excess
pore water pressures generated during loading and unloading and of the differences in behavior
between saturated and unsaturated soils
Theories of elasticity and plasticity and the concept of limit equilibrium proved to be very useful
during the early decades of development of geotechnical engineering. Thus there was a sound
basis for the solution of many problems concerning the stability of foundations, slopes,
excavations, embankments and tunnels both in soil and rock provided that care was taken to
respect fundamental concepts such as effective stress which are of particular relevance to the
behavior of three phase particulate materials such as saturated and partially saturated soils.

Progress was also associated with increasing understanding of the importance of geology and,
in particular, of geological structure. Modeling geotechnical problems requires knowledge of the
location and nature of geological discontinuities. Moreover, the performances of slopes,
embankments, foundations and other structures can be significantly influenced by minor
geological details which may not be revealed by conventional or routine site investigation.

Learning of the relevant lessons requires early mentoring of young engineers and engineering
geologists as well as using and sharing within any team of professionals the benefits of
individual experience

Geotechnical engineering has evolved over the past half century from a soil mechanics and foundation engineering
based component of civil engineering to a field with many sub disciplines that provide earth system information, data,
analysis, design, and construction services required to meet a broad range of societal and environmental needs. The
current status of the discipline is assessed, major unresolved issues are identified, and challenges that must be
addressed in resolving these issues, as well as to enable development of new and better geo solutions are indicated.
The promise and potential for new and emerging technologies - biotechnology, nanotechnology, sensors technology,
geophysical and remote sensing methods, and information technology

The complexity of the problems addressed force geotechnical engineers to do and to think out of the box
beyond their specialties and to take holistic consideration in every step of their works. Rapid development
of technology, especially information system technology, encourages civil engineers as well as
geotechnical engineering to utilize it to solve geotechnical problems. Geotechnical engineers should not
consider such condition as obstacles but challenges. This paper intends to discuss some new challenges
and new hope for geotechnical engineers along the community development

The Ongoing Challenge for Geotechnical Engineers

As civil engineering strives to build bigger and bigger structures, geotechnical

engineers will constantly have to develop new techniques to make the underlying
ground support those structures. Higher and longer bridges, carrying more traffic to
places where man hasn’t spanned before will need to be firmly anchored to the
earth.

Greater skyscrapers than even Dubai’s Burj Khalifa will create new challenges in
foundation designs which will support the buildings, even during earthquakes.
Longer tunnels, whether for use as aqueducts or for transportation will challenge
today’s boring techniques.
The Burj Dubai project in Dubai comprises the construction of an aproximately 160 storey high
rise tower, with a podium development around the base of the tower, including a 4-6 storey
garage. The client for the project is Emaar, a leading developer based in Dubai. Once completed,
the Burj Dubai Tower will be the world’s tallest building. It is founded on a 3.7m thick raft
supported on bored piles, 1.5 m in diameter, extending approximately 50m below the base of the
raft. Figure 1 shows an artist’s impression of the completed tower. The site is generally level and

With all this in civil engineering’s future, there will always be a place for geotechnical
engineers. This is a field where innovation will always be sought, but innovation that
is backed up by solid engineering.

As civil engineers strive to design bigger buildings, bridges and other structures to meet
mankind’s growing needs, the need for earthquake engineering is increasing all the time. The
devastating effects of recent earthquakes have demonstrated the need for improved
earthquake engineering design. This is one civil engineering field that still has plenty of room
for growth and development; providing ample opportunity for the ambitious engineer.

Seismic events create a number of separate, but interrelated problems for buildings and other
structures. The earthquake itself can move both laterally and vertically, providing forces to
which the structure is not normally subject.

Additionally, earthquakes can cause soil liquefaction, where the soil under a building flows out
from under the foundation, eliminating the structural support that the building relies on. Other
events, such as landslides can be caused by earthquakes, adding additional hazards.

Earthquake engineering consists of two basic parts: the first is understanding the effects of
earthquakes on buildings and other structures. The second is designing structures which can
withstand the forces brought to bear during an earthquake and remain safe and serviceable.

Being earthquake safe or serviceable does not mean that the structures will not suffer any
damage whatsoever. An earthquake safe structure is one which will not endanger the lives and
well-being of people in and around it, in the event of an earthquake. Although superficial
damage will occur, the building will not collapse partially or totally. To be earthquake
serviceable would mean that he structure would still be able to be used for its intended purpose,
after a major earthquake.

Essentially, earthquake engineering deals with the structure of the building, not the fascia, wall
covering or other decorative items. Damage to these is considered superficial, while structural
failure can cause serious injuries and death.
1.deep basement and other forms of underground construction e.g caverns tunnels and caverns,
tunnels and ‘underground space creation underground space creation’ activities activities •
Challenges due to highly non-uniform nature of the ground, complex behaviour of soil and
increasing complexity in construction

2.How are new construction paradigms developed to deal effectively with uncertainties and
issues facing construction? •

New paradigms are evolving right now and are centred on new ground engi i d t ti t h l i ineering
and construction technologies and expertise • For example: - Advanced site investigation tools
deployed in construction works - Computer simulation technologies used in design work (e.g.
GeoFEA, Plaxis) - PE (Geo) for underground building works

3. Engineering geophysics using advanced methods including ground penetrating radar (GPR) to
survey engineering infrastructure including highways, railways, buildings and structures.

4. Underground City in Singapore to combat problem of land scarcity!

5. Singapore’s deep tunnel sewerage system is a solution to meet the Increasing demands on the
system due to population and industrial growth

6. Deep beneath Singapore runs a tunnel system that diverts used water to Changi, where water is
treated and purified for reuse is treated and purified for reuse.

7. A team of 10 engineers and geologists dug about 200m below ground to unearth new facts
about the ground beneath in Singapore

8. Singapore’s Marina Coastal Expressway will be built under the sea, linking ECP and KPE to
AYE and provide an alternative route for those heading to the Marina Bay area

9.Smart tunnel system

Regular days it will be used as road way and during heavy storm/ flood the road will be closed
and it will be used to divert flood water

10. Plans for high-speed rail link up will shorten trip from Singapore to London by railway from
16 days to 3 days

11. Singapore is not safe from regional earthquakes as more high-rise buildings are built on
reclaimed land and building codes do not factor in earthquake design and standards

12.
The Burj Dubai Tower has recently reached its final height of 818m (2,684-ft or almost exactly 1/2 a mile!). The
foundation system for the Burj Dubai is comprised of 192 bored piles (drilled shafts in my practice) 1.5-m
(approximately 5-ft) in diameter and approximately 50-m deep (164-ft). A 3.7-m (12-ft) thick raft foundation sits on top
of the piles under the full footprint of the structure

The geotechnical investigation for the Burj Dubai (now to be known as Burj Khalifa after the UAE President) is
described in detail in a paper by the geotechnical engineer of record, Grahame Bunce of Hyder Consulting (UK) and
the independent technical reviewer for the geotechnical design, Harry G. Poulos of Coffey Geotechnics. Click through
for the link to the paper and more details.

• Poulos, Harry G. and Bunce, Grahame (2008). Foundation Design for the Burj
Dubai – The World’s Tallest Building. Proceedings of the 6th International
conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical engineering, Arlington, VA, August
11-16, 2008.

The soil/rock conditions were generally loose to medium dense sands overlying weak to very
week sandstone and siltstone with interbeds of gypsiferous and carbonate cemented layers
(still relatively weak). Geotechnical investigations consisted of approximately 33 boreholes
drilled with several techniques. In addition to SPT sampling, double-tube rock coring and
approximately 60 pressuremeter tests were performed as well as cross-hole seismic surveys
(both P and S-wave). Static load testing was performed on 7 test piles prior to construction
and 8 production piles (approximately 1% of the piles) were tested as well. One lateral load
test was performed. (Photo fromBurjDubaiSkyscraper.com)

Various finite element software packages were used in the analysis of the foundation system for the structure. The
figure above from Poulos & Bunce (2008) shows the interesting layout of the piles as well as contours of the
maximum axial load. It indicates that the maximum axial load was in the neighborhood of 37 MN (units?). The static
load test program was conducted to a maximum load of 64 MN.
The estimated settlement from the design phase was approximately 75-mm (almost 3-in) but monitoring performed
during construction showed only approximately 30-mm (roughly 1.2-in) by March 18, 2007 when approximately 75%
of the dead load had been applied.

Design and construction of the world—€™s tallest building: The Burj Dubai
Pushing technology to new heights

William F. Baker, P.E., S.E.

Burj Dubai, designed by and copyright to Skidmore, Owings and Merrill

LLP
 The Burj Dubai Tower will open in January of 2010. The final height of the
more-than-160 story tower is yet to be revealed.

The Burj Dubai Tower is the world’s tallest structure, passing all previous height records. Such a
project by necessity requires pushing current analysis, material, construction technologies, and
building systems to literally new heights. However, as such a building height has never before been
attempted, it is also necessary to ensure all technologies and methods used are of sound
development and practice. As such, the designers sought to be able to use conventional systems,
materials, and construction methods — modified and utilized in new capacities — to achieve such a
lofty goal.

The 160-plus-story Burj Dubai Tower is the centerpiece of a $20 billion multi-tower development
located just outside of downtown Dubai. The Burj Dubai project consists of the tower itself, as well as
an adjacent podium structure, and separate six-story office annex and two-story pool annex. The
280,000-square-meter (m2) (or 3 million-square-foot, ft2) reinforced concrete multi-use tower is
predominantly residential and office space, but it also contains retail space and a Giorgio Armani
hotel. The tower and podium structures — combined 465,000 m2 (5 million ft2) — are currently under
construction, and the project is scheduled for completion in late 2009.

Architectural design
The primary design concept of the tower is an organic form with tri-axial geometry and spiraling
growth that can be easily seen in the final design. Additionally, traditional Islamic forms were utilized
to enrich the tower’s design, and to incorporate visual references to the culture and history of the
surrounding region. As such, the floor plan of the tower consists of a tri-axial, “Y” shaped plan,
formed by having three separate wings connected to a central core. As the tower rises, one wing at
each tier sets back in a spiraling pattern, further emphasizing its height. The Y-shape plan is ideal for
residential and hotel use in that it allows the maximum views outward without overlooking a
neighboring unit. The wings contain the residential units and hotel guest rooms, with the central core
housing all of the elevators and mechanical closets. The tower is serviced by five separate
mechanical zones, located approximately 30 floors apart over the height of the building. Located
above the occupied reinforced concrete portion of the building is the structural steel spire, housing
communication and mechanical floors, and completing the architectural form of the tower. The result
is an efficient building in terms of its functionality, structural system, and response to wind, while still
maintaining the integrity of the initial design concept.
 The tower’s Y-shaped floor plan not only has aesthetic and functional
advantages, but is also ideal for providing a high performance, efficient
structure.

Structural system description

The tower’s Y-shaped floor plan not only has aesthetic and functional advantages, but also is ideal
for providing a high-performance, efficient structure. The structural system for the Burj Dubai can be
described as a “buttressed-core” and consists of high-performance concrete wall construction. Each
of the wings buttresses the others via a six-sided central core, or hexagonal hub. This central core
provides the torsional resistance of the structure, similar to a closed pipe or axle. Corridor walls
extend from the central core to near the end of each wing, terminating in thickened hammer head
walls. These corridor walls and hammerhead walls behave similar to the webs and flanges of a
beam to resist the wind shears and moments. Perimeter columns and flat plate floor construction
complete the system. At mechanical floors, outrigger walls are provided to link the perimeter
columns to the interior wall system, allowing the perimeter columns to participate in the lateral load
resistance of the structure; hence, all of the vertical concrete is utilized to support both gravity and
lateral loads. The result is a tower that is extremely stiff laterally and torsionally. It is also a very
efficient structure because the gravity load-resisting system has been used to maximize its use in
resisting lateral loads also.

Burj Dubai, designed by and copyright to Skidmore, Owings and Merrill

LLP

A high performance exterior cladding system will be employed to

withstand the extreme temperatures during the summer months in Dubai.
Primary materials include reflective glazing, aluminum and textured
stainless steel spandrel panels and vertical polished stainless steel
tubular fins accentuating the height and slenderness of the tower.

As the building spirals in height, the wings set back to provide many different floor plates. The
setbacks are organized with the tower’s grid, such that the building stepping is accomplished by
aligning columns above with walls below to provide a smooth load path. As such, the tower does not
contain any structural transfers. These setbacks also have the advantage of providing a different
width to the tower for each differing floor plate. This stepping and shaping of the tower has the effect
of “confusing” the wind. The upshot is that wind vortices never get organized over the height of the
building because at each new tier the wind encounters a different building shape.

Most of the tower is a reinforced concrete structure, except for the top, which consists of a structural
steel spire with a diagonally braced lateral system. High-performance concrete is utilized throughout.
The concrete mix was designed to provide a low-permeability yet high-durability concrete. Wall and
column concrete strengths range from C80 to C60 cube strength (11.6 kips per square inch (ksi) to
8.7 ksi cube strength), and contain portland cement, fly ash, and local aggregates. The C80 concrete
has a specified Young’s Elastic Modulus of 43,800 N/mm2 (6,350 ksi) at 90 days.

Structural analysis
The entire building structure was analyzed for gravity (including P-Delta analysis), wind, and seismic
loadings utilizing ETABS version 8.4, from Computers and Structures, Inc. The 3D analysis model
consisted of the reinforced concrete walls, link beams, slabs, raft, piles, and the spire structural steel
system. Under lateral wind loading, the building deflections are well below commonly used criteria.
The dynamic analysis indicated the first mode is lateral sidesway with a period of 11.3 seconds. The
second mode is a perpendicular lateral sidesway with a period of 10.2 seconds. Torsion is the fifth
mode with a period of 4.3 seconds.

Burj Dubai, designed by and copyright to Skidmore, Owings and

Merrill LLP
 The Burj Dubai Tower pushes the limits on construction techniques
and material technology, including self-climbing formwork system,
prefabricated wall reinforcement, specially modified cranes, high-
speed high-capacity construction hoists, and GPS monitoring
systems.

Tower foundations
The tower foundations consist of a solid, 3.7-meter (12.1-foot) thick pile supported raft poured
utilizing 12,500 cubic meters (m3) (16,350 cubic yards, yd3) of C50 cube strength (7.25-ksi) self-
consolidating concrete (SCC). The raft was constructed in four separate pours (three wings and the
center core). Each raft pour occurred during at least a 24-hour period. Reinforcement was typically
spaced at 300 mm (12 inches) on center in the raft, and arranged such that every tenth bar in each
direction was omitted, resulting in a series of “pour enhancement strips” throughout the raft; the
intersections of these strips created 600-mm by 600-mm (24-inch by 24-inch) openings at regular
intervals, facilitating access and concrete placement. The tower raft is supported by 194 bored cast-
in-place piles. The piles are 1.5 m (5 feet) in diameter and approximately 43 m (141 feet) long, with a
capacity of 3,000 metric tonnes (3,300 tons) each. Each was pile load tested to 6,000 metric tonnes
(6,600 tons). The diameter and length of the piles represent the largest and longest piles
conventionally available in the region. Additionally, the 6,000-metric-tonne pile load test represented
the largest magnitude pile load test performed to date within the region. The piles utilized C60 cube
strength (8.7-ksi) SCC concrete, placed by the tremie method utilizing polymer slurry. The friction
piles are supported in the naturally cemented calcisiltite/conglomeritic calcisiltite formations,
developing an ultimate pile skin friction of 250 to 350 kPa (5.2 to 7.3 ksf).

Wind engineering
For a building of this height and slenderness, wind forces and the resulting motions in the upper
levels become dominant factors in the structural design. An extensive program of wind tunnel tests
and other studies were undertaken by the wind tunnel consultant, RWDI, in its boundary layer wind
tunnels in Guelph, Ontario, to evaluate the effects of wind on building loading, behavior, and
occupant comfort. Additionally, the wind tunnel testing program was utilized as part of a process to
shape the building to minimize wind effects. As mentioned above, this process resulted in a
substantial reduction in wind forces on the tower by confusing the wind — by encouraging
disorganized vortex shedding over the height of the tower. The wind tunnel testing program included
rigid-model force balance tests, a full aeroelastic model study, measurements of localized pressures,
and pedestrian wind environment studies. Wind statistics played an important role in relating the
predicted levels of response to return period. Extensive use was made of ground-based wind data,
balloon data, and computer simulations employing Regional Atmospheric Modeling techniques to
establish the wind regime at the upper levels. Based on the results of the wind tunnel testing
program, the predicted building motions are within the ISO standard recommended values without
the need for auxiliary damping.

Burj Dubai, designed by and copyright to Skidmore, Owings and Merrill

LLP
On a clear day the tip of the spire can be seen by a person 95 km (60
miles) away. A person in the Observation Deck can see as far away as 80
km (50 miles), which is more than twice the distance from Dubai to Al Ain.

Burj Dubai, designed by and copyright to Skidmore, Owings and Merrill

LLP

An extensive program of wind tunnel tests and other studies resulted in a

 substantial reduction in wind forces on the tower by confusing the wind.

Construction methods and technology

The Burj Dubai Tower utilizes the latest advancements in construction techniques and material
technology. The walls are formed using Doka’s SKE 100 automatic self-climbing formwork system.
The circular nose columns are formed with circular steel forms, and the floor slabs are poured on
MevaDec panel formwork. Wall reinforcement is prefabricated on the ground to allow for fast
placement. Three primary self-climbing Favco tower cranes are located adjacent to the central core,
with each continuing to various heights as required. The cranes have been specially modified to be
able to lift the extreme lengths of cable required, as well as 25-metric-tonne (27.5-ton) payloads, at
high speeds. High-speed (120-m/minute, 393-foot/minute), high-capacity (3,200-kg, 7,050-pound)
construction hoists were used to transport workers and materials to the required heights. Because of
limitations of conventional surveying techniques, a specialized GPS monitoring system has been
developed to monitor the verticality of the structure.

The construction sequence for the structure has the central core and slabs being cast first, in three
sections; the wing walls and slabs follow behind; and the wing nose columns and slabs follow behind
these. Concrete is distributed to each wing utilizing concrete booms that are attached to the jump
form system. Two of the largest concrete pumps in the world were used to deliver concrete to
heights over 600 m (1,968 feet) in a single stage. A horizontal pumping trial was conducted prior to
the start of the superstructure construction to ensure pumpability of the concrete mixes.

Conclusion
Burj Dubai Tower has eclipsed all previous height records, and is the tallest structure ever built. It
represents an enormous collaboration and coordination effort of many individuals across all sectors
of the building profession. Conventional and cutting-edge technologies and building systems were
utilized, developed, and further advanced to create this unprecedented structure, taking this building
and the profession to literally new heights.

The ground is one of the most highly variable of engineering materials. It is therefore not surprising that
geotechnical designs depend on local site conditions and local engineering experience. Engineering
practices, relating to investigation and design methods site understanding and to safety levels acceptable
to society, will therefore vary between different regions.The challenge in geotechnical engineering is to
make use of worldwide geotechnical experience, established over many years, to aid in the development
and harmonization of geotechnical design

CONCEPTS OF SAFETY AND RELIABILITY

Challenges and Opportunities

The outcomes of conventional geotechnical analysis such as that based on the concept of ‘limit
equilibrium’ are often considered in terms of a ‘factor of safety’ or ‘safety factor’, F. A
 mathematical formula or an iterative procedure is developed to calculate F after modelling a
particular geotechnical problem. Theoretically, for given conditions represented by the values of
important field parameters such as shear strength parameters, pore water pressures,
geometrical parameters and external loads, a calculated value F=1 defines critical equilibrium, a
value F1 as success. The uncertainties associated with the calculated safety factor were
acknowledged from the early days of geotechnical engineering and the use and abuse of such
calculated parameters was also debated. It took several decades, however, before attention
was drawn to the need for systematic evaluation of variability and uncertainty in the basic
geotechnical parameters It was also recognized that the way in which the safety factor is
defined can have a significant influence on the calculated value of F. The allowable or tolerable
factor of safety Fa is based on the experience of the geotechnical engineer and may vary from
as low as 1. 1 for some natural slopes to as much as 3 or 4 for foundations of important
structures. Failures of geotechnical structures sometimes occurred even when the calculated
safety factor was significantly greater than 1. On the other hand, a deterministic approach using
a high safety factor could also lead to an overly conservative design. Therefore, the need was
recognized for fresh perspectives and for developing other methods and approaches in order to
complement conventional deterministic approach
Geotechnical engineering has evolved over the past half century from a soil mechanics and foundation engineering
based component of civil engineering to a field with many sub disciplines that provide earth system information, data,
analysis, design, and construction services required to meet a broad range of societal and environmental needs. The
current status of the discipline is assessed, major unresolved issues are identified, and challenges that must be
addressed in resolving these issues, as well as to enable development of new and better geo solutions are indicated.
The promise and potential for new and emerging technologies - biotechnology, nanotechnology, sensors technology,
geophysical and remote sensing methods, and information technology - are discussed.

Challenges of offshore geotechnical engineering

ABSTRACT Design practice in offshore geotechnical engineering grew out of onshore
practice, but the two application areas have tended to diverge over the last 30 years, driven
partly by the scale of the foundation elements used offshore, and partly by fundamental ...

Reliability issues and future challenges in geotechnical engineering for

offshore structures
The paper describes the role of reliability analysis in the geotechnical design of offshore
structures, and attempts to put in perspective the interrelationship and dependence of the
geotechnical aspects to related fields of offshore engineering. Predictions of foundation ...

[PDF] from roneducate.com

[BOOK] Principles of geotechnical engineering
B Das, K Sobhan - 2013 - books.google.com

... engineering students, as well as for use as a reference book for practicing engineers. ... been added
to the homework prob- lems in most chapters to challenge and enhance ... Since geotechnical
engineering is a practical and application-oriented subject, a few actual case histories ...

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[BOOK] Reliability and statistics in geotechnical engineering
GB Baecher, JT Christian - 2005 - books.google.com

... The uncertainties in geotechnical engineering are largely inductive: starting from limited obser-
vations, judgment ... These challenges have led to inno- vative new technologies for characterizing
site ... They have also forced the engineer to confront uncertain- ties directly and to ...

[PDF] from hindawi.com

Recent advances and future challenges for artificial neural systems
in geotechnical engineering applications
Abstract Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are a form of artificial intelligence that has proved
to provide a high level of competency in solving many complex engineering problems that
are beyond the computational capability of classica lmathematics and traditional ...

Reliability and human factors in geotechnical engineering

... There is ample history of accidents and failures due to both of these categories of challenges
to knowledge. ... The challenge is to apply wisely what is known ... To continue to ignore the human
and organizational issues as an explicit part of geotechnical engineering is to continue to ...

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Soil models in offshore engineering

... The offshore activities in the North Sea have been a very demanding but fruitful challenge to
geotechnical ... Keywords: geotechnical engineering. ... A Historical Chapter: British Royal Engineers'
Papers On Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1837–1874. Authors: Jacob ...

Geotechnical engineering reliability: How well do we know what we are doing?

JT Christian - … of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering, 2004 - ascelibrary.org

... In this context, engineering judgment should be based on a demonstrable chain of reasoning
and not ... is not a property of the world but a state of mind; geotechnical uncertainty is ... The current
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[BOOK] Metaheuristics in water, geotechnical and transport engineering

XS Yang, AH Gandomi, S Talatahari, AH Alavi - 2012 - books.google.com

... 12 Application of ANN in Geotechnical Engineering 10.4 Future Challenges 10.5 Conclusions
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11.1 Introduction 11.2 Neural Networks 11.3 Bayesian Neural Network 11.4 ...

Challenging The Geotechnical Engineers

MF Ma'ruf - 2013 - repository.unej.ac.id

The complexity of the problems addressed force geotechnical engineers to do and to think
out of the box beyond their specialties and to take holistic consideration in every step of their
works. Rapid development of technology, especially information system technology, ...

GEOTECHNICAL RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk management is one of the most important aspects of modern geotechnical engineering
projects and, within an overall strategy, it involves a number of stages and steps. These range
from identification of the hazardous conditions (i.e. the compilation of an inventory), assessment
of hazard or likelihood (including an assessment of the probability of occurrence of the event),
vulnerability of elements at risk, consequences of failure and risk to the assessment, definition
and adoption of values of acceptable or tolerable values of risk and finally to adoption of
decisions and actions including observation, monitoring, communication and research and then
iteratively updating the whole process as required. A simple flow-chart showing the overview of
a risk management strategy for landslide problems is shown here as Figure 7. An important
point to note is the general relevance to Geotechnical Engineering of the methods and
techniques mentioned here, namely the use of GIS and the risk assessment philosophy.
Although the following refers to slope stability, the use of GIS –based risk assessment
strategies and methods can be developed for other geotechnical projects consistent with the
requirements and goals of those projects.

“Emerging trends in Geotechnical Engineering”,

encompass many different subdivisions of the field of Geotechnical Engineering. To name:

Trends in Site investigation; Trends in laboratory testing, analysis New trends in design ;
methods and designs; Trends in ground improvement methods; Trends in geoenvironmental
applications; Trends in utilisation of waste by products; Trends in predicting soil
behaviour;Trends in dealing with underground structures offshore geotechnical structures;
Trends in earthquake related problems and designs; Trends in construction methods under
challenging situations etc. North eastern states being the most rapid developing parts of India,
in terms of various infrastructure projects and hydro projects, are the places where the
application of these new trends with amalgamation of classical soil mechanics principles is vital.
There is a need for students, academicians and practicing professionals for updating their
knowledge about the emerging trends in various geotechnical areas. This workshop presents
some of the emerging trends in the geotechnical engineering practice and research activities. I
am very grateful to the speakers for accepting my request to delivering the lectures and
preparing the paper contributions. It gives me great pleasure to bring out the workshop
proceedings. In this edited volume, about a dozen contributions are included from the eminent
geotechnical researchers in India and other academicians, practicing engineers. The chapters
of this book covers and presents some of the ongoing trends in analyses of ground
improvement methods, utilization of waste products, ground stabilizations, ground response
analyses of rock structures, foundation treatments, designs and analysis, geoenvironmental
challenges and applications, along with construction trends for roads under challenging
conditions. I am very thankful to all the authors for their time and effort in developing the
workshop lectures and sharing their technical experiences. I hope the proceedings will enrich
knowledge of the workshop participants and helps for the future growth of geotechnical
engineering with new trends.

Geotechnical investigation in India differs from that in the USA and European countries in its course of
emergence and evolution. For over half a century, Indian geotechnical investigation professionals
witnessed continuous technical advances as they undertook independently almost all of India’s large-
scale construction projects.
 The achievements of geotechnical investigation in the context of comprehensive technical ability, project
evaluation and analysis, hi-tech applications and engineering monitoring, and analyzes several factors
that have hindered the industry’s further development and alignment with international practice. Finally,
some suggestions are given for future improvement.

Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering is the civil engineering specialty which deals with rock, soil
and any part of a structure that is placed underground. It is the work of these civil
engineers, developing foundations, which makes many amazing civil engineering
structures possible. As an engineering specialty, geotechnical engineering isn’t
limited to just construction, but is also involved in military, mining and petroleum
engineering.

For many construction projects, geotechnical engineers are the first civil engineering
specialty to become involved. Before any design work is done, geotechnical
engineers take core samples of the ground where the work is to be done, so that
they can determine the underlying geology.

A careful analysis of these core samples provides the geotechnical engineer with a
picture of subterranean conditions, which is then used to determine foundation
requirements.

Often, the geotechnical engineer designs the foundation, consulting together with
structural engineers. It is the combination of these two areas of expertise that makes
it possible to develop foundation designs which firmly attach any man-made
structure to the earth.

More than any other single element, it is the design of foundations which make it
possible for structures from skyscrapers to suspension bridges to withstand the
forces of nature. While above-ground structural elements are important, the
foundation is what makes it possible for the structure to remain standing, whether
attacked by gale-force winds, or earthquakes.

Geotechnical Engineering and Tunnels

One engineering project that is predominantly the realm of geotechnical engineers is

tunneling. The rail tunnel from Folkestone, Kent in the United Kingdom to Coquelles,
Pas-de-Calis in northern France has the longest undersea stretch of any tunnel built
to date. Seventy-five percent of the 50.5 kilometer long tunnel is under the English
Channel.

Another amazing tunneling project is the New York City subway system. Started over
100 years ago in 1904, it is one of the largest and longest running subway systems in
the world. Today, the system is still under construction, adding additional lines to
provide increased service. The 468 stations are connected by 209 miles of subway
routes. On any given weekday, over five million passengers ride New York City’s
subway system.

One of the greatest challenges in construction of this subway system is in

maintaining the city’s traffic patterns during construction. Early construction of the
system didn’t take this into account, working by a trench and fill method, where
trenches were cut into the roads, then roofed over. Currently, tunnel boring
machines drill through the ground at a depth of up to 140 feet, allowing the city to
work undisturbed above the construction.

Due to the inconsistency of the soil and bedrock under the city, tunneling for the
subway challenges geotechnical engineers to develop new methods. In areas where
the bedrock is cracked and water is seeping into the rock, the ground is frozen before
boring. This provides stability to the ground, preventing cave-ins during boring
operations.

Once the tunnel is structurally complete, the ground is gradually allowed to thaw.
This is carefully controlled, as thawing too fast can cause cracking in the foundations
and structure of the buildings above.

Geotechnical Engineering and Hydroelectric Dams

Damming a river to create a reservoir and building a hydroelectric plant is a great

technological challenge. Were a dam to be placed upon surface, the river would
erode under the dam and around its edges, destroying it.

Careful analysis of the underground material formation is an essential part of

developing the plans for any dam. The Three Gorges Dam, Which spans the Yangtze
River in China is the world’s largest hydroelectric dam in terms of power output. It
holds back 1.4 trillion cubic feet of water. That’s almost 42 billion tons of weight,
being held back by 100 million cubic feet of concrete.

Building of this dam required rerouting of the third largest river in the world. To do
so, a cofferdam was built, sectioning off about 2/3 of the river’s width. This area was
then pumped dry and construction started. Like any dam building project, this
required removing the riverbed down into the bedrock, so that the dam’s foundation
could be directly into the bedrock.

When the Hoover Dam was built on the Colorado River, the excavation for the
foundation went down to 75 feet below the river bed. The geotechnical engineering
analysis of the underlying soils and rock determined that such a depth was necessary
in order to have the dam anchored to bedrock.

In addition, a large amount of the canyon walls on both sides of the dam had to be
removed, eliminating all cracked and loose rock and providing solid bedrock along
both sides of the dam as well.

Geotechnical Engineering and Building Foundations

Like any other building, skyscrapers require a firm foundation. However, when one is
constructing a building that rises hundreds of feet in the air, the foundation is even
more important. When the 88 floor Jio Mao Tower was built in Shanghai, Taiwan, the
geotechnical engineers were faced with the challenge of poor upper-strata soil
conditions.

To compensate for these soil conditions, 1062 one meter diameter steel piles were
driven 83.5 meters (274 feet) into the ground. They were then capped by a four
meter thick concrete raft. This foundation doesn’t depend upon reaching bedrock,
but rather the friction of the steel piles against the soil.

The Ongoing Challenge for Geotechnical Engineers

As civil engineering strives to build bigger and bigger structures, geotechnical

engineers will constantly have to develop new techniques to make the underlying
ground support those structures. Higher and longer bridges, carrying more traffic to
places where man hasn’t spanned before will need to be firmly anchored to the
earth.
Greater skyscrapers than even Dubai’s Burj Khalifa will create new challenges in
foundation designs which will support the buildings, even during earthquakes.
Longer tunnels, whether for use as aqueducts or for transportation will challenge
today’s boring techniques.

With all this in civil engineering’s future, there will always be a place for geotechnical
engineers. This is a field where innovation will always be sought, but innovation that
is backed up by solid engineering.

Experimental Studies with KOCED Geotechnical Centrifuge: (a) VS Tomography (Bender

element array for VS tomography and a VS tomogram for a uniform sand model), (b) Modeling
of Dams (CFGD modeling and evaluating drainage performance of the material; Model in flight
condition and excavated model after experiment), (c) Piled Raft Foundation (Installation and
loading test; Load supported by piles varies with arrangement), (d) Soil-Foundation-Structure
Interaction (Seismic behavior of buildings under various foundation conditions; Comparison
between response spectrum at the surface and structural response measured from the physical
model experiment)

Ground improvement

Ground improvement will be critically important in future geotechnical practice to achieve

reductions in quantities of material used, reduction in carbon footprint, prevention and
mitigation of natural disasters, treatment and recycling of industrial wastes, remediation of
polluted soils, development of brown field sites and maintenance and rehabilitation of
existing structures. Challenges exist in providing cost-effective sustainable ground
improvement under current economic conditions. These issues are addressed under
categories of reduce, reuse and recycle in the first part of the paper. Selection processes for
ground improvement methodologies, improved analysis, and knowledge of long-term
performance and understanding of effects of variability are required to develop more
efficient designs.

he temple complex was built on the banks of the river cauvery, with its water diverted to the moat. The
walls around the temple was constructed in the form of fortress, to protect the temple from invaders. Even
today the temple has one of the highest gopuram ( 66 meters – 216 feet ) in India. The Kalash ( shikara )
which is installed on top of the Vimana weighs a massive 81.5 tonnes. A ramp was constructed from 6
kms away from the temple complex to roll over the huge shikara on to the gopuram. The entire temple is
built with granite which was not available in the area. Probably it was transported from Trichy Rockfort
area which is located 40 kms away. The inspiration to create the magnificient edifice seems to have been
inspired by the Chalukyan architecture. The gurus advice to atone for the sins in the form of bloodshed of
his rivals to the throne, by building an edifice to Lord Shiva.
The details of the stone work of this imposing vimanam are representative of the masterly
craftsmanship of South Indian artisans. The shilpi [sculptor] and the sthapathi [architect] came
together to create their fanciful abode for Shiva. Naturally, the shape had to echo Mount Kailash itself.
In its perfect geometry and distinct clarity of lines, this tower is unbeatable.
The Srivimanama, or tower over the main shrine, of the Brihadeswarar temple is 61 metres tall.
Imagine that being built in 1002 CE. The foundations for it are only 2 metres deep - it is constructed in
such a way that the weight of the Vimanam is evenly distributed on itself. It is hollow inside and
layered to allow access for the intrepid.
The top the pyramid-shaped tower holds the Vimana - a monolithic huge rock spherical in shape,
weighing approximately 81 tones. Above the Vimana the Kalasam made up of gold can just be seen - its
height is 4m and it was originally presented by Rajaraja Chola 1.
On the flat roofed portions of the structure, you can see many Nandi statues. Each of the 16 or so
layers of the tower contain intricate carvings. If you view this pic large (see link below), you can view
some of them on the lower layers.