SOLA 4012/9007

Grid Connected Photovoltaic Systems

Introduction to inverters
The Inverter …What do I need to think
about?
 System Configurations

MODULE
UPS

STRING

MULTI-
STRING
CENTRAL BES
System with individual module dc/dc
conditioning
PV DCU
String cable PV array switch
disconnectors
(See Note 1)
PV DCU

PV DCU
+ Power
Conditioning
Equipment
- (PCE)
d.c.
Conditioning
Units

PV array overcurrent
protection device
(See Note 2)

PV DCU

LEGEND:
Elements that are not required in all cases
Boundary of system of sub-system
 PV is very modular

• Number of modules in series determines the voltage (a

STRING)
• Number of strings in parallel determines the current
(SUB-ARRAY or ARRAY)

CENTRAL
 Inverter Important elements:
• Conversion from dc to ac
• Control circuits
– Control output waveform
– MPPT
– Control VArs
• Protection 60 –300kW
– Protect the inverter
– Protect the grid
• AC control functions
• Isolation/separation ac to dc
• Data logging
• Communication system
850W
 Inverter Ratings
• ac Output
– rating in VA or kVA
– Voltage
– Current
– Frequency
– Compliance with local grid connection requirements
– Compliance with local EMC-EMI requirements.
• dc Input rating in W or kW
– Voltage range for normal operation
– Voltage limit
– Current Limit
• Power flow uni or bi-directional.
• Power factor
MPPT
MPPT
 Input ratings
Example Input Characteristics
Maximum PV power 2050 Wp
Maximum DC power 1850 W
Maximum DC voltage 400 V
PV-voltage range, MPPT 139V - 350V
Maximum input current 12.6 A
DC voltage ripple < 10 %
Max number of strings parallel 2
DC disconnection Snap cable connections
Thermally monitored varistors Yes
Ground fault monitoring Yes
Reverse polarity protection Short circuit diode
 Output Ratings Example
Max AC power 1700 W
Nominal AC power 1550 W
THD of grid current < 4%

Default range of AC voltage 198 V - 260 V

Possible range of AC voltage 180 V - 265 V

AC frequency 49.5 Hz - 50.2 Hz

Possible range of AC frequency 45.5 Hz - 54.5 Hz

Power Factor 1
Short circuit proof Yes, current control
Connection to utility AC plug
Maximum Efficiency 93.5 %
Mechanical Characteristics
Dimensions 434W x 295H x 214D mm
Weight 25 kg
 VA Rating

• Inverters are often given a VA rating for their ac side

rather than a power because the important limiting
quantity is current which determines the heating of the
switching devices and the transformer.
• If they operate at unity power factor the VA rating = the
power rating.
 Conversion Efficiency
InverterEfficiency vs Output Power.
Efficiency
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Inverter A
50%
Inverter B
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Output Power (W)
 No load and low load losses

• There is no sensible figure for efficiency at zero output

power.
• Important to know:
– Low power losses
o How much power does it take to run the inverter?
– Night losses
o While monitoring the array and/or the grid.
 Inverter Environmental ratings

• Enclosure IP rating
• Temperature rating
– What happens if this is exceeded?
• Mounting requirements
• Ventilation requirements
 IP code AS1939

• Protection provided by enclosures for electrical

equipment
IP

Indicates protection of
Second number
Persons against access to
indicates protection of
hazardous parts and
equipment against
protection of equipment
harmful ingress of
against ingress of solid
water.
foreign objects.
IP code
 e.g. IP54

5
Protection against entry of dust in sufficient
quantities to interfere with satisfactory
operation of equipment

4
Protection against splashing
and spraying of water from
all practical directions.
 Other Issues

• MPPT tracking Efficiency

– Static
– Dynamic
• Surge Protection
• Noise (Audible)
• Noise electrical
– EMC-EMI
Isolation vs Separation
Isolation / Electrical Separation
-A MAJOR Systems Issue

Separated Inverter

Electrical separation
between input and
output, provided here
by a transformer
PV array electrically
separate from the AC grid
Isolation / Electrical Separation
-A MAJOR Systems Issue

Non-Separated
Inverter

No Electrical
separation between
input and output

PV array also electrically

connected to the AC grid
Inverter Multi port separation?

What voltages exist on each port?

What is the separation from port to port?

 What’s Inside –
Inverter Topology

• Majority PWM control

• Isolation?
– Line Freq Transformer – electrical separation
– High Freq Transformer – electrical separation
– Transformerless – no electrical separation
 Basic Transformer
Separated Grid-connected Inverter circuit
 Transformerless
– Basic Inverter circuit
 Transformerless
– Basic Inverter circuit

+
+

-
 Transformerless
– Basic Inverter circuit

+
-

-
 Transformerless
– Basic Inverter circuit

0V

-
 Pulse Width Modulation PWM
+Vdc

-Vdc
 Filtered PWM = SINE

Wave-shapes: Sine.
400

300
Output Voltage (volts)

200

100
- -
0 sine

-100

-200

-300

-400
Time
 PWM Inverters
with transformer
Full bridge with
Inherently Bi-Directional
line-frequency
transformer
 PWM Inverters
Transfomerless

Self commutated
full bridge
VPV > 400V Inherently Bi-Directional
 PWM Inverters
With DC converter/optimizer

Self commutated
full bridge A DC – DC Converter may
provide greater flexibility in
input voltage range.

DC to DC
Converter

Generally not Bi-Directional

 HF Transformer Separation

DC-------------HF------------------ 50Hz ac

DC-------HF-----DC------------ 50Hz ac
Two Transformers each rated at 1kVA

50Hz transformer weighs 30kg and has efficiency of 95%

20kHz transformer weighs 0.5kg and has efficiency of 99%
 HF Transformer
• At least two power conversion stages:
– DC → high freq ;
– high freq → 50 Hz .
• In some cases three:
– DC → high freq ;
– high freq → DC ;
– DC → 50 Hz at 240 V.
• Transformer size much smaller and lighter at
high frequency.
• Transformer more efficient
• Losses in other stages are generally significant.
 DC Side
Impressed Voltage Issues
– Transformerless inverters
– Unearthed arrays
– Line frequency voltages impressed on the array.
– Worries are:
o Capacitively coupled currents to humans in contact
with array.
o Currents induced in building structures.
o High field strengths measured in buildings near
arrays.
 Leakage Currents to Earth

VPV

Source : Martina Calais, Andrew Ruscoe, Michael Dymond. 47th ANZSES Conference 2009
 AC Voltages Impressed on the array-
Transformerless Inverters

Inverter 1 Inverter 2
Ch1 V+ to earth, CH2 V- to earth, CH3 V+ to V- ie array voltage

Source : Martina Calais, Andrew Ruscoe, Michael Dymond. 47th ANZSES Conference 2009
Inverter Checklists…..
 Inverter Check List

• Does it have the functionality for the job

– UPS, BES, Straight PV grid, AC Control Functions.
• Does it have the control options needed?
– MPPT
– VAr control?
– Battery Management?
• Local Grid protection requirements?
– O/U Voltage and frequency settings
– Anti-islanding
– Reconnection requirements
– Transient requirements
– Security of settings
– PF, harmonic, EMC-EMI
 Check-List / Inverter Functionality

• PV-Inverter-Grid
– Module
– String
– Multi-string
– Central
• VAr Control
• PV-Battery-Inverter-Grid
• PV-Battery-Inverter-
– Grid
– Loads (ie UPS)
 Check-List / Inverter Ratings

• AC output
– rating in VA or kVA
– Voltage
– Current
– Frequency
– pf
• DC input rating in W or kW
– Voltage range for normal operation
– Voltage limit
– Current limit
• Power flow uni or bi-directional.
• Inverter Isolation/Separation
• Isolation monitoring of the PV
• RCD Protection for array
 Check-List / Environmental ratings

• Enclosure IP rating
• Temperature rating
– What happens if this is exceeded?
• Mounting requirements
• Ventilation requirements
 Check-List / Data collection

• Data monitoring?
– Parameters monitored.
– Sample rate
– Averaging intervals
• Data Storage?
– How much?
 Check-List / Communication Options

• Fault alarm
• RS232 single serial connection – allows modem
connection.
• RS485 Multiple addressable serial connection.
– Isolation issues important
• Optical Fibre
• Power line carrier
• Radio
• Bluetooth
• WiFi
 Check-List / Other Options

• Power control
• Voltage support
• Data download
• Remote diagnosis
• Re-programming
 SOLA 4012/9007 Grid Connected
Photovoltaic Systems
Lecturer: Jose Bilbao ([email protected])

Inverter Sizing – Voltage Window

Effective temperature of the cell

Tcell = Tamb + Rise°C

25°C well ventillated
40° to 50°C poorly ventillated

Where
Tcell = cell temperature, in °C

Tamb = ambient temperature, in °C

 Matching the PV Array to the Voltage
Specifications of an Inverter
• Inverters have a Input Characteristics
voltage operating Maximum PV power 2050 Wp
window.
• If the solar voltage is Maximum DC power 1850 W
outside this window the
Maximum DC voltage 400 V
inverter will not operate
• If maximum input PV-voltage range, MPPT 140V - 350V
voltage is exceeded
then the inverter could Maximum input current 12.6 A
be damaged.
DC voltage ripple < 10 %
 Effect of Temperature on V
• The output voltage of a module
is affected by cell temperature
changes Current (A)
• The manufacturers will provide a
voltage coefficient. Decreasing
• It is generally specified in volts maximum power
point (MPP), Pmp
or mV/K but it can be expressed 0°C
as a % (e.g. 0.3%/K). 25°C
• Minimum and maximum day 50°C
time temperatures for that Voltage (V) 75°C
specific site are required.
 Calculating Vmp

Vmp = Vmp _ STC − γ v (Tcell − TSTC )

Where:
• Vmp = Maximum Power Point Voltage at given cell temp (Tcell), (in Volts)
• Vmp_stc = Maximum Power Point Voltage at STC, (in Volts)
• γv = voltage temperature co-efficient , (in V/°C)
• Tcell = cell temperature, (in °C)
• Tstc = cell temperature at standard test conditions, (in °C)
 Calculating Voc

Voc _ max = Voc _ STC − γ v (Tmin − TSTC )

Where:
• Voc_max = open circuit voltage at minimum cell temp (Tmin), (in Volts)
• Voc_stc = open circuit voltage at STC, (in Volts)
• γv = voltage temperature co-efficient , (in V/°C)
• Tmin = expected minimum daily cell temperature, (in °C)
• Tstc = cell temperature at standard test conditions, (in °C)
 Minimum and Maximum Voltages..

• The minimum MPP voltage will occur at highest cell

temperature
– Allow a rise above ambient dependent on ventilation
– Typically occurs in the middle of the day when max
current flowing (Allow 3% V drop in cables)

• The maximum MPP voltage and Voc will occur at lowest

temperature
– Depends on location
– Typically early in the morning before the array heats
up and with very small currents flowing.
 Array temperature during Day
60 1200

Temp Array1
Ambient Temp
50 1000
Tilted Global Insolation

40 800

Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

Temperature (°C)

30 600

20 400

10 200

0 0
 Safety Margins on
Inverter Input Voltages

• Recommend allow an extra safety margin

– 10% on Minimum Vmp
– 5% on Maximum Voc and Vmp
Example: Find Number of modules you
can safely connect
Inverter voltages:
– Operation voltage window = 140-350V
– Vmax = 400V

Module data:
– Vmp at STC of 35.4
– Voc at STC of 43.2
– voltage coefficient of 0.14V/°C /module

Effective Cell temperature range is:

– Maximum = 40°C (Tamb) + 35°C (Trise) = 75°C
– Minimum = 10°C (Tamb_morning)
 V window after safety margins

Voltage Window of Inverter is:

– 140-350V
– inverter max V is 400V

Voltage Window of Inverter after safety margins

allowed is:
– 140V + 10% = 154V
– 350V – 5% = 332.5V
– 400V – 5% = 380V
 Minimum Number of Modules in String
Max Cell Temperature = 75°C (ambient + 35°C rise)

Check min array operating voltage (i.e. at max cell temp),

against Min Inverter Voltage operating window

Minimum Vmp at max cell temperature

Vmp_mod = Vmp_stc - γv (Tcell - Tstc)
= 35.4 – 0.14 x (75-25) = 28.4V

Assuming 3% voltage drop to inverter

Vat_inverter = 0.97 x 28.4V = 27.55V/module

From before: Min inverter voltage = 154V with safety margin.

Minimum number of modules = 154/27.55 = 5.6 ~ round up to 6
 Max Number of Modules in String
Early morning temperature is 10°C, assume this is lowest cell effective
temperature (highest V)

Check Max Voc array voltage against Max Inverter V

Maximum Voc at cell temperature (temp is lowest)

VMax_oc. = Voc-stc - γv × (Tcell - Tstc)
= 43.2 – 0.14 x (10-25) = 45.3V/module

Allow for worst case:

No voltage drop i.e. inverter is not outputting power
Maximum allowed inverter voltage = 380V with safety margin.
Maximum number of modules = 380/45.3= 8.39
Nearest whole number less than maximum is 8 (round down)
 Max Number of Modules in String
Early morning temperature is 10°C assume this is lowest cell effective
temperature (Highest V)

Check Max Vmp voltage against Max Inverter operating window

Maximum Vmp at cell low temperature

Vmp = Vmp_stc - γv (Tcell - Tstc)
= 35.4 – 0.14 x (10-25) = 37.5V/module

Allow for worst case

No voltage drop i.e. no power output
Maximum inverter operating voltage = 332.5V with safety margin.
Maximum number of modules = 332.5/37.5= 8.86
Nearest whole number less than maximum is 8 (round down)
 How many modules?

• String between 6 and 8

• Actual number 5.6-8.39
• In areas with uniformly higher temps –
recommend 8
What about effect of different irradiation
levels?
• The above calculations were Current
all based on STC, that is 1.25kW/m²

irradiance of 1000 W/m2

1.00kW/m²

0.75kW/m²
• Voc and Vmp does vary with
irradiance. 0.50kW/m²

0.25kW/m²

Voltage
How to determine the MPP voltage at
different irradiance levels?

Vmp ( per cell ) at a different irradiance level to STC

  G 2 
Vmp 2 = Vmp _ STC + (26 mV ) × ln  
  G STC 

Where
Vmp2 = MPP voltage of the cell at irradiation G2
Vmp_STC = MPP voltage of the cell at STC
G2 = Irradiance level in W/m2
GSTC = Irradiance level at STC, that is 1000 W/m2
 Low irradiance

• If you take into account low irradiance conditions

causing low voltage then those low irradiance
conditions would need to correspond to high
temperature operation to affect the voltage
window.
• More often than not the calculation is not
required.
Matching PV Array Power Output to the
Inverters Power rating
• The power rating of the array often has to be derated
from that specified by the manufacturer due to:
– Temperature
– Dirt
– Manufacturers tolerances and miss-match
– Cable losses, etc.
• In addition, the power from the array will be
decreased due to voltage drop between the array and
the inverter.
 Typical derating for Australia –
Crystalline Modules (1/2)
• With temperature rises typically in the 15°C to 35°C,
range then the output power of the polycrystalline
module will be derated 7.5% to 18% due to
temperature.
• Dirt, manufacturers tolerances (and mismatch) and
power loss in the cables (voltage drop) will typically be
anything from 3% to 15% loss.
• Peak output rating of the inverter could be 12% to 35%
less than the peak rating of the array.
 Typical derating for Australia –
Crystalline Modules (2/2)
• However it is suggested that the inverter peak power
be no less than 80% to 85% of that of the Peak Power
rating of the crystalline array
• If peak power of the array is 1kWp , then the inverter
rating ≥ 800 to 850 watts.
• Very overrated inverter is not generally good for
efficiency reasons (see inverter efficiency curve).
• Very underrated inverter can cause loss of yield
• Consider derating factors and
• FOLLOW MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS
 Typical Derating for Australia – Thin
Film Modules
• Array derating - between 5% and 15%.
• Recommend that inverter peak power be no less
than 85% - 90% of that of the Peak Power rating of
the thin film array.
• If the peak power of the array is 1kWp , the inverter
rating - >no less than 850-900 watts.
• Very overrated inverter is not generally good for
efficiency reasons.
• Very underrated inverter can cause loss of yield
SOLA 4012/9007 Grid Connected
Photovoltaic Systems
Lecturer: Jose Bilbao ([email protected])

Inverter Power Matching

 Selecting the type of Inverter

Module inverter:
<150W
String or multi-string
Inverter >1-10kW

Central inverter: >20kW

 Selecting an inverter- things to
consider?
• The peak rating of the PV array;
• Voltage window
• Whether the solar modules are all in the same
plane, or at least the same tilt angle and direction;
• The type of shading that occurs on the array;
• The efficiency;
• The capital costs of the different inverters; and
• Many more… check earlier ppt on inverters
 Where are the power losses in a grid
connect PV System?
• Efficiency of PV cells/module;
• Temperature of the PV module;
• Dirt;
• Manufacturer’s Tolerances and module mismatch;
• Voltage drop in DC cables to inverter;
• Inverter efficiency; and
• Voltage drop in AC cables to point of connection
to grid.
 Efficiency of Solar Modules

Pmp (W)
η= × 100%
Amod (m ) × 1,000 (W/m )
2 2

where
Pmp = module rating at peak power (WP),
Amod = module area (m2)
 Temperature of the PV module

• Power Temperature coefficient

• (-)0.40%/°C Monocrystalline
• (-)0.50%/°C Polycrystalline
• Thin Film??
 Effective temperature of the cell

Tcell _ eff = Tave _ amb + Rise°C

25°C well ventillated
40° to 50°C poorly ventillated
Where
• Tcell_eff = the average daily effective cell temp, in °C
• Tave_amb = the daytime average Max ambient
temperature for the month that the cell temperature
is being determined.
Power Temperature Derating Factor for
power rating

𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 1 − (𝛾 × (𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐_𝑒𝑒𝑒_𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆 ))

Where:
• ftemp = temperature derating factor, dimensionless
• γ = power temperature co-efficient, in (%/°C)
• Tcell_eff_Max = average daily MAX cell temperature, in °C
• Tstc = cell temperature at standard test conditions,
measured in degrees Celsius.
• Consider the month with highest insolation
 Dirt

fdirt is used as derating factor for dirt

and it is dimensionless

• Is the site dusty?

• Is there pollution that will
form a screen on the
glass?
• Is it in a salty
environment?
• How often does it rain?
Derating factors considered for inverter
power rating
• Module temperature power derating.
• dirt,
• Vdrop, (not manufacturer’s derating yet)
• Shading and how that might affect voltage
window.
• Are there regular cloud focusing events?
 SOLA 4012/9007 Grid Connected
Photovoltaic Systems
Lecturer: Jose Bilbao ([email protected])

Inverter System Configurations

 Central Inverters

ADVANTAGES:
• Inverter is typically cheaper in $/W
• Inverter is typically more efficient at full load.
• Because it is a high cost item can economically
have more “features”
 Central Inverters
DISADVANTAGES:
• Long DC wiring - typically increases cost and
can decrease safety
• No means of independently operating sections
of the PV array at their MPP
• Due to the large size, a modular,
flexible/extensible design is harder to realise.
• Monitoring of array sections is not inherent in the
design
• All the heat load in one location
 Module Integrated / Micro Inverters

ADVANTAGES:
• Allows for highest system flexibility
• Each module has its own MPP tracking
• No DC wiring is required
• Can communicate with individual inverters.
 Module Integrated / Micro Inverters

DISADVANTAGES:
• High cost per Watt
• Difficult and expensive replacement
• Some countries demand additional safety
requirements
• Operate in a high temperature environment
adjacent to modules.
 String Inverters ~

• Combine advantages of central and module

integrated inverters (up to a certain point…)
• PV array consists of a number of PV modules
connected in series (sometimes 2 strings in parallel)
• MPPT small sections of array.
• Data from each inverter.
• Higher power range decreases price per Watt
• System efficiency can be sometimes 1-3% higher
than with central inverters
Multiple
MPPT Inverter
(multi-string)
Technology Development
 New Trends/Concepts

• 3 Phase inverters in small sizes to decrease

capacitor requirements.
• Team or Master Slave Concept
– string technology will be combined with a
master-slave concept.
– low irradiation all strings in parallel to one
inverter.
– higher irradiation PV array - sub-arrays
connected to more inverters.
 Team / Master Slave Concept

Output stages enabled as the power output increases.

Maintains high efficiency over a broad range of output power.
Individual module dc/dc conditioning

PV DCU
String cable PV array switch
disconnectors
(See Note 1)
PV DCU

PV DCU
+ Power
Conditioning
Equipment
- (PCE)
d.c.
Conditioning
Units

PV array overcurrent
protection device
(See Note 2)

PV DCU

LEGEND:
Elements that are not required in all cases
Boundary of system of sub-system
 DC Conditioning Units

• Advantages
– Individually track modules
– Can shutdown at module level
– Can support modules in different orientations
• Disadvantages
– DC conditioning units in a hot environment
– More failure points in a system
Efficiencies

Transformerless

50Hz Transformer
Efficiencies
 But before, let’s quickly talk about
Temp Coefficients for Vmp

Ref: King et al. http://www.scintec.it/ricerca/energia/sp2.pdf

PV arrays are unique electrical systems

• Multiple series / parallel connected sources

• Current limited (but highly variable)
• DC - design and protection different to AC
• Being applied at relatively high DC voltages
• Distributed over a large area & not enclosed
• Exposed to the elements, to wind, rain, hail,
lightning, vibration, thermal cycling and UV
• Some systems are connected to batteries
• Some with transformerless inverters -> GRID.
Wide range of Installations
 Why DC voltages can be an issue?

• Let’s try Socrative!

• Go to https://b.socrative.com/login/student/
• The room name is SOLA4012

• Show videos!
 Series / Parallel

• Series / Paralleled modules to produce the

required power output
• Issues
– Matching
– Shading
– Voltages Remember each
module is an
– Protection electrical source.
Orientation Challenge #1, Before
Orientation Challenge #1, After
 Orientation Challenge #2

• Multiple orientations
in same string
• 24 modules in
series
• 3 orientations
– East 45° tilt
– South 45° tilt
– West 45° tilt
 Simple string connected in series

I Mod ule
4

I 1 module
3

0 V
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

-1

-2
 5 modules in series

5 Iarray
4 I Module
I
3

0 V
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130
-1

-2

• All modules identical, same temp and uniformly illuminated.

• Same current through each module (because in series).
• For each current value – voltages add.
 4 strings in parallel

20
Iarray
I_one_string
15
I

10

0
V
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130
-5

-10

• All modules identical, same temp and uniformly illuminated.

• Same voltage across each string (because in parallel)
• For each string voltage value – currents from each string add.
Array Configurations
What happens with Shading?
1) Self-shading
What happens with Shading?
2) Obstructions
What happens with Shading?
3) Snow shading
Shading is a worldwide problem
 Shading of a string

4 modules in a string, 1 module 50% shaded

Possible causes of fault: PV Array

• Module dirty Cable
• Defective cell
• Shade from tree

Vm
 I-V curves of shaded string
without bypass diodes
Current (I)

5
String I-V
curve after 4 I-V curve of
shading 50 % shaded
3 module
Operating voltage
Current +ve 2
of shaded module I-V Curve of
direction
When string is 1 3 series good
short circuited modules

-100 -60 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

Voltage (V)
Shading with string short circuit - worst
case

Vgood
V=0

Vshaded = - Vgood
 Shading in a string
I = +ve I = +ve
-

+
V = +ve V = -ve
-

-
+

These are the normal voltage This is a situation when a module in a string is shaded and if
and normal current directions for the string voltage is reduced (or worse shorted) then the
a PV module shaded module can have a reverse voltage applied to it.
MODULE CAN THEN BE ABSORBING POWER
 I-V Curves of shaded string
with bypass diodes
Current (I)
String I-V
curve before
5 shading

4 I-V curve of String I-V

50 % shaded curve after
Operating 3 module shading
voltage of
shaded 2
module I-V Curve of
when string 1 3 series good
is short modules
circuited
-10 0 10 30 50 70 90
Voltage (V)
More on bypass diodes:
http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/bypass-diodes
 Bypass Diodes

Bypass diodes may be used to prevent PV

modules from being reverse biased and
consequent hot spot heating.
• voltage rating at least 2  VOC MOD

• current rating of at least 1.4  ISC MOD

 Effect of shading or mismatching on
single string: hotspots

Source: Photovoltaics - System Design and Practice, Haberlin

 Temperature affects
Current (I) 25C
5

-100 -60 -20 0 5 10 15 20

Voltage (V)
 Temperature affects
Current (I) 50C
5

-100 -60 -20 0 5 10 15 20

Voltage (V)
 Temperature affects
Current (I) 75C
5

-100 -60 -20 0 5 10 15 20

Voltage (V)
 Temperature affects
Current (I)

-100 -60 -20 0 5 10 15 20

Voltage (V)
Mismatch of Strings in parallel

One
string
Hotter!

Worst
case
S/C
 Blocking Diodes

• Prevent reverse currents from battery systems

leaking into a PV array at night
• Prevent reverse string current
• NOT a SUBSTITUTE for PROTECTION
– voltage rating at least 2  VOC ARRAY
– current rating at least 1.4  Relevant Rated
Current
 Array Layout

• How do I fit my array on the roof?

• How do I layout the strings of my array?

• What are the main issues?

Not just California
 Array Layout

• How do I fit my array on the roof?

– Physical constraints and module sizes.
• How do I layout the strings of my array?
– Thermal issues
– Shading issues
 Thermal Issues
Which arrangement is best?
a) Circuit connections
Physical layout
 Thermal Issues
Which arrangement is best?
b) Circuit connections
Physical layout
 Shading Issues
Which arrangement is best?
a) Circuit connections
Physical layout
 Shading Issues
Which arrangement is best?
b) Circuit connections
Physical layout
Shading assessment
Shading Diagram
 Why Batteries?

• Energy Storage
• Variability of renewable resources
• Allow time shifting of grid import/export
• Allow optimisation of:
– Energy
– Costs or profits
– And more!
 Simple Battery System

• Multimode PG
Inverter
• Inverter controls PL
PPV
power & energy
flows
PB

Power flow:
PG = PPV - PB - PL
 Another – Battery -PV System

• Inverter charger PG
• System controls
PPV
for power &
PL
energy flows

PB

Power flow:
PG = PPV - PB - PL
 Batteries are not perfect
• <100% efficient
– 80-90% roundtrip efficiency depending on
type and charge control.
• Limited cycle life
– dependent on depth of discharge
– Capacity can decrease over life
• Temperature dependent
• Requires maintenance
• Not easily paralleled
 Batteries are not perfect (cont.)
• Have limited capacity 100%

• Have limited DOD BATTERY

0%
• Have limits on the maximum
current
– Hence a limit on the power
either into or out of the battery
 Battery Capacity

• Expressed in Amp hours (Ah)

– Battery current output x time
• Dependent on the rate of discharge...ie the
current
• Example
– C10 = 124 Ah 12.4A for 10 hrs

– C25 = 150 Ah 6A for 25 hrs

– C100 = 207 Ah 2.07A for 100 hrs

 Battery - Depth of Discharge (DOD)

• Amount of energy withdrawn from a battery

expressed as a % of total capacity.
• eg Battery with C100 = 207 Ah
– Discharge at 2A for a period of 30 hours (60Ah)
– DOD = (2 x 30/207) x 100 %
– DOD ≈ 30 % 100%
DOD

BATTERY

0%
 DOD

• eg Same Battery with C100 = 207 Ah

– Discharge at 12A for a period of 5 hours (60Ah)
– Socrative time?
– Have to use C10 = 124 Ah
– DOD = (12 x 5/124) x 100 %
– DOD ≈ 50 %
• Although the same Ah withdrawn in each case
battery discharged at a higher rate suffers greater
DOD
 Battery State of charge...(SOC)
• Amount of energy remaining in a battery
expressed as a % of total capacity.
• SOC = 100 - DOD

100%
DOD

BATTERY
SOC
Battery capacity derating with
temperature

120
% of Rated Battery Capacity

100

80
C/20
60
C/5
40

20

0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Temperature Deg C
Life dependent on DOD (lead-acid)
 Useful capacity < 100%

100%
DOD
Max
DOD BATTERY

• Battery with 1000Ah capacity and max DOD

of 80% then the usable capacity is only
800Ah
 Battery Energy

Energy = Nominal Voltage (V) x Amp Hours (Ah)

• Units Watt hours

• Ah is another way of expressing capacity
• Use Ah capacity at discharge rate in actual use
 Battery SOC & DOD - Using Energy

Battery State of Charge (SOC)

Energy _ stored _ in _ battery
 100%
Battery _ Energy _ Capacity

Depth of Discharge (DOD) = (100 – SOC)%

ie the amount the battery has been discharged

 Battery State of Charge (SOC)
using energy units

SOC   BatteryPow er.dt  Initial _ SOC

d ( SOC)
BatteryPow er 
dt
• SOC has limits ie:
• 0 ≤ SOC ≤ Battery Capacity
 Let’s go back to our simple battery
system
• Multimode PG
Inverter
• Inverter PL
controls Power PPV
& energy flows
PB

Power flow:
PG = PPV - PB - PL
Operation Examples
 No PV and no Battery

Load

Grid
Import

When ‘importing’, then

Grid Export = - Load
Add PV ....
 PV with No Battery

Grid Export = PV power - Load

 PV with Battery
Battery
FULL

2kWh Battery

Grid Export = (PV power) – Load – (Battery power)

PV with Bigger battery....6kWh
 Design

• Bigger batteries mean more options for energy

storage and later use
• Comes at a higher system cost, may not be
economical in most cases yet
• But, battery prices are dropping rapidly…
 Designing a system, why?

A PV grid-connected system will, in general, be

designed in accordance with one of the following
limiting design criteria:
• Designed to meet yearly energy usage;
• Designed to meet a budget often based on
specifying standard systems (eg 2kWp , 3kWp
etc); or
• Designed to fit on available roof area.
 Designing a system, How?

• Undertaking a thorough site audit;

• Determining how large the system will be ;
• Selecting and matching the individual
components; and
• Determining the best location for the installation
of the components.
 Undertaking a site survey

1. To access what are the occupational safety and

health risks when working on that particular
site.
2. To determine the solar access for the site
3. To determine whether any shadowing will occur
and estimating its effect on the system
4. Estimating the solar resource for the site
5. To determine the available space for the solar
array
– Does it need to be split into sub-arrays?
 Undertaking a site survey…cont

6. To determine whether the roof is suitable for

mounting the array
7. To determine how the modules are mounted on
the roof
8. To determine where the switchboard is located
9. To determine where the inverter, switches and
junction boxes will be located
10.To determine the cabling route and therefore
estimate the lengths of the cable runs
 1. Occupational Safety and Health

• Look at site with respect to risks.

• More detail in following lectures

 2. Solar Access for the Site

The solar access could be reduced due to:

• Natural landscapes e.g. mountains or hills
• Trees or other vegetation
• Other buildings
• Parts of the actual building where the system will
be located eg sections of roof, TV aerials
 3. Shadowing

• Use Solar pathfinder

• Shadowing Programs or Software
• Options for strings
9
 Inter-row shading - Sun Path Diagram
AZIMUTH

4pm 8am

ELEVATION
9º 53º

http://solardat.uoregon.edu/cgi-bin/SunChart.cgi
 RACK
h

9º g

h
tan(9) 
g

RACK
d
Top View cos(53) 
d
g
g
53º
 Min distance

• If height of array is say h =1.5m.

• Shadow length is g where:

h 1.5
g    9.47 m
tan(9) 0.1584

• Min distance d is:

d  g cos(53)  9.47  0.602  5.7m

 4. Solar Resource at the site

The irradiation varies as a result of:

• Tilt angle of the array
• Direction the array is facing
• Shading effect of objects.

H = yearly average daily irradiation, in kWh/m2/year for a specified angle

Irradiation vs tilt and orientation - Sydney
Azimuth Tilt Angle
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 97% 91% 84% 75% 64%
10 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 91% 84% 75% 64%
20 87% 93% 97% 99% 98% 95% 90% 83% 74% 64%
30 87% 93% 96% 98% 97% 94% 88% 81% 73% 63%
40 87% 92% 95% 96% 95% 91% 86% 79% 71% 63%
50 87% 91% 94% 94% 92% 89% 84% 77% 69% 61%
60 87% 90% 92% 91% 89% 86% 80% 74% 67% 60%
70 87% 89% 90% 89% 86% 82% 77% 71% 64% 57%
80 87% 88% 88% 86% 82% 78% 73% 68% 61% 55%
90 87% 87% 86% 82% 79% 74% 69% 64% 58% 52%
100 87% 86% 84% 80% 75% 70% 65% 60% 54% 48%
110 87% 85% 81% 77% 71% 66% 61% 55% 50% 44%
120 87% 84% 79% 73% 68% 62% 56% 51% 45% 40%
130 87% 83% 77% 71% 64% 57% 52% 46% 41% 37%
140 87% 82% 76% 68% 61% 54% 47% 42% 37% 34%
150 87% 81% 74% 66% 58% 50% 44% 38% 34% 30%
160 87% 81% 73% 65% 56% 48% 41% 35% 31% 28%
170 87% 81% 73% 64% 55% 47% 39% 34% 29% 27%
180 87% 81% 73% 63% 54% 46% 39% 33% 28% 26%
 Solar Resource Data

• PVWatts (http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/pvwatts.php)
– Gives yield calculations for different locations on
earth for PV arrays at different elevation’s and
azimuth’s.
• NASA (http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/)
• BOM (http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/)
• SAM
• PVSyst
• APVI maps
• Etc.
 NASA data

http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/
 BOM data

http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/
 Units - Irradiation

• Irradiation in kWh/m2/day (or other time period month,

year, etc.)
OR
• MJ/m2 and specify a time period (day, month, year
etc.)
OR
• Peak Sun Hours (PSH)
– Number of hours at 1kW/m2 that would give the
same energy as the actual irradiation profile for the
site during one day.
– 6 PSH = 6kWh/m2 (per day)
 5. Available Space

• Calculate area
• Calculate how many modules could fit on the
roof
 6. Suitability of Roof (or ground,
carport, etc.)
• That the roof is strong enough to hold the weight
of the array
• That the roof receives sufficient solar access
• That there is sufficient area (with good solar
access) to mount the array
• How old are the tiles and what is the risk of
damage during installation?
• The tilt angle of the roof and the direction it
faces.
 7. Determine how the modules are
mounted on the roof?
Retrofit Building integrated
 8 & 9 Selecting the Location of the
System Equipment
PV modules

• Interconnection to
the grid (point 8)
• Location of Array Connection box Electrical
Junction Box loads

• Location of
Inverter
Switches Net-meter
• Location of
Inverter
• Location of Meter Grid
connection
Meter and a.c switches
. Inverter
and SPD’s to be
installed in switchboard
on outside wall Array Junction Box
& d.c. Isolator

4.0 mm2 cable- 6m in length N

2kWP array-

XYZ Solar Installation Company

Site Plan: ABC Customer
Drawn By: Date:
Checked By: Drawing
Number:
Scale:
23
 10. Determining the Cable Runs

The cable runs include:

• Solar array to array junction box (JB)
• OR in larger systems:
– Solar array to string JB
– String JB to array JB
• Array junction box to inverter
• Inverter to meter
• Meter to grid connection (if not same location)
 Other Design Issues

• Wind loading of array;

• Selecting the type of inverter ;
– Matching array to voltage window of inverter;
OR
– Selecting inverter to meet array rating;
• Sizing the cables;
• Sizing the protection equipment;
• Determining the system losses; and
• Calculating energy yield and performance factor.
Calculating the wind loading of the
array
 Wind Loading

• Standard AS1170
• Important:
– Module requirements
– Module to Frame strength
– Frame strength
– Frame to structure or ground strength
 Wind Loading

2) Wind 3) Terrain
1) Geometry
Region Category

6) Minimum
5) Wind 4)
Edge
Presure Topography
Distance

7) Required
Base Rails 8) Screws
 Wind Loading procedure

• Check that the geometry of the house is within the

specified limits.
• Find the wind region for the location.
• Choose a category for the surrounding terrain.
• Choose an appropriate topographic class.
• Use the region and categories:
– to check that the solar panel is strong enough for
wind pressure.
– get the minimum roof edge distance for the solar
panels.
– determine the frame and mounting requirements.
• Check screw attachment requirements.
Wind Region
 Voltage drop in cables

• AS/NZS5033 recommends a maximum voltage

drop of 3% between the solar array and the
inverter.
• AS/NZS3000 allows a max voltage drop in
installations to be 5% on the AC side
• The new AS/NZS4777.1 will make this a
maximum of 2% on the AC from the inverter to
the point of supply.
 What is effect of 3%?

• Since P=Volts x Current for DC, if there is a 3%

voltage drop there will be a 3% power drop
between the array and the inverter.
• 3% power drop in a 3000 watt array is
equivalent to loosing the output of a 90W solar
module → EXPENSIVE!
• Should aim for less than 3% if practical
– Consider spending a little more for thicker
wire!
 Inverter efficiency

• There are losses in the inverter due to

transformer losses, power switching and self
consumption eg monitoring etc.
• Most modern inverters achieve above 90%
efficiency when the output is above 10% of the
inverter rating.
• Typically inverters will be operating in the range
of 92- 96% efficiency
 Ratings of protection, cables, switches,
etc.
• Is overcurrent protection required??
• Voltage rating
Common to all
• Temperature rating
• Select cables
– Current rating in enclosure
– Voltage drop over length
• Select switches
– Current ratings and
– capability of contacts to interrupt
 DC and AC cable selection.
The cables in an installation must be selected
correctly so that:
– there is not excessive current through the
cables compared with the safe current
handling capability of the cables; and
– there are not excessive voltage drops (also
corresponding power loss) in the cables;
– maximum voltage rating of any cable is never
exceeded
– The temperature rating of the cable is never
exceeded Must satisfy ALL these conditions
 Current Carrying Capacity

• The CCC of the cables is effected by:

– cross sectional area (mm2) of the conductor,
– the type of insulation around the wire
and
– the environment in which the cable is
installed.
 Cable ratings

• Use manufacturer’s data where possible.

– Module cable
– Solar cable
• An example of cable rating factors can be found
in AS/NZS3008.1 (AC cables)
 Current-carrying capacity for standard
PV cables
Type Cable Maximum Current in A
cross
section in Individually Laid Accumulation: six
mm2 cores in a bunch

300C 550C 700C 550C 700C

AEG Solar 2.5 42 32 24 17 13
cable
(max 4 56 42 32 22 17
900C)
Radox 2.5 49 38 34 20 18
125 (max
4 66 51 45 27 24
1250C)
Titanex 2.5 33 24 17 13 9
11 (max
4 45 33 23 17 12
850C)
Current ratings of cables
AS3008.1
 Temperature

AS/NZS3008.1
 Calculating the Energy Yield for a PV
Grid-Connected System?
The losses in a grid-connect PV system simply can
be broken into two areas:
• The derating of the PV array due to:
– temperature, dirt, manufacturers tolerances
and mismatching
• System losses which include:
– inverter efficiency and cable losses (voltage
drop) which combined is known as the sub-
system efficiency.

41
 Losses
PV LOSSES

SYSTEM LOSSES

 pv_ ss
 Derating of PV Array

Parray  Parray_ STC  f temp  f mm  f dirt

Where:
Parray = derated output power of the array, in kW
Parray.STC = rated output power of the array under
standard test conditions, in watts
ftemp = temperature de-rating factor.... dimensionless
fmm = de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance
and mis-match.... dimensionless
fdirt = de-rating factor for dirt..... dimensionless

43
 The big question......
What is a Standard?

A Standard :
sets out specifications and procedures
designed to ensure that a material, product,
method or service is fit for its purpose and
consistently performs the way it was meant to
perform.
 Why are Standards important?

• Safety, quality, reliability;

• Compatibility of systems and components; and
• Protecting the environment.
• Facilitating international trade and
technical communication;
• Promoting confidence in products and services;
• Establishing order and convenience;
 Why an Array Standard?

Large Range of Applications

• Stand alone
– Solar Home System (SHS)
– Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) hybrid
systems
• Grid connected
– Small single module systems
– Medium size home systems 1-3kW
– MW size systems
 Why an Array Standard?

• Systems from tens of W to multi MW

• Voltages from 12V to 1000V and pushing above
this.
• Earthed and unearthed arrays.
• Earthed and unearthed array frames.
• Transformers & inverter separation/isolation:
– 50hz transformers
– Transformerless
– HF transformers
 What is Standards Australia?

• Standards Australia is:

– Australia’s leading standards writing
organisation.
• It prepares and publishes the majority of
Australia’s standards in co-operation with
interested stakeholders (i.e. parties involved in
the subject of the Standard).
How are the Standards developed?

Standards Australia is a purely neutral facilitator.

• SA has no voting rights
• 80% agreement is required before a Standard is
finalised and no major sectional interest can
maintain a negative vote
 Australian Standards

• AS/NZS 5033 2014 Installation of photovoltaic

(PV) arrays
• AS4777 Grid connection of energy systems via
inverters
– Part1 Installation requirements
– Part 2 Inverter requirements
– Part 3 Protection requirements
• AS/NZS 4777 currently under revision
 Main Requirements of St

Safety

People Equipment
 General Philosophy

Safety
People Equipment
wire selection
& installation
disconnecting overcurrent
means protection
class of insulation

emergency overvoltage
shutdown earth fault protection
& alarms protection

marking earthing
requirements

documentation
equipment
requirements
 What the AS/NZS 5033 Standard
Covers
• Both grid-connected and standalone PV arrays
up to 1500V wrt earth
– Protection requirements
– Wiring requirements
– Component requirements
– Earthing & Bonding
– Marking requirements
– Documentation
– Commissioning requirements
 “far more people are killed in fires attributed
to electrical equipment and wiring than are
killed as a result of electric shock.”

In UK in 1979:
Fires caused by electrical apparatus & wiring = 26,284
Fire deaths = 207
Electrocution = 37

Source:“ELECTRICAL SAFETY a guide to the causes and prevention of

electrical hazards” by J. Maxwell Adams 1997
 House Fires in USA - 2006

• During a typical year, home electrical problems

account for 67,800 fires, 485 deaths, and $868
million in property losses.
• Home electrical wiring causes twice as many
fires as electrical appliances.

Source: Homeland Security publication - March 2006 Doc : AE3F756Cd01.pdf, from:

http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/citizens/all_citizens/home_fire_prev/electrical.shtm
 Are Standards Mandatory?

• Observance of Australian Standards is voluntary

unless they are required (mandated) by:
– A contract;
– Government (Federal or State) legislation.
 AS/NZS 3000:2000

• One of the mandatory standards is:

– AS/NZS 3000:2000 Electrical Installations –
Wiring Rules

• This Standard is called up in government

legislation in each state
 Committee EL42
Renewable Energy Systems
• Published standards are:
• The AS 4509 Stand-alone power systems series
• The AS 4777 Grid connection of energy systems
via inverters series
• AS/NZS 5033 Installation of Photovoltaic (PV)
Arrays
• AS/NZS 6805 Stand-alone inverter –
performance requirements
 IEC TC82 Photovoltaics

• International standards for IEC countries

• Working Groups
– WG 1 Glossary
– WG 2 Modules
– WG 3 Systems
– WG 6 BOS components
– WG 7 Concentrators
– JWG developing Country Stds
Very Important IEC Stds for modules &
Installation
• IEC 61215 “Crystalline silicon terrestrial
photovoltaic (PV) modules – Design qualification
and type approval”
• IEC 61646 “Thin-film terrestrial photovoltaic
(PV) modules – Design qualification and type
approval”
• IEC 61730-1 & 2 “Photovoltaic (PV) module
safety qualification
– Part 1: Requirements for construction”
– Part 2: Requirements for testing”
Very Important IEC Stds for modules &
Installation
• IEC 62109-1 and 2 “Safety of power converters
for use in photovoltaic power systems”
• IEC 62446 “Grid connected photovoltaic
systems – Minimum requirements for system
documentation, commissioning tests and
inspection”
– IEC 60269-6 -Fuses
– EN 50521 - Connectors
PV Arrays - different to the usual house
wiring!
• DC wiring (except for micro or module inverters)
– unfamiliar territory for electricians
– Arc faults a problem even at relatively low dc
voltages.
• PV arrays are not readily turned off.
• Distributed over an area
– on an array frame, roof or exterior surface.
– exposed to rain, extreme temperatures and
ultraviolet radiation.
PV Arrays - different to the usual house
wiring!
• Current limited source
– conventional over-current protection systems
do not work under all fault conditions.
• PV arrays can be used with other sources
– batteries or the grid.
– protection to cover multiple sources.
 Video time!
• How a circuit breaker works
– https://youtu.be/Cq55tbLtnlg?t=646
• AC switch operation on DC
– https://youtu.be/4kcwgPs-DBE?t=10
• So now you know what not to do right?
– https://youtu.be/kRB7Z66brO0?t=119
– Just to be crystal clear, do not use AC
breakers or switches in DC systems
• Correct installation of DC breakers
– https://youtu.be/Cup5fMGaE2g?t=7
 Main Potential Faults

• On power system
• On current sources
• In the array
• Electric shocks
 Faults on Power system

Utility Network
Short circuits
0.1Ω
Live
Three - Phase LOAD
415V
400V 240V
230V
Transformer
Neutral

To other loads
Transformer
earth
Fuse or circuit breaker
Faults on current source (PV generator)

Isc = 5A 6A Fuse

PV
Possible faults in the array
 Possible faults in the array

• Some sources can produce overcurrent (OC

circuit breakers can handle that)
• Battery and inverter backfeed (sometimes)
– Conventional overcurrent works
• Current supplied by the array is inherently
limited → use other forms of protection:
– Inherently safe double insulation
– Insulation resistance monitoring & alarm
 Voltage Terms
• ELV (Extra-low voltage)
– Not exceeding 50 V AC or 120 V ripple-free DC
• LV (Low voltage)
– Exceeding extra-low voltage, but not exceeding 1000
V AC or 1500 V DC
• SELV (Separated ELV)
– An ELV system which is electrically separated from
earth and from other systems in such a way that a
single fault cannot give rise to the risk of electric
shock.
• PELV (Protected ELV)
– ELV system which is not electrically separated from
earth, but which otherwise satisfies all the
requirements for SELV.
 Decisive Voltage Classification (DVC)
Limits of working voltage V
Decisive Voltage
Classification AC voltage AC voltage DC voltage
(DVC) rms peak mean
UACL Uacpl UDCL

A* ≤25 (16) ≤35,4 (22,6) ≤60 (35)

B 50 (33) 71 (46,7) 120 (70)

C >50 (>33) >71 (>46.7) >120 (>70)

The table values in parentheses are to be used for power conversion equipment (PCE) or portions
of PCEs rated for installation in WET LOCATIONS as addressed in section 6.1 for Environmental
categories and minimum environmental conditions.
*DVC-A circuits are allowed under fault conditions to have voltages up to the DVC-B limits, for
max. 0.2s.

From IEC 62109-1

 Protection from Electric Shock

• Fundamental rule of protection against

electric shock
• Hazardous-live-parts shall not be accessible and
• Accessible conductive parts shall not be
hazardous live
– either under normal conditions and absence
of a fault, or
– under single-fault conditions
 Equipment Protection Classes
• Class 0
– basic insulation as provision for basic protection
and with no provisions for fault protection.
• Class I
– Equipment in which protection against electric
shock does not rely on basic insulation only, but
which includes an additional safety precaution in
that accessible conductive parts are connected
to the protective earthing conductor in the fixed
wiring of the electrical installation in such a way
that accessible parts cannot become live in the
event of a failure of the basic insulation.
 Equipment Protection Classes – Cont.
• Class II
– basic insulation as provision for basic protection,
and
– supplementary insulation as provision for fault
protection, or in which
– basic and fault protection are provided by reinforced
insulation.
• Class III
– limitation of voltage to ELV values as provision for
basic protection and
– with no provision for fault protection.
 Module Classes – IEC 61730

• Class A → equivalent to Class II

– greater than 50 V DC or 240 W

• Class B → equivalent to Class 0

– restricted access

• Class C → equivalent to Class III

– less than 50 V DC and 240 W

IEC 61730 - Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification

 Module Classes – AS/NZS 5033

• Class A modules
– are not considered to be safety Class II and
are treated as safety Class I.

• Class B modules
– not permitted to be used in Australia and New
Zealand

AS/NZS 5033 - Installation and safety requirements for photovoltaic (PV) arrays
 Impact on System Configurations

• Separated & unearthed dc side

PV Inverter A.C. Connection

E
(a)

• DC side not separated

A

E
(b)
 Impact on System Configurations

• Earthed dc side (separated and not separated)

A
N
E

(c)

A
N
E
(d) N or E

A
N
E

(e)
 Protection

• Overcurrent Protection
• Disconnecting Means
• Earth Fault Protection
• Automatic Emergency Shutdown
Later
• Alarms Lecture
• By-pass Diodes & Blocking Diodes
• Lightning and Overvoltage Protection
 Wiring Requirements

• Wiring rules AS3000

• Wiring Installation
• Cable Selection
• Wiring Identification

AS/NZS 3000:2007 Electrical installations (known as the Australian

New Zealand Wiring Rules)
 Component Requirements

• PV Modules
• PV Array and PV String Combiner Boxes
(junction boxes)
• Switching Devices
• Plugs, Sockets and Couplers
• Fuses
 Location of fault current protection
devices
• String overcurrent
– where the string cables join the sub-array
cables.
• Sub-array overcurrent,
– where the sub-array cables join the array
cables
• Array overcurrent,
– where the array cables join the application
circuit or power conversion equipment (e.g.
inverter).
PV Array Diagram – no Subarrays
PV Array Diagram – with Subarrays
String
-
Protection

PV String
Cable
PV array Overcurrent
-
Protection Device

Power
Conditioning
System

PV Array
Cable

PV- Sub array Overcurrent Protection Devices

Elements that are not required in all cases

Legend Enclosure
Boundary of System or sub -system
 Overcurrent Protection

• Must be graded for discrimination.

• In earthed arrays
– in the active conductor.
• In floating arrays (> ELV)
– in both current carrying conductors.
Protection of Strings Earthed Array
Protection of Strings Floating Array
Protection of Strings Floating Array
 String O/C protection

Do you need string protection?

• ((Np -1) x Isc-mod ) > Imod_max_OCPR
• Normally, if Np ≥ 3 then the fuse ratings should be:
– Voltage rating ≥ 1.20 x Voc x Ns
– Current rating: 1.5 x Isc-mod < Itrip < 2.4 x Isc-mod
– Current rating: Itrip ≤ Imod_max_OCPR
Where
• Np = number of strings in parallel
• Ns = number of modules per string
• Imod_max_OCPR = PV module maximum overcurrent
protection rating specified by IEC 61730-2
 Fuses
Fuse Ratings for PV protection
Example
In= 1
1.6

1.4

1.2 Inf = 1.13 x In

1 If = 1.45 x In
np = 5
Current A

0.8

0.6

0.4
No definite time blow
0.2

0
Imax Overcurrent
Inf
protection rating

In
 Fuses Type Gpv
Fuse Ratings for PV protection
Inf = 1.13 x In
1.6
1.4
If = 1.45 x In
1.2 np = 5
1
Current A

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
No definite time blow

0 Inf
5033 min string

Imax Overcurrent
Isc

5033 max string

protection rating
fuse = 2.4xIsc
fuse 1.5xIsc

Value

Max Overcurrent Protection

Rating

Isc =0.4A
 Array and Sub-Array O/C protection

• Sub-Array
– 1.25  Isc sub-array  Itrip  2.4  Isc sub-array.

• Array
– Not generally required unless the array is
connected to BATTERY System….Then
– 1.25  Isc array  In  2.4  Isc array
– O/C devices placed at battery end of cables
 Disconnection device requirements
PV array Circuit or sub- Means of isolation Requirement
voltage circuit

String cable Isolation device Recommended

ELV Sub-array cable Isolation device Required

Readily available load-
Array cable breaking switch Required
disconnector
String cable Isolation device Recommended

Isolation device Required

Sub-array cable
LV Load break switch
Recommended
disconnector
Readily available load-
Array cable breaking switch Required
disconnector

Switch poles in all live conductors

Location of array disconnection devices

• Array disconnect 2 pole

• Adjacent to Array
• If PCE more than 3m from array or not in sight
then another disconnection device shall be
adjacent to the power conditioning equipment.
 Cable Sizing - STRING
Minimum current upon which cable cross
String Protection Provided? sectional area and or other circuit ratings should
be chosen

Current rating (I n) of the nearest downstream

overcurrent protection device

1.25  ISC MOD  (Np – 1)

NO
Where:
Np is the total number of parallel connected
strings protected by the nearest overcurrent
protection device.

Current rating (I n) of the PV string

YES
overcurrent protection device
 String O/C Protection Diag

IN Fuse Rating
= IN IN IFault
ISC MOD
Fault in
PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV string

PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV

If no fuses:
PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV
Worst case string fault
IFault = (Array Strings - 1) x Isc

If Sub-array fuses:
PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV
Worst case string fault
IFault = IN + (Sub-array Strings - 1) x Isc
PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV

Sub-Array Sub-Array Spo

Np

NOTE: Must satisfy test for no string o/c required

IF THERE IS NO STRING O/C PROTECTION (difficult!)
 Cable Sizing - Other array sections
(Simplified)

Current rating (In) PV sub-array

overcurrent protection device
Sub-Array
If no o/c device then:
1.25 x Isc-sub-array

Current rating (I n) PV array o/c

protection device if present
Array If no o/c device then:
1.25 x Isc-array

More complex arrangements are included in the standard if you

want to leave out O/C protection.
 Why do we earth?
• To allow fault currents to flow if an earth fault occurs
somewhere in the system.
• To provide bonding of the metal frame of a system
to ground so that a dangerous voltage is not
achieved.
• To provide shielding, i.e. to allow a path for leakage
currents to flow.
• To prevent a system floating to a dangerous voltage
that may be undefined.
• Where particularly required for equipment or
operational reasons (functional earthing).
 Types of earthing

Functional Earthing Frame Earthing

(System Earthing)

Main +ve or –ve Accessible

conductors conductive parts
 Functional earthing of the system
Elec Separated
Isolated

++

-
ElecIsolated
Separated

Transformerless (non-separated) inverters not allowed!!

 Remember the fundamental protection
rules!

• Relevant Standards: IEC 61140 & AS/NZS 3000

• Hazardous-live-parts shall not be accessible and
• Accessible conductive parts shall not be
hazardous live
– either under normal conditions with no faults
OR
– under single-fault conditions

IEC 61140 - Protection against electric shock - Common aspects for installation
and equipment. http://www.iec.ch/
 Protection
• Under normal conditions is provided by basic
protection (e.g. Basic insulation, barriers,
limitation of Voltage and or current etc.)

• Under single-fault conditions by fault

protection (e.g. earthing exposed metal &
overcurrent protection, etc.)

• Enhanced protective provisions provide

protection under both normal and single fault
conditions (e.g. double insulation...Class II).
 Fault situations #1
Separated inverter – no functional earth

ElecIsolated
Separated

++ A
2nd Fault
N
-
1st Fault E

• Unearthed PV generator (no functional earth – ‘floating system’)

 Floating System – single fault
Conducting frame

AC

Because the system is not earthed

there is no closed loop for current
to flow through the person. Z
NO
SYSTEM EARTH
 Fault situations #2
Separated inverter - direct earth connection

Elec Separated
Isolated

Elec Separated
Isolated ++

++ A
-
1st
Fault N Elec Separated
Isolated

- +

E
-

System earth
Functionally earthed PV generator
 Fault situations #3
Separated inverter - resistance earth connection

Elec Separated
Isolated Elec Separated
Isolated

+ A +

1st Fault -
N
- Elec Separated
Isolated

E +

2nd Re
Fault -

Functionally earthed PV generator (resistance

earth connection) System earth

Re > Voc/0.030A
 Fault situations #4
Non-separated inverters - connect to the grid N

Non-Separated
Non - Isolated
A

PV
1st Fault
array

1st Fault E

Either fault location could cause dangerous fault currents.

 PV Expert Quote

“Once a fault occurs in a system the second

one is generally only one to two weeks
away”

Chuck Whitaker, PV expert USA & IEC.

Food for thought!

 Functionally Earthed arrays and
Floating arrays are allowed!

Floating Functionally Earthed

• Isolated & Safe • Shock risk
• 1 fault • 1 fault
– no current but – fault current
– then unsafe – shock risk
unchanged
 What can we do if an earth fault occurs?

Inverter requirements for IEC62109-2

Floating or resistance earth connection

• At least simple separation (separated inverter)

– Leakage current due to inverter
o Less than 30mA worst case
o If > 30mA then extra requirements for detection of
leakage
• Check of insulation resistance to earth
– Check before startup
o Indicate a fault – ALARM
o If inverter leakage > 30mA do not connect to
mains.
• Some inverters required to monitor leakage during
operation
 Direct earth connection

• At least simple separation (separated inverter)

• Insulation Resistance checking not required by
IEC 62109-2
• Check of insulation resistance to Earth
– REQUIRED by AS/NZS 5033!
• Some inverters required to monitor leakage
during operation (i.e. inverters with high internal
leakage)
• Earth fault interrupter required (EFI)
 Direct earth connection

Elec Separated
Isolated

++ A
1st
Fault N
-
E
Earth Fault
Interrupter
EFIs are not foolproof… what if?

Elec Separated
Isolated

++ A
2nd
Fault N
-
1st E
Fault Earth Fault
Interrupter
Bakersfield Target Store Fire
Pre-existing
Earth Fault on
earthed side of
array.

Then earth fault

on main array
conductor

Bakersfield
had an EFI!
 Floating Array: non-separated inverter
• No-Separation
– AC Disconnect must be double pole
• Check of insulation resistance to earth
– Check before startup
oIndicate a fault – ALARM
oDo not connect to the mains
• Residual Current Monitoring (RCD)
– RCD between inverter & grid
OR
– Inverter has both absolute value and step change
leakage detection.
 Ted Spooner’s
Earthing Recommendations
• These recommendations are purely Ted’s
opinion backed up with the reasons stated
below.
• This section relates to small systems which are
installed in large numbers.
• Larger more distributed systems need more
detailed case by case consideration.
 Ted’s 1st preference

• Floating PV array with no functional earth

connected to an electrical separated inverter.

Elec Isolated
Separated
A

PV
array

Frame Earth
 Ted’s 2nd preference

• High resistance functional earthed PV array

connected to an electrical separated inverter.

Elec Isolated
Separated
A

PV
array

Resistor generally in inverter

earthing kit

Frame Earth
 Ted’s last preference - Tansformerless

• Essential to earth Frame

– Without earth - single fault can leave frame
referenced to DC + grid voltages.
– Leakage currents to earth
Non-Separated
Non - Isolated
A

PV
array

Frame Earth
 DC Switch ratings

• Double pole switching is required on all arrays.

• Floating systems
– Double pole rated at PV max V
• Direct and resistive earthed systems
– Each pole rated at PV max V
• Non separated inverters
– Each pole rated at PV max V
Floating Array

Elec Separated
Earthed Array

Elec Separated
Earthed Array

Elec
Separated
Transformerless or
Non-Separated

Non-separated
Or Transformerless
 Location of Functional Earth with
respect to array switching
A
N
E

Earth Here
Do not Earth Here

A
Charge
N
Ctrl
E

Bat
Earth Here

Size of functional earth conductor related to how much current can

flow in a fault situation. Minimum of 2.5mm2
Cracked Modules, why does it matter?
 Exposed metal earthed for safety
Conducting frame

AC

Frame
Protective Earth

Z
SYSTEM
EARTH
Exposed metal NOT Earthed with single
fault
Fuse may not Conducting frame
operate under fault
A

AC

Z
 Protective - Frame Earthing

• Equipotential Bonding
• Protective Earth
• Lightning
• Allows detection of first fault by inverter

• AS/NZS 5033 - PV array maximum voltage

greater than ELV.
• ALL Module Frames Earthed .
 System/Functional
Earth

Frame
Frame
Earth
Earth

No System/Functional Earth
(Floating System) Negative Earthed System
 Protective frame earthing and bonding
decision tree - AS/NZS 5033

AS/NZS 5033 - Installation and safety requirements for photovoltaic (PV) arrays
 How to earth

• Correct size conductors & connection point

• No interruption of protective earth
• Long term good connections
– Environment
– Metals involved
 Frame earth connection arrangements

WRONG!

CORRECT!

One bad connection or

module removed leads
to remaining modules
being unearthed.
 Bad practice

• Probably a poor electrical

connection due to the
anodising and lack of any
penetrating washer.
• Daisy chaining of modules
not allowed.
 Earthing Lugs Available

• One example of lug with

stainless steel penetrating
washer.
• Produces a “gas proof”
sealed connection.

• Can be used between

modules and frame.
 Lightning Protection

• String wiring with

minimum loop PV
Module Junction
area Box
 Lightning Protection

Diagram from “Revisions to the Grid-Connected PV Systems: Design and Installation Training Manual, 7th Edition”, GSES

E.2.6. Application Diagrams (from European guideline)

 Labelling Requirements

• Wiring identification
– where it can be confused with other wiring
• Junction Boxes
• PV array Isolator
• Emergency Signs
 Labelling Requirements

• Emergency

SOLAR ARRAY ON ROOF

PV Open Circuit Voltage ______V

Short Circuit Current ______A

Installed next to the meter box (if one

exists) and
inside the building’s main switchboard.
PV Array Diagram – Lots to think about
PV Array Diagram – Lots to think about

• Array Size – Number of series and parallel strings

• Configuration – strings, sub-arrays etc.
• Overcurrent protection
• Switching required
• Cable sizing
• Earthing of PV system
• Earthing of frames and racks
• Lightning protection
• Labelling
DC arcs are a major concern
PV Fire Home 10/2/2009

Before the fire.

PV Fire Home 10/2/2009
Coffin Bay SA
JB in multi megawatt PV power plant.

AFTER

BEFORE
 Module Problems

• Obvious failures
• Brown spots /
scorching

Arcing in PV DC-Arrays
 DC Arc Detector

• Simple dual resonant filter and AM style detection circuit followed by

intelligent detection unit.
• Need to have RF quiet inverter.
• Can integrate arc detection into inverter for significant cost reduction.
 Arc Detection - (Haeberlin)

• In the coming years hundreds of thousands of PV plants

with many 10 millions of external and many billions of
internal contacts will be operational.
• After many years even with the highest quality standards
during production and installation some of them will go
defective and end up in dangerous DC arcs.
• In the future from time to time fires will occur owing to
such arcs in PV plants on buildings.
• If the general public and political decision makers
become alarmed, not only the manufacturer of the
defective device and the installer, but the PV community
as a whole could face major problems.
 DC and AC cable selection.

• The cables in an installation must be selected

correctly so that:
– there is not excessive current through the cables
compared with the safe current handling
capability of the cables; and
– there are not excessive voltage drops (also
corresponding power loss) in the cables;
– maximum voltage rating of any cable is never
exceeded
– The temperature rating of the cable is never
exceeded

Must satisfy ALL these conditions

 Current Carrying Capacity (CCC)

• The CCC of the Cables is effected by:

– cross sectional area (mm2) of the conductor,
– the type of insulation around the wire
and
– the environment in which the cable is
installed.
 Cable ratings

• Use manufacturer’s data where possible.

– Module cable
– Solar cable
• An example of cable rating factors can be found
in AS/NZS3008.1 Electrical installations
 Current-carrying capacity for standard
PV cables
Type Cable Maximum Current in A
cross
section in Individually Laid Accumulation: six
mm2 cores in a bunch

300C 550C 700C 550C 700C

AEG Solar 2.5 42 32 24 17 13
cable
(max 4 56 42 32 22 17
900C)
Radox 2.5 49 38 34 20 18
125 (max
4 66 51 45 27 24
1250C)
Titanex 2.5 33 24 17 13 9
11 (max
4 45 33 23 17 12
850C)
 Current ratings of cables

AS/NZS 3008.1.1:2009 Electrical installations - Selection of cables

 Temperature

AS/NZS 3008.1.1:2009 Electrical installations - Selection of cables

 Voltage Drop

+
ρ resistivity of wire
-
Ldc_Cable

Voltage Drop in a wire is a function of:

• conductor cross sectional area (mm²),
• length of wire,
• current flow in the wire,
• temperature
 DC Voltage Drop

To determine the DC voltage drop (Vd_dc) use:

Vd _ dc 
2 L dc _ cable  I dc   
Adc _ cable
Where
Ldc_cable = route length of dc cable in metres
(2 x adjusts for total circuit wire length)
Idc = DC current in amperes
ρ = resistivity of the wire in Ω/m/mm2
Adc_cable = cross section area (CSA) of DC cable in mm2
 Resistivity

• The resistivity (ρ) varies with the type of material

and temperature.
• Resistivity at 50ºC for:
– Copper is 1/56 (0.0186)  / m / mm2
– Aluminium is 1/34 (0.02941)  / m / mm2
 If Vdrop too high then...

To calculate the minimum cable cross section needed we

can use...

Adc _ cable 
2 Ldc _ cable  I dc   
Loss  Vmp _ string

Where
• Loss = max voltage loss in the conductor as a %
expressed as a fraction e.g. 3% = 0.03
• Vmp_string = lowest expected maximum power point
voltage of the string/array.
OR
• simply select a larger cable and re-check the Vdrop
 Example (1/2)

• A system has 8 strings each rated at 4A connected

together to form an array with a total Isc of 32A.
• The maximum overcurrent protection rating of the
modules is 15A.
• The array MPPT point at operating temperature is
216V (i.e. the lowest VMPPT voltage)
• Maximum array voltage Voc max = 390V
• Module cable is 4mm2
• String cable route length is 10m
• Array cable route length is 30m
 Example (2/2)

• the cables from the solar array to the inverter

should be selected on current rating first and
then the voltage drop should be checked to be
less than 2% as stated in contract.
• There are string cables plus array cable all in
copper.
• Allow some voltage drop for each cable
PV Array Diagram – no subarrays
PV Array
PV String Overcurrent
Protection Device

PV String
Switch
PV Array
Overcurrent
Protection
Device

Power
PV String PV Array
Cable Conditioning
Main Switch
System

PV Array
Cable

PV String
Junction Box

Bypas PV PV Elements that are not required in all cases

Diode Module String Legend Enclosure
System or sub-system
PV Array Diagram – with subarrays
PV Array
PV Sub-array
PV String
Junction Box

PV Sub-array
Cable

PV String
Cable
PV Sub-array PV Array
Switch Switch

PV Sub-array Power
Overcurrent
Conditioning
Protection
Device System

PV Array
Cable
PV array
Overcurrent
Protection
Device

Legend:
PV Array
Junction Box Elements that are not required in all cases
Enclosure
System or sub-system
PV Sub-array Cable
From nth PV Array
 Step 1: check if fuses are required

• ((np -1) x ISC_MOD ) > IMOD_MAX_OCPR

• (8-1)x4 > 15 → string fuses are required.

• 1.5 x ISC_MOD < In < 2.4 x ISC_MOD

• In < IMOD_MAX_OCPR

• So 1.5 x 4 (6A) < In < 2.4 x 4 (9.6A) and < 15A

• So let’s choose 8A string fuses
• PV array cable – no fuses required.
 Step 2: cable rating

• The string fuses are 8A, so the string cable has

to be rated at 8A.
• Module cables are 4mm2 so try this for the
strings.
– This has adequate current carrying capacity
• The array cable has to be rated at 1.25 x 32A =
40A as a minimum.
 Step 3: check string Vdrop

• String cable assume 4mm2 (ρ =0.0186 /m/mm2)

• Check Vdrop

Vd _ dc 
2 L dc _ cable  I dc   
Adc _ cable

Vd _ dc 
2  10  4  0.0186 
 0.372Volts
4
0.372 100
V %drop  x %  .172%
216 1

No Problem! 4mm2 OK
 Step 4: check array Vdrop

• Array cable must be rated for 40A

• Select a 6mm2 and type of enclosure from tables
• Actual max current is 32A when operating normally
....Check Vdrop

Vd _ dc 
2 Ldc _ cable  I dc   
Adc _ cable

Vd _ dc 
2  30  32  0.0186 
 5.952Volts
6
5.952 100
V %drop  x %  2.76%
216 1

A bit high!
 Step 4: check array Vdrop (cont…)

• Vdrop of 2.76% is a bit too high so better to

select a larger cable. Let’s try 10mm2
• Check Vdrop (10mm2) again...
= 3.57V = 1.65%
• Total Vdrop = 1.65 + 0.172%
• So OK (i.e. <2%)
• Cable and fuse voltage ratings a minimum of
390V. Fuses Type gPV.
 Power loss in DC cable

• Calculate power loss with actual cross section

chosen

Pdc 
2 L dc _ cable I 2
dc  
Acable
Use Correct Length?
AC Vdrop PV array

DC Isolation
Device

Inverter
with grid
protection
device

Dedicated
AC circuit
 Select AC cable based on current
rating
• Same procedure as for the DC cables...
• Use AS/NZS 3008.1
• Then check if a larger size is required due to
voltage drop.....
• The larger of the two size calculations should be
used for the installation.
 Single Phase AC Vdrop

Vdrop_ ac 
2 L
ac _ cable  I ac   
Aac _ cable

Where
Lac_cable = route length of AC cable in metres
(2 x adjusts for total circuit wire length )
Iac = current in amperes
ρ = resistivity of the wire in Ω/m/mm2
Aac_cable = cross section area (CSA) of cable in mm2
 Maximum Voltage Drop

• Should aim for less than 1% AC loss between

inverter and point of connection of utility supply.
• Draft standard (AS4777.1) requires < 2%
 Power Loss

• For Single Phase:

Pac 
2 L
ac _ cable I 2
ac 
Aac _ cable

• Use final selected cable size

 Calculating the Energy Yield for a PV
Grid-Connected System?
• The losses in a grid-connect PV system simply
can be broken into two areas:
– The derating of the PV array due to:
otemperature, dirt, manufacturers tolerances
and mismatching
– System losses which include:
oinverter efficiency and cable losses (voltage
drop) which combined is known as the
sub-system efficiency.
 Losses
PV LOSSES

SYSTEM LOSSES

 pv_ ss
 Derating of PV Array

Parray  Parray _ STC  f temp  f mm  f dirt

Where:
Parray = derated output power of the array (W or kW)
Parray_STC = rated output power of the array under
standard test conditions (W or kW)
ftemp = temperature derating factor.... dimensionless
fmm = derating factor for manufacturing tolerance
and mismatch.... dimensionless
fdirt = de-rating factor for dirt..... dimensionless
 Manufacturer’s Tolerance

• The output of a PV module is specified with

manufacturing tolerances either expressed as %
or a wattage (eg: 80 5% or 4 Watts ) for STC.

• Must adjust module output for “worst case” (76W

or 5% loss from the rated 80W)

• Most respectable manufacturers today offer

positive power tolerances (0 ~ +5W)
 Derating due to dirt (fdirt)

• The output of a PV module can be reduced as a

result of a build up of dirt on the surface of the
module.
• The actual value of this derating depends on the
actual location
• In some city locations this could be high due to
the amount of pollution in the air
• AS4509.2 suggest between 0 and 10%

AS4509.2 - Stand-alone power systems

 fdirt example

Module is rated 80W

Area is very dirty so derating is 10%

What is the adjusted output?

Answer: 80 x 0.9 = 72 W
 Derating due to temperature (ftemp)

Dependent on
• actual cell temperature
• type of cell

ftemp = 1 - (  (Tcell_eff - Tstc))

Where
ftemp = temperature de-rating factor, dimensionless
 = power temperature co-efficient per °C
Tcell_eff = average cell temperature (°C)
Tstc = cell temperature at STC (25°C)
 Module temperature ‘rule of thumb’

Tcell_eff = Ta_day + 25 (if well ventilated)

= Ta_day + 40 (if poorly ventilated)

where
• Tcell_eff = average daily effective cell temp in ° C
• Ta_day = daytime average ambient temperature
(for the period of interest), in °C
 Power temperature coefficient

• Monocrystalline Modules typically have a

temperature coefficient of –0.45%/C

• Polycrystalline Modules typically have a

temperature coefficient of –0.5%/C

• Amorphous modules have a different

temperature characteristic, resulting in a lower
coefficient, typically around 0 to - 0.2%/C
 ftemp Example

Determine ftemp for a well ventilated p-Si module with

Ta = 30°C
 Sub-system losses

 pv _ ss   pv _ inv  inv
Where:
pv_ss = efficiency of the complete sub-system from PV array to
the AC grid;

pv_inv = DC cable efficiency (between array and the inverter) +

AC cable efficiency (between inverter and grid);

inv = inverter energy efficiency;

 Inverter Efficiency

• The inverter efficiency should be obtained from the

manufacturer and typically will vary between 85%
and 95%.

• This figure takes into account the efficiency of the

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) facility
which is part of the inverter

• THE OUTPUT FROM THE ARRAY TO THE GRID

WILL THEREFORE BE REDUCED DUE BY THIS
INVERTER EFFICIENCY
 Cable Losses

• A voltage drop in the cables between the modules and

the inverter and between the inverter and the main
switchboard will be reflected as a power drop (P=VI)

• Standards recommend cable losses no greater than 3%

DC and 1% AC in terms of voltage drop. As long as
these drops are observed there should be no more than
1-2% energy loss in a normal system without tracking.

• THE OUTPUT FROM THE ARRAY TO THE GRID WILL

THERREFORE BE REDUCED DUE TO THESE
CABLES LOSSES
 Yearly energy out of derated array

E pv  Parray  H tilt
Where:
Epv = average energy output of the PV array, in kWh/year
Parray = derated output power of the array, in kW at
irradiance of 1kW/m2 (ie kW/kW/m2 )
Htilt = average irradiation, in kWh/m2/year for the
specified tilt angle.
 Energy yield of the system

Esys  E pv  pv _ ss

Where:
Esys = annual ‘AC’ yield of the PV system (kWh/year)
Epv = annual ‘DC’ yield of the PV array (kWh/year)
ηpv_ss = efficiency of the sub-system from PV array to the grid
 Energy yield complete equation

Esys  Parray_ STC  ftemp  f mm  f dirt  Htilt  pv_ ss

Determining the array based on yearly energy
requirement -Summary

Esys
Parray_ STC 
f temp  f mm  f dirt  H tilt  pv _ ss
 Specific Yield

E sys
SY 
Parray_ STC
• Expressed in kWh/kW
• How much energy each kW installed of PV will produce in a year
• Useful to compare performance of systems in different locations
 Performance Ratio

E sys
PR 
Eideal
Where
Esys = actual yearly energy yield from the system
Eideal = the ideal yearly energy output of the array.

Esys  Parray_ STC  ftemp  f mm  f dirt  H tilt  pv _ ss

E sys  Parray _ STC  H tilt  f temp  f mm  f dirt   pv _ ss
E sys  Eideal  f temp  f mm  f dirt   pv _ ss
E sys  Eideal  PR
 Ideal Energy

E ideal H tilt  Parray_ STC

Where
Eideal = ideal energy per year

Htilt = yearly average daily irradiation, in kWh/m2/year

for the specified tilt angle (taking into account
any shadowing).

Parray_STC= output power of the array, in kW at irradiance of

1kW/m2 at STC (i.e. kW/kW/m2 )
 Or….Ideal Energy

E ideal H tilt  Apv  pv

Where
Eideal = ideal energy per year
Htilt = yearly average daily irradiation, in kWh/m2/year
for the specified tilt angle
Apv = Total area of the PV array m2
pv = efficiency of the PV modules
 Monitoring & performance
measurements – coming!!!
• IEC 61724-1
– Photovoltaic system performance – Part1:
Monitoring and analysis
• IEC 61724-2
– Photovoltaic system performance – Part 2:
Capacity evaluation method
• IEC 61724-3
– Photovoltaic system performance – Part 3:
Energy evaluation method
 System performance
Measured
IRRADIANCE
Actual Actual
TEMP SYSTEM POWER/ENERGY
WIND

Measured
IRRADIANCE
SYSTEM EXPECTED
TEMP POWER/ENERGY
MODEL
WIND

Predicted
IRRADIANCE
SYSTEM PREDICTED
TEMP POWER/ENERGY
MODEL
WIND
 Why performance measurement?

• Performance guarantee as part of a contract

• Verify accuracy of a model
• Track performance (e.g., degradation) of a
system over the course of multiple years, or
• To document system quality for any other
purpose, e.g., to compare performance in
different climate zones.
 Performance evaluation

• Capacity Evaluation - short measurement interval

• Energy Evaluation - long term measurement
 Capacity Evaluation

• Measure weather data (solar irradiance,

temperature, wind).
• Measure AC power and PF
• Measure over two days of relatively good sun.
• Compare actual measured power vs model
power for all areas of operation agreed upon
(i.e. range of irradiance and temperature
conditions measured on during the interval).
 Energy Evaluation

• Used for long-term performance

• To evaluate performance over the entire range
of operating conditions encountered through the
duration of the test (preferably one year).
 Things to consider

• Measurement accuracy - especially irradiance

• Boundary conditions
– Inputs and outputs
– Range of operation included
• Curtailment rules, how to deal with?
– Grid failure
– Inverter capacity limits
– Timeframes (overproduction – underproduction)
– Component failure
– Etc.
Impedance to sinusoids

ZR = R

ZL = jωL

ZC = 1/jωC
 Sinusoidal Sources
2
v(t )  V p cos( t )
T
 V p cos( 2f t )
 V p cos( t ) v(t )
Where:
• Vp = peak amplitude
• T = period (sec)
• f = frequency (cycles/sec)
• ω = frequency (radians/sec)
• ω = 2f
 Sinusoidal Sources applied to
Resistor

v R (t )  V cos( t )
V
i R (t )  cos( t )
R
V
i R (t ) magnitude of and phase of 0
R

ZR  R
 Sinusoidal Sources
Resistive Load

0 Voltage
wt
0 90 180 270 360 Current

-1

Current phase is 0 → in line with voltage

 Sinusoidal Sources
Inductor
di (t )
vL (t )  V p cos( t ) v L (t )  L
dt
1 i
iL (t )   V p cos( t )dt
L
1
iL (t )  V p sin(  t ) VL
L

Z  j.L
1
iL (t )  V p cos( t  )
L 2 L
Vp 
iL (t ) magnitude of and phase of -
L 2
Current lags the voltage by /2
 Sinusoidal Sources
Inductor Load

wt Voltage
0
0 90 180 270 360 Current

-1

Current phase is < 0 → lags the voltage by /2

 Sinusoidal Sources
Capacitor dvC (t )
iC (t )  C
vC (t )  V p cos( t ) dt
i
d (V p cos( t ))
iC (t )  C
dt VC
iC (t )  C.V p sin(  t )
iC (t )  C.V p sin(  t ) 1
ZC 
iC (t )  C.V p cos(

  t)
j .C
2

iC (t ) magnitude of C.V p and phase of
2
Current leads the voltage by /2
 Sinusoidal Sources
Capacitor Loads

0 wt Voltage
0 90 180 270 360 Current

-1

Current phase is > 0 → leads the voltage by /2

 Impedance to sinusoids

Z R  R  j0

Z L  0  j.L
1 j
ZC  0   0
j.C .C
 Projection of rotating vector on the real
axis is cos(t)
One revolution of the wave is the period of the cosine = T

1 2.
Period T  
f 
General form a(t) = A cos(t+)
a(t) is the instantaneous value.
A is the amplitude
 is angular frequency (radians/sec)
  2 . f
 is the phase angle
 Three ways of representing sinusoidal
quantities
1

0 wt
v(t )  V p cos( t   )
0 90 180 270 360
-1

~
j Imaginary
V  Vr  jVi
Vi V
~ ~
 V  V   V
Vr Real
 Polar to Cartesian

~
V  A
~
V  a  jb
Hence a  A cos( ) and b  A sin( )
j
A
b

a
 Cartesian to Polar

~
V  a  jb
~
V  A
Hence A  a  b 2 2
j
1  b 
A
  tan   b
a 
a
 Operations - complex numbers
Addition - Subtraction
~ ~
~ V1  V2  a1  jb1  (a2  jb2 )
V1  A11
 (a1  a2 )  j (b1  b2 )
~
V1  a1  jb1 ~ ~
V1  V2  a1  jb1  (a2  jb2 )
and
~  (a1  a2 )  j (b1  b2 )
V2  A2  2
Multiplication - Division
~
V2  a2  jb2 ~ ~
V1 xV2  A1 xA2 (1   2 )
~
V1 A1
~  (1   2 )
V2 A2
 Impedance to sinusoids

Z R  R  j 0  R0

Z L  0  jL  L  90

j 1
ZC  0     90
C C
 Example circuit calculations

100
240Vrms
50hz
250mH

Find the current flowing in the circuit and draw the

phasor diagram of V and I.
 AC Power

• Apparent
• Real
• Reactive
• Power factor
 Summary of impedance
I
V Z

INDUCTIVE RESISTIVE CAPACITIVE

I I I

V ZL = a + jb V ZL = a + j0 V ZL = a - jb

I lags V I in phase with V I leads V

 Instantaneous AC Power
I
p  vi
v(t )  V cos(t ) V Z
i (t )  I cos(t   )
p (t )  VI cos(t )  cos(t   )
Remember 2  cos A cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)

VI cos( )  VI cos(2t   )
p (t ) 
2

p = constant + cosine term in 2

 R Instantaneous AC Power

VI cos( )  VI cos(2t   )
p
2

Resistor   0 NOTE:
VI VI V & I are peak values
p cos(0)  cos(2t )
2 2 For a pure sinusoid
VI VI
p  cos(2t ) Vrms = V/2
2 2
Irms = I /2
p  Vrms I rms  Vrms I rms cos(2t )
VI/2 = Vrms Irms
 L Instantaneous AC Power
VI cos( )  VI cos(2t   )
p
2

Inductor   90
VI VI
p  cos(90)  cos(2t  90 )
2 2
VI
p  cos(2t - 90)
2
p  Vrms I rms cos(2t - 90)
 C Instantaneous AC Power
VI cos( )  VI cos(2t   )
p
2

Capacitor   90
VI VI
p cos(90)  cos(2t  90)
2 2
VI
p cos(2t  90)
2
p  Vrms I rms cos(2t  90)
 AC Average Power

• Average power dissipated in a resistor:

2
Vrms
PR  Vrms I rms  I rms R
2

• Average power dissipated in an inductor or

capacitor = 0 → imaginary or reactive power!
 Apparent power

Irms

Vrms Z

Apparent Power = Real Power + Imaginary Power

= Vrms Irms

Expressed in VA
 Real power

Instant Power
p(t )  Vrms I rms {cos( )  cos(2t   )}

Irms
Average or Real Power (watts)
Pave  Preal  Vrms I rms cos( ) Vrms Z

Where cos() is the power factor (PF)

So, Preal = Apparent Power x PF
 Reactive power

Instant Power
p(t )  Vrms I rms {cos( )  cos(2t   )}

Irms
Reactive or Imaginary Power (VARs)
Vrms
Pimag  Vrms I rms sin( ) Z
 Resistive Load

~
Power Factor (PF) = cos(0) = 1 Z  R  j0  R0
~
~ V V
I  ~  0
• Real power Z R

Preal  Vrms I rms cos(0 )  Vrms I rms

• Reactive power
Pimag  Vrms I rms sin(0)  0
 Inductive Load Irms

Vrms Z

Z  0  j.L  .L90
V V
I    90 Real Power
Z .L Preal  Vrms I rms cos( 90 )  0
Reactive or Imaginary Power
  90 Pimag  Vrms I rms sin( 90)  Vrms I rms
LAGGING

power factor (pf) = cos() = cos(-90) = 0

 Capacitive Load Irms

Vrms Z
1 1
Z 0    90
j.C .C
Real Power
V
I   V.C  90 Preal  Vrms I rms cos( 90 )  0
Z
Reactive or Imaginary Power
  90 Pimag  Vrms I rms sin( 90)  Vrms I rms
LEADING

power factor (pf) = cos() = cos(90) = 0

 AC power summary

INDUCTIVE RESISTIVE CAPACITIVE

I I I

V ZL = a + jb V ZL = a + j0 V ZL = a - jb

I lags V I in phase with V I leads V

PF < 1 lagging PF = 1 PF < 1 leading
Real Power +ve Real Power +ve Real Power +ve
Reactive Power 0
 Consider three loads using the
same power – but different PF
Load 1 resistive
V = 250V, P = 1kW 4A 250V
I = P/Vcos() = 1000/(250x1) = 4A

Load 2 Inductive (pf = 0.8) 37°

250V
V = 250V, P = 1kW
I = P/Vcos() = 1000/(250x0.8) = 5A 5A

Load 3 Inductive (pf = 0.5) 60° 250V

V = 250V, P = 1kW
I = P/Vcos() = 1000/(250x0.5) = 8A

8A
 Energy

• A domestic electricity customer is generally

charged for their electricity based on energy
used.
• Energy is expressed in kWh and is real power
consumed integrated over time
• Real Energy = VIcos()
 Charges for VA

• What if a customer has a load with a very poor

power factor cos()0
• Generator has to supply lots of current (which
means lots of I2R in the power system wires) but
does not get much in $ return to the utility.
• RESULT is that generally commercial and
industrial customers are charged a VA cost as well
as a Real power cost.
• Thus there is a real incentive for industrial and
commercial customers to keep their PF close to 1
 PF correction

• Generally a poor power factor in an industrial or

commercial installation is a lagging PF, i.e.
generally inductive load.
• The load “seen” by the electricity utility is
corrected by adding capacitance in parallel with
the load.
 PF correction
ZD = Distribution System
Impedance
IT IL

Factory V
240Vrms T ZL = Load
Terminals


IT = IL
IL
Power factor of factory = cos() (LAGGING)
 PF correction
ZD = Distribution System
Impedance
IT

IC
Factory V
240Vrms T
Terminals

IC
90 IT = IC

Power factor of Capacitor = cos(90) = 0 (LEADING)

 PF correction
ZD = Distribution System
Impedance
IT IL

IC
Factory V
240Vrms T ZL = Load
Terminals

IC
IT
IT = IL + IC

IL
Power factor of (IT) (i.e. factory + capacitor) = cos(0) = 1
 PF correction

• This means that when we look into the factory from

the viewpoint of an electricity distributor, the load
appears to be simply a resistor, i.e., the current is in
phase with the voltage.
• Note that the current from the electricity distribution
system is also a minimum when the PF is corrected.
• Note that the current in the load hasn’t changed
substantially.
• Why do we not add the capacitor in series?
 Mid-semester feedback
Histogram
10

7
Number of answers

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score

Lectures Tutorials Whole course

Score averages: Lec = 7.5; Tut = 7.8; Course = 8.3

 Mid-semester feedback
• Summary of requests:
– Tutorial dedicated to hand on experience (lab with PV panels).
– Upload tutorial questions one week before so we can prepare
more.
– Sometimes tutors appear to have been instructed to let us have
a go at solving the problems on our own first. I think it is better to
allow tutors to go through problems straight away instead and it
would make the tutorials more worthwhile.
– For lectures, would be nice with more real world examples.
– It could be better to learn more practical staff in the real word,
such as more practical software.
– Don't put tut ahead of lectures.
– Hope there would be more explanation about Australian
standards.
– Is there a official order/steps or outline we should take when
designing a system according to the Australian standard?
– Maybe turn the microphone up a little.
 Mid-semester feedback
• Summary of positives:
– Very useful for practical application.
– Grid-connect PV system already awesome
– Baran is a solid tutor. Really good.
– Lecture notes are expressed in such way that I can easily
get the key points. Also it is good to learn how to use
PvSyst in the assignment.
– Pretty good!
– The course is good so far
– Excellent lectures!
– So far so good
– I think the lectures are pretty good. I don't like how some
students talk through most of it.
– Baran is a great Tutor. He responds to questions really
well and is really prepared.
Inverters come in all sizes!
Electricity Generation & Distribution
A guide to Living With Transmission Line Easements – SP AusNet
A guide to Living With Transmission Line Easements – SP AusNet
Example: UNSW distribution grid
 Important issues for the utilities
• Safety & Protection of
– Linesmen, Consumer & tradespeople
– Equipment
• Quality of Supply & Reliability of supply to other customers
– Voltage regulation
o Bi-directional power flow
o Voltage transients
– Voltage balance
– Harmonics
• Other Issues:
– Electromagnetic Immunity (EMI) – Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC)
– Power factor control
– Metering
 Protection

• Objective is to protect
– Utility personnel
– Consumer and their equipment
– Electrician
– Utility equipment
– Inverter
• Simple protection under:
– Normal conditions
– Single fault conditions
• Significant challenge is islanding!
 Inverter safety & protection

• Inverter protections:
– Islanding
– Over/Under voltage protection
– Over/Under frequency protection
– Overcurrent
– DC Injection into the grid
• Must be provided by the inverter or external
protection if necessary
 Islanding

• What is it?
• Why don’t they like it?
• How it is detected?
• Requirements of standards both in Australia and
overseas?
 What is it

Islanding of inverter systems means the situation

where the grid fails or is tripped and one or more
inverters maintains a supply of any description (be
it stable or not) to any section of the distribution
network outside the consumer’s installation (i.e. on
the distribution network side of the point of
connection)
Single Inverter

Grid

Local
Load
Multiple Inverters

Grid
Why grid operators don’t want islands?

• Loss of network V & F control.

• Hazard to line workers and the public (inverter is
a current source).
• Reclosing onto an out of sync island could be
very dangerous.
• May interfere with restoration of grid supply.
Re-connect of two AC systems

V difference

sine 1
sine 2
 Re-connect of two AC systems

V difference

sine 1
sine 3
Spain major islanding event
Spain major islanding event
 Why is it hard to detect

• In a perfectly matched island there is very little

voltage and frequency change after the island
establishment
• Consequently passive techniques of
– under/over frequency
– under/over voltage
– rate of change of frequency
• Are not reliable, so
• Active Techniques have to be implemented….
 Active techniques

• Active techniques deliberately change the

operating conditions of the inverter.
• The response to the change is measured.
• The response is assessed against test criteria to
determine the existence of an island.
 Active techniques

• There are many techniques

– load variation
– impedance measurement
– reactive power modulation
– frequency modulation
– positive feedback
o accelerated frequency change
 Active techniques - Load variation

• Applying a load periodically to the inverter

system and by monitoring the change in voltage
it is possible to detect the presence of an island
• Typically 20% of rated capacity for 1ms every
300ms
• Has the advantage that it can be externally fitted
to an inverter system
 Active techniques - Impedance
measurement

• The impedance of the grid is determined by

modulation techniques or applying a load
• If the impedance changes significantly then it is
assumed the grid has gone
• Questionable for use on weak grid systems
where the variation in impedance could be
caused by load variations
Impedance current pulses
 Active techniques - Modulation
techniques

• Reactive power or frequency is changed during

normal operation
• If a detectable response in frequency or voltage
is measured then disconnection is initiated
• Can require significant modulation to produce
reliable detectable results
 Active techniques - Positive feedback

• Modulation techniques can be enhanced using

positive feedback (e.g. accelerated frequency
drift)
• A low level of modulation is used. If it is
suspected that there was a correlated response
then the modulation is increased to improve the
reliability of the correlation
 Lack of uniformity on islanding
techniques
• Each inverter manufacturer can choose their
own way to detect island.
• As long as they comply with standard and
certification.
• However, what about if one inverter is testing for
up-frequency and another for down-frequency?
• A mix of techniques and inverter types could
then produce problems for island protection.
 Islanding summary

• Islanding is a very significant issue for multiple

dispersed generation.
• Passive techniques are not sufficient on there
own and active techniques must be used.
• Still lack of real statistics on tripping especially in
situations with multiple generators.
Islanding Testing 1
Islanding Testing 2
Islanding Testing 3
Islanding Testing 4
Grid trip
Grid trip
Overvoltage
Grid quality at UNSW (from the utility)
Grid quality at UNSW (from the utility)
 Quality of supply

• Voltage regulation.
• Voltage balance
• Harmonics …(Waveform quality)
• Voltage transients.
 Voltage regulation

• V too high
– Damage to appliances.
oexcessive currents
oInsulation failure
• V too low
– Mal-operation of equipment.
– Damage to appliances.
oMotors may stall
 Voltage regulation

• AS 60038 states that the voltage at point of

connection should be within 230V single phase
+10% -6%
• AS3000 allows 5% voltage regulation within an
installation.
• AS/NZS 4777.2:2015
– Inverter output to point of connection MAX 2%
– Current used for calc = max inverter AC
current
Electricity generation & distribution
 Voltage regulation

V profile under
V V profile under
light load with DG
light load no DG
V Reg
with DG

V profile under
heavy load no DG
V Reg no DG

POSITION in System
 Voltage regulation large PV

V profile under
V profile under light load with DG
V
light load no DG
V Reg
with DG

V profile under
heavy load no DG
V Reg no DG

POSITION in System
 Voltage regulation with DG

• The range of voltages experienced at the end of

lines can be increased by the addition of DG
sources in the distribution system.
• Often hard to correct with automatic voltage
regulators (Medium V)
• Can be problems with voltage regulators
– Fluctuating voltage under varying PV
– Reverse power flow
 Voltage Balance in 3 phase systems

• Important to balance the loads and the

generation across the 3 phases to maintain
voltage balance as much as possible.
• The result of unbalance can be significant for
many three phase loads, particularly motors.
• The major generation is all balanced but
unbalance comes into the system by uneven
current draw on different phases causing uneven
voltage drops.
Balanced 3 phase system
Unbalanced 3 phase system
 V & f within “Normal Limits”

• It is important for the health of everyone’s connected

loads (appliances) that the voltage be within
reasonable limits.
• It is important for the health of the network for
frequency to be within normal limits.
• Frequency is used as a measure of power balance
in the network between generation and load.
• Different limits apply for different time scales
– Sustained operation
– Emergency situation
 New AS/NZS 4777.2 requirements

• Two limit ranges for V and f

– One set of limits for anti-islanding (emergency
situation
– One set of limits for quality of supply
(sustained operation)
 Limits for anti-islanding

• AC Vmin shall be 190 V;

• AC Vmax shall be 265 V;

• AC fmin shall be 47.5 Hz; and

• AC fmax shall be 52 Hz.

• Disconnect within 2 secs if over limits

 V Limits for sustained operation

• Vnom-max in the range 244-260 (10 min average)

– default setpoint - Vnom-max
oIn Australia 257 V.
oIn New Zealand 246 V

• Disconnect in 3 secs if over limits

• Can reconnect only after the grid has been
stable for at least one minute
 f limits for sustained operation

• Frequency full power 47.5 Hz to 50.2 Hz

– 50.2 Hz linear decrease power to fnom-max
– fnom-max shall lie in the range 51-52 Hz
– Default fnom-max 51.5 Hz

• Disconnect in 2 secs if over limits

• Can reconnect only after the grid has been
stable for at least one minute
 Voltage transients

Example of V tolerances of an appliance

 Voltage Transients

Most inverters are current sources -> can produce V

transients
 Transient voltage time limits

Voltage / Time Limits

400%
350%
Voltage in %

300%
250%
200%
150%
100%
50%
0%
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Time in Secs

For inverters as per AS4777

 Inverter output on grid trip

400
300
200
100
Voltage

0
-100
-200
-300
-400
Inverter Voltage
Time
Grid trip point
Good result !
 Inverter output on grid trip

800
600
400
200
Voltage

0
-200
-400
-600
-800
Inverter Voltage
Time
Grid trip point

OVERVOLTAGE!
 Spain….voltage transients

Overvoltage lead to metering equipment damage

 Harmonics

• What is a harmonic?
– A voltage or current with a frequency which is an
integral multiple of the fundamental supply
frequency (in Aust 50Hz)
• Why/How?
– Harmonic currents drawn by loads or injected into
the grid by sources such as inverters can cause
the voltage waveform to become distorted.
– This voltage waveform is then said to contain
harmonics.
 Distorted Periodic Waveforms

• Can be made up of
harmonic
components.
– Square waves.
– Triangle waves.
 Affect of load 1 on customer 2

Z Z

VGrid
Load1 Customer2
 Affect of load 1 on customer 2
1.5
1.5 Vgrid

0.5

Vgrid
Vgrid
0 Vgrid
00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60 70
70 80 90 100 Iload1
Iload1
80 90 100
Vload 1

-0.5
-0.5

-1
-1

-1.5
-1.5
Time
Time
 Affect of load 1 on customer 2
1.51.5
1.5

11 1

0.50.5
0.5

Vgrid
Voltage
Voltage
Voltage

Vgrid
00 0 I load1
Vgrid
I load1
00 0 10
1010 20
2020 30
3030 40
4040 50
5050 60
6060 7070
70 8080
80 9090
90 100
100
100 Vload1

-0.5
-0.5
-0.5

-1-1 -1

-1.5-1.5
-1.5
Angle
Angle
Angle

Distorted loads (currents) containing harmonics

 Connect inverter to the grid

VInverter VGrid
 Inverter voltage distortion
Harmonics
Harmonics

1.51.5

1 1

0.50.5

Vgrid
Voltage
Voltage

Vgrid
0 0 Vinv
Vgrid
Vinv
00 2020 4040 6060 80
80 100
100 120
120 Vgrid-Vinv

-0.5
-0.5

-1 -1

-1.5
-1.5
Angle
Angle

Causes harmonic current flow in the grid

 Connect inverter to the grid

IVInverter
Inverter VGrid
 Inverter Harmonic output

• Older inverters were very poor

• Present technology can be very good (better
than many domestic appliances)
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) <5%
• Check this video for some THD tests
– https://youtu.be/aWAX1j-Swg4?t=363
 Inverters vs other appliances?

• Tight specifications on inverters (<5% THD)

• Trivial harmonic energy compared with
– Computers, TVs, Computer monitors
– Large variable speed drives
– Large rectifiers
– Other domestic sources of harmonics
– Standards use an absolute limit for harmonic
currents (e.g. 1A)
 Inverter Harmonics

2500 1000

2000 800

1500 600

Voltage
1000 Current 400

500 200

0 0
1 1001 2001 3001 4001

-500 -200

-1000 -400

-1500 -600

-2000 -800

-2500 -1000

Current THD <5%

 Harmonics
5uF shunt, 4.4uF 610 uH shunt filter, 3kW invert, 30kW off line 010409 19:48
0
10
Fundamental 100%

-1
10
3rd 3.3%

-2
10

31st 0.2% 58th 61st 0.22% 0.27%

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
 Computer & Monitor
Computer + Monitor

400 6.00E-01

300
4.00E-01

200

2.00E-01
100

Voltage
0 0.00E+00
Current
1 201 401 601 801 1001 1201 1401 1601 1801 2001 2201 2401

-100
-2.00E-01

-200

-4.00E-01
-300

-400 -6.00E-01

Current THD > 100%

 Washing machine
Fisher & Paykel Washing Machine

400 5.00E-01

4.00E-01
300

3.00E-01
200
2.00E-01

100
1.00E-01

Voltage
0 0.00E+00
Current
1 201 401 601 801 1001 1201 1401 1601 1801 2001 2201 2401

-1.00E-01
-100

-2.00E-01
-200
-3.00E-01

-300
-4.00E-01

-400 -5.00E-01

Current THD > 100%

 Current harmonics

Third 82%, fifth 55% seventh 21%

 DC Injection

• Is possible if an output transformer is not

present.
• Causes problems with saturation of distribution
transformers.
• Can interfere with the operation of RCDs
• Control systems can be added to prevent
excessive injection.
• Is regulated by AS4777.
Where does the DC go?
 Where does the DC go?

Amount of DC current determined by the ratio of resistances

 EMI & EMC

• Generation of interference...emissions
• Immunity from interference
• Care needed in DC wiring.
• Australian Communications Authority (ACA)
requires new equipment to meet emission
standards
 Other Issues

• Power factor
• Voltage flicker
• Re-connection procedure
• Connection point
• Disconnect Switches
• Signage…warnings
Connection point
 Connection point
• Inverter must be in a dedicated circuit
– rated  full output of the inverter
– All boards after connection point must be labelled
 Transmission Systems

• Why do we have HV transmission?

• Why do we use AC instead of DC?
• Why are there 3 lines on transmission towers?

So,
• Why do we use 3 phases for AC systems?
 Electricity Generation & Distribution

GENERATION TRANSMISSION DISTRIBUTION

 Why do we have HV transmission?

• Why not transmit and distribute at 12V?

• To transmit the same amount of power:

– High voltage means lower current
– Lower current means
o Smaller wires to carry the current
o Less losses because losses are related to
I2R
 Why do we have a whole range of
system voltages?
• Why not transmit at 500kV and then distribute at
240V?
• High cost of high voltage systems
– Infrastructure
– Maintenance
– Safety
– Space (large sub-stations close to homes)
• At some point the cost of going to a higher voltage
has to be balanced against the losses incurred by
staying at a lower voltage.
 Why do we mostly use AC instead of
DC transmission?

• Because we can easily change the voltage of AC

with transformers (low loss conversion)
• Generation is easier for AC in very large
machines.
• Conversion from AC-DC and DC-AC is expensive
and involves losses.
• DC transmission can involve corrosion problems.
• Switching DC is expensive and more difficult than
AC
3 Phase Transmission & Distribution
Why are there 3 lines on Transmission
towers?
• Because generation, transmission and
distribution systems are 3 phase.
• 3 Phase Systems
– What are they?
– Why do we use them?
 3 Phase Systems

• Advantages of 3 phase supply

– Steady rather than pulsating power and hence
torque on motors and generators.
– More efficient use of generator copper and iron
– lowest cost solution.
– 3 phase motors start more easily and run more
smoothly than single phase.
• Why not 4 phase or 5 phase systems?
– Increased complexity and cost for little benefit.
3 Phase Systems

• Major Generation is
always 3 phase i.e. N

• Three coils in a rotating

magnetic field S

v3
V1 = Vcos(t),
V2 = Vcos(t - 2/3),
v1
V3 = Vcos(t - 4/3)
v2
 3 phase voltage (50 Hz)

1
Volts

0
0 20 40 60

-1
cos(wt) time (msecs)
cos(wt-2pi/3)
cos(wt+2pi/3)
Two different connection arrangements
for 3 phase.
• Star
• Delta
 Star

Vp
VP = VL / 3 Z
Vline
P = 3VP IP cos() Z Z
= 3 VL IL cos()
 Delta

IL
IP
IP = IL / 3
Vline
P = 3VL IP cos() Z
= 3 VL IL cos()
 3 phase Supply

230V
V3
400V
400V NEUTRAL

230V 230V
V2 V1

400V
 Circuit representation 3 phase

V3 Z
NEUTRAL
Z Z
V2 V1

If load and the supply voltages are all balanced i.e.

V1 = V2 = V3 and all Zs are the same value. Then
the current that flows in the neutral is:
IN = I cos(wt) + I cos(wt-2/3) + I cos(wt-4/3) = 0
 Circuit representation 3 phase

V3 Z
NEUTRAL
Z Z
V2 V1

If load and / or the supply voltages are not balanced i.e.

V1  V2  V3 and all Zs are equal. Then the Neutral current is:
IN = I1 cos(wt) + I2 cos(wt-2/3) + I3 cos(wt-4/3)  0
IMPORTANT: the neutral conductor must be capable of
carrying the current under these conditions
 Balanced 3 phase Systems

V3 Z Can analyse as 3 single

NEUTRAL
Z Z phase systems.
V2 V1
Only difference between
phases is the phase
angle.

V Z
NEUTRAL
 Three phase circuits

• Utilities express the voltage of three phase

systems as the line to line voltage.
VL-L  V1-3  V1 - V3 v3 V1 - V3

v1
VL-L  2 V1 cos(30)  3 V1
v2

Australia...Phase Voltage = 230V

Line Voltage = 230.3 = 400V
 3 phase distribution systems

V3
NEUTRAL
V2 V1

Street Transformer
Output:
400V Phase-Phase
House1 House2 House3
230V Phase-Neutral
Z
Industry or
Z Z
Large House
 3 phase systems - inverter options

• Multiple single phase inverters

– Voltage quoted as line - neutral
• Three phase inverters
– 4 wire connection (ie requires N)
– 3 wire connection
– Voltages quoted as line to line most of the
time
 3 phase systems - inverter options

V3
NEUTRAL
V2 V1

Street Transformer
Output:
400V Phase-Phase
230V Phase-Neutral Inverter 1 Inverter 2 Inverter 3
3 Phase 3 Phase
Inverter Inverter
 3 phase analysis for SOLA4012:

• Assume a simple balanced system so 3 phase

can be broken down into 3 x single phase simple
system equivalents.

• However, Vdrop calculations are different as there

is no current in the neutral (for balance system)
v3

v1

v2
 Balanced 3 phase Systems

V3 Inv
NEUTRAL
Inv Inv
V2 V1
Analyse as 3 simple single
phase systems which are all
identical except for the phase
angle.

V Z
NEUTRAL
Connection to grid AS4777 - single line
diagram
Isolation Device
 Single phase switchboard

MEN

MEN : Multiple Earth Neutral

 3 phase switchboard

MEN

MEN : Multiple Earth Neutral

Distribution Boards
 Inverter circuit - overcurrent and cable
ratings.
FIRST:
• Find out what current needs to be carried by the
AC system
• i.e. inverter max AC current
• Inverter maximum AC power or max current
rating - best guide
• Take PF into account
 Inverter circuit - overcurrent and cable
ratings.
NEXT:
• Select overcurrent protection for circuit based on
inverter max current + safety 10%.
• Select wire rating/size ≥ O/C protection taking
into account derating for wire enclosure etc.
 Earth connections
• Back to main installation earth
• 3 phase inverter may or may not have neutral (consult
inverter manufacturer’s instructions)
Inverter 1
= Circuit Breaker 1a Circuit Breaker 1
Inverter 1 CABLE N E
PV

~
25kW
30kW
Inverter 2
= Circuit Breaker 2a Circuit Breaker 2
Inverter 2 CABLE

PV

~
25kW
30kW
Circuit
Breaker Main SUB-MAIN
CABLE

DISTRIBUTION BOARD
 Earth connections
Inverter 1 Phase A
= CB 4 CB 1
Inverter 1PHASE A CABLE

PV

2kW Single Phase

~

Inverter 2 Phase B
= CB 5 Inverter 2 PHASE B CABLE
CB 2

PV

~ 2kW Single Phase

Inverter 3 Phase C
= CB 6 Inverter 3 PHASE C CABLE
CB 3

PV

~ 2kW Single Phase

Circuit

• Single phase inverters

Breaker Main SUB-MAIN
CABLE

always have a neutral N

E

connection DISTRIBUTION BOARD

 3 phase cable size example

• You have to design the AC side of inverter

connections for a 20kW(at STC) PV system
which has a 18kW three phase inverter (inverter
max AC power is 18kW.) The inverter operates
at unity power factor.
• The AC connection is at 400V phase to phase
(230V phase to neutral). All cables should be run
in conduit.
 3 phase cable size example

• Show the rating of Cross sectional Current rating

all the AC cables area mm2 in air Amps
and switches and 1.5 21
overcurrent
2.5 30
protection and
4 40
select cable sizes
6 51
for AC cables in the
10 69
installation.
16 92
• Cables in conduit
25 125
are derated using a
35 155
factor of 0.7
50 185
 3 phase cable size example

Inverter
= Circuit Breaker 1a Circuit Breaker 1
Inverter CABLE N E
PV

~
18kW
20kW

Circuit
Breaker Main SUB-MAIN
CABLE

DISTRIBUTION BOARD
 AC protection & cable rating

• 18kW balanced 3 phase is 6kW/phase

Inverter
V 230V
Phase 6kW
NEUTRAL

• P = VIcos()
• So I = P/Vcos() = 6000/230 = 26.1A
 AC protection & cable rating

30A CB 6mm2 Cable

Inverter
230V V
Phase 6kW
NEUTRAL
Imax= 26.1A
Allow min of 10% extra for overcurrent protection
Hence, 26.1 x 110% = 28.7A
So next nominal overcurrent protection rating available 30A
4mm2 is rated at 40A in air and 28.0A in conduit
6mm2 is rated at 51A in air and 35.7A in conduit
So minimum conductor size is 6mm2
 Inverter capable of reduced PF

• If the same inverter was capable of operating at

0.8 PF either leading or lagging while still
delivering the full 18kW (6kW/phase) then
• P = VIcos()
• So I = P/Vcos() = 6000/(230 x 0.8)
• I = 32.6A
• What if the inverter was only rated at 18kVA
then…????
Earth connection options
Earth connection options
 Australian Standards

• Australian Standard for grid connection of

energy systems via inverters
– developed by utility, photovoltaic, and inverter
industry experts.
– AS4777 used to be in three parts
o1 Installation (under review)
o2 Inverter requirements Now combined in
o3 Protection requirements AS/NZS 4777.2:2015

• AS3000 “Wiring Rules”

 New AS/NZS4777.1 (installation)

• Scope now 240kVA

• 2% Vrise/drop in installation (inverter output)
• 5kVA max phase unbalance
• New section on multiple inverter installation:
– external phase balance
– additional o/u voltage and o/u frequency protection
on >30kVA installs
– new inverter response modes (demand response
mode DRM & power quality)
• RCDs may be required on inverter circuits
• Revised signs.
 Demand Response Mode (DRM)

• Via communication system to the installation

• The inverter shall support mode:
– DRM0 - Disconnect and
• Other modes should be supported
• Respond to all modes within 2 secs
DRM modes
Inverter power quality response modes

• Inverter may have:

(a) Volt response modes
(b) Power factor or reactive power modes
(c) Power response mode
(d) Power rate limit

• Object is to enable higher penetration levels of

PV onto the grid
 VAr and power control

• What happens to the voltage at the end of a

power line with changing power factor?
 Simplified power system

Different types of LOAD pf affects V

systems have
different
INVERTER pf also
impedances
interacts
 V at the end of the line

• Vend = VGen – Vz IjX VGen

• if Z = jX (i.e. inductive) IjX
• Vend = VGen – I(jX)
I Vend

I
 System impedances

• Urban system
– Impedances low
• Rural system
– Impedances often much larger
• Transmission system
– Impedance R/X ratio smaller (low R, high X)
• Distribution system
– Impedance ratio R/X higher (high R, low X)
• Type and size of impedance changes the effect
inverters and loads have on V

Labview demo
 System impedances (cont)

• Line high impedance

– Small load changes affect V more
• Line mostly inductive i.e. low R/X
– Changing Vars significantly affects voltage
• Line mostly resistive i.e. high R/X
– Changing Vars affects voltage only a little
– Changing power affects the voltage more.
 Volt response modes

• Assist with maintaining the voltage at the

installation better regulated.
• Volt Watt
• Volt VAr
 Example Volt-Watt response

POWER
%

INVERTER VOLTAGE, V
 Volt-Watt response modes

• Particularly useful in areas where R/X of lines is

high (i.e. high R)
• Advantage
– May allow more PV systems to connect
– More fair for all the systems connected
• Disadvantage
– Reduces output power as voltage rises
 Example Volt-VAr Response

LEADING
(Capacitive load)

INVERTER VOLTAGE, V

LAGGING
(Inductive load)
 Volt-VAr response modes

• Particularly useful in areas where R/X of lines is

low. (i.e. high L)
• Advantage
– May allow more PV systems to connect
– Voltage regulation relatively independent of
power.
• Disadvantage
– May require higher VA rating inverter
– Increased inverter losses swinging VArs
 Fixed PF or reactive power modes

• Fixed power factor between 0.8 leading to 0.8

lagging

• Fixed reactive power max of 60% of rated VA

Example PF response mode curve

Output power % of rated

50% 100%
 Voltage support at point of connection

• Using an inverter
oWith or
oWithout storage.
• Example Kalbarri (WA)….inverter without
storage
Kalbarri Photovoltaic System
 Location

• Coastal fishing and

tourist centre
• 600km North of Perth
• Northern most extremity
of the grid
Kalbarri
 From Geraldton to Kalbarri

Geraldton Northampton Kalbarri

Substation Substation Substation Local Feeders
6.6kV

33kV 5MVA

Regulator
10%

2x1.5MVA 100kVA
47km 83km
Tap Changer
Inverter
75kVA

PV Array
20kW
 Kalbarri schematic

10kW 10kW

6.6kV

250Vdc
35kVA
(75kVA)
100kVA

415Vac
 Inverter control system
9 90
Amps
• MPP Tracking 8
Power
80

– Hill Climbing 7 70

Current (A)

Power (W)
6 60
– Regular Scans
5 50

4 40

3 30

2 20

1 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (V)
 Inverter control system

• MPP Tracking
– Hill Climbing
– Regular Scans
• Reactive Power
Control
– Regulation of Site
AC Voltage
MPPT Voltage
Control Control
 VAr control & inverter rating
VA Circle I All REACTIVE POWER
Supplying VArs II
Some Real
Some
Reactive I
INVERTER

Vs
IReactive PV

Power

I IReal
GENERATOR V
AllIeREAL
inverter supplying LOAD
power to the grid
POWER i.e. inverter drawing
power from the grid
I
All REACTIVE POWER
Removing VArs
 Kalbarri at full output 20kW and max
VAr injection
(75kVA) I VA Circle II

INVERTER

Vs
IReactive PV

(72kVAr)

Ireal V
(20kW)

GENERATOR
i.e. inverter supplying power and VArs
to the grid
 Unregulated line voltage
255 25

254.5 20

254 15

253.5 10
Average Line Voltage (V)

Reactive Power (kVAr)

253 5

252.5 0

252 -5

251.5 -10

251 -15

250.5 Average Voltage -20

Reactive Power
250 -25

11:37
11:07

11:09

11:13

11:15

11:17

11:19

11:21

11:23

11:25

11:27

11:29

11:31

11:33

11:35

11:39
11:11

May 11, 1995

 Unregulated line voltage

• The Kalbarri Inverter exports maximum power

from the array
• The inverter controls local voltage regulation
through reactive power control
• This is possible on lines with low R/X ratios (ie
high X/R ratios)
• Does not work well on many distribution
networks because of much higher R/X
 Regulated line voltage
255 25

254.5 20

254 15

253.5 10
Average Line Voltage (V)

Reactive Power (kVAr)

253 5

252.5 0

252 -5

251.5 -10

251 -15

250.5 Tap Change at North Hampton Average Voltage -20

Reactive Power
250 -25
11:09
11:07

11:13

11:15

11:17

11:19

11:21

11:23

11:25

11:27

11:29

11:31

11:33

11:35

11:37

11:39
11:11

May 11, 1995

 Advantages and disadvantages of this
sort of control
Advantages Disadvantages
• Fast voltage control • Higher losses than
• Can make use of inverter Capacitor bank
ratings if time factor is • Who pays for losses?
favourable. • Higher cost.
 Power rate limit

• If available the inverter power rate limit shall limit

the rate of increase in power export to 10% of
nominal rated capacity per minute.
• Easier to implement with storage.
 Multiple inverters

• Requirement to have multiple inverter

qualification if they are to be used in the same
installation:
– Phase balance
– Multiple inverter anti-islanding test
– Must all reconnect after 1 min delay with all
parameters ok.
 SOLA 4012/9007 Grid Connected
Photovoltaic Systems
Lecturer: Jose Bilbao ([email protected])

System Performance & Economics

 Overview

• PV Performance
– Metrics (CF, PR, SY)
– Timeframe
– Degradation
– Data quality
• PV Economics
– Simple payback time
– FIT, rebates and incentives
– Discounted cash flow analysis
– NPV, IRR & LCOE
– Pricing
 Metrics: Energy Yield

• The energy yield (Esys) is the amount of AC energy

generated by the system (monthly, annual, etc.)
• It includes all the derating factors:

= _ × × × × × _

• It can be estimated (PVSyst, SAM, etc.) and also

measured (e.g. performance guarantee)
• It can also include the system self consumption (i.e.
inverters). This is required for calculation of LGCs.
 Metrics: Performance Ratio

• Is the ratio of the actual energy yield of the system

(Esys) to the ideal energy yield of the system (i.e. no
losses or inefficiencies ) with the available solar
resource at the site (Htilt)

/
= =
_ [ ⁄ / 2] × [ ⁄ 2/ ]

• Htilt is the average daily irradiation [kWh/m2/yr] for

the specified site and tilt angle (taking into account
shadowing). Some software also include soiling.
 Esys and PR

# # = _ × × × × × _

# # = × × × × _

∴ = × × × _

• Hence, the performance ratio (PR) is the

combination of all the inefficiencies and deratings of
your system and it’s independent of irradiance.
• Good for comparing avg. efficiency of PV systems
 Example of Esys and PR

• Daily solar exposure data:

http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/
• Satellite data on horizontal (not really Htilt) but we’ll
use it as an approximation
• Grid connected PV system in Kensington Campus
Building Size (kWp) Connection Date
Quad 42 July 2005
Unigym 10 February 2010
TETB 142 January 2012
Library 114 December 2014
Morven Brown 118 March 2016
 Annual PV data (measured Esys)

250,000

200,000

150,000
Esys (kWh/year)

100,000

50,000

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Sum of Quad Sum of Tyree Sum of Library Sum of Unigym

Is this good or bad performance??

 Solar data (Randwick Racecourse)
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg.
2006 6.0 5.9 4.9 4.4 2.9 2.1 2.4 3.6 5.2 5.9 6.1 6.3 4.6
2007 7.8 6.1 5.0 3.9 3.2 2.0 2.8 3.6 5.1 6.2 6.8 6.6 4.9
2008 6.8 5.5 5.4 3.5 3.1 2.0 2.6 3.5 4.9 5.4 5.6 6.7 4.6
2009 7.3 5.3 5.0 3.5 2.8 2.2 2.8 3.8 4.7 5.0 6.3 6.4 4.6
2010 6.4 5.4 4.8 3.9 2.6 2.4 2.2 3.8 4.6 4.9 5.9 6.5 4.4
2011 6.6 5.0 4.1 3.5 2.8 2.4 2.5 3.3 4.3 5.2 5.2 5.9 4.2
2012 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.8 3.1 2.1 2.5 3.9 5.1 5.9 5.6 6.5 4.6
2013 6.3 5.8 5.1 3.8 3.1 1.8 2.8 3.9 4.8 6.0 5.2 7.0 4.6
2014 6.8 5.1 4.3 3.1 3.1 2.4 2.8 3.0 4.5 5.6 6.1 6.3 4.4
2015 6.4 5.5 4.4 3.1 2.7 2.4 2.8 3.5 4.6 5.4 5.8 6.7 4.4
Avg. 6.7 5.5 4.7 3.7 2.9 2.2 2.6 3.6 4.8 5.6 5.9 6.5 4.5
 Calculating annual Eideal

Eideal = Parray_stc x Htilt

Let’s use the Quad as an example

Eideal = 42 [kW/kW/m2] x 4.5 [kWh/m2/day] x 365 [day/year]

Eideal* = 68,985 kWh/year

*Remember! This is a rough example, we are using Hhor, so this is only an

estimated Eideal
So, we can calculate PR for every year
QUAD
Year Esys Hhor Eideal* PR* Est. Deg.
2006 53,795 4.6 70,518 0.76 100%
2007 54,778 4.9 75,117 0.73 96%
2008 50,764 4.6 70,518 0.72 94%
2009 53,182 4.6 70,518 0.75 99%
2010 50,419 4.4 67,452 0.75 98%
2011 47,647 4.2 64,386 0.74 97%
2012 50,803 4.6 70,518 0.72 94%
2013 50,754 4.6 70,518 0.72 94%
2014 47,522 4.4 67,452 0.70 92%
2015 44,644 4.4 67,452 0.66 87%
 PR* comparison

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70
Performance Ratio *

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Quad Tyree Library Unigym

* Approximated PR value calculated using Hhor

 Metrics: Capacity Factor

• The capacity factor (CF) is the ratio between the

actual yield of the system (over a year), to the
potential generation if the system is operated at its
nameplate capacity for every hour of the year.

[ '(/ ]
%& =
_ [ )(] * 8,760 [ #/ ]

• For PV systems, the CF is an AC to DC value. For

other systems is an AC to AC value.
 CF - why is it useful?

• It allow us to compare different generation

technologies.
• Includes:
– Reliability of the generation technology,
– Maintenance,
– Downtime,
– Fuel availability,
– Resource availability, etc.
 CF - why is it useful?

Source: http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/tech_cap_factor.html
 Is CF useful for PV?
• Maybe (apples to apples?)
– PV only generates energy during the day but the
‘fuel’ is free unlike many other generators
– PV maintenance is low compared to other
generations, again not taken into consideration in
the comparison
– PV is a relatively simple technology, with low risks
compared to other generators (nuclear?)
– However, PV is not dispatchable or controllable
(things are changing though, e.g. new AS4777)
• CF shouldn’t be used as the only metric as it might
not be a fair comparison, but it is a guideline
 Example

Socrative time!
https://b.socrative.com/login/student/

What is the capacity factor (CF) of a PV system if it

generates1,500 kWh/yr per kWdc installed?

[ '(/ ]
%& =
_ [ )(] * 8,760 [ #/ ]
 Specific Energy Yield

Is the ratio of the system's net annual AC energy output to it's

nameplate DC capacity.

# #
01 =
_

01 = × × × × _

01 = ×

The specific yield (SY) depends on the local conditions (solar

resource, orientation, tilt, etc.). So it’s good to compare systems
installed on a similar area
 SY Example

A new 10kW system located in Sydney

(4.5kWh/m2/day) was installed flush on an almost
flat roof (3° pitch). Estimate the SY…
• New system so let’s assume PR = 0.9
• Esys = 4.5 x 365 x 10 x 0.9
• Esys = 14,782.5 (kWh/year)
• SY = 14,782.5 (kWh/year) /10 kWp
• SY = 1,478 (kWh/kW/year)
 Self consumption
• Should be considered when calculating performance
and economic metrics
• It’s defined as the amount of energy used by the
generation system
• In case of PV:
– Energy used by inverters and control/monitoring
system.
– Usually very small compared to other generators
• Trigen and Cogen:
– Requires a heater to keep the oil warm
– Pumps and fans
– More complex monitoring and control system
 Degradation

• Particularly relevant for PV systems, but also present

in other generators (related to maintenance or lack of)
• PV annual degradation usually between 0.5% to 0.7%
• Usually a larger degradation during the first year (3%
to 5%) of operation (LID).
• I would recommend to use the degradation stipulated
by the manufacturers warranty.
• It depends on the technology.
• UNSW has several research projects to reduce
degradation of the panels over time.
 Short term vs long term performance

• Depends on type of monitoring, maintenance agreement,

performance guarantee, etc.
• Standard home systems would have one or two years of
‘guarantee’ performance, but who’s checking?
– Some companies are now filling the gap, by adding
smart monitoring and analytics
• Large commercial systems usually have more stringent
guarantee requirements
– Better terms if a maintenance contract is also included
• Lease agreements usually have minimum yields, but it’s in
the best interest of the company to have the system
operating (client pays for kWh generated)
 Measured vs Modelled data

• Modelled data is usually only used when doing

the business case and financial analysis
• For performance check, measured data is
always preferred.
• A combination of modelled and measured data
can be used to compare performance
– e.g. using measured solar resource data in
the PV system model
 Quality of data

• When measuring data, accuracy is paramount

• Ground data measurements are preferable to satellite data
• If the electrical meter or pyranometer (solar irradiance) are
not accurate then your conclusions might be wrong.
• For residential systems a low cost (silicon) pyranometer
might be used.
• For larger systems a first class pyranometer (ISO 9060
classification) should be used (ASTM E2848)
• Back of Module Temperature (BoMT) an accurate sensor
must be used (un-calibrated temp sensors can drift more
than 5°C)

ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials

 Pyranometers

Reference: Hukseflux pyranometer selection guide

SOLA 4012/9007 Grid Connected
Photovoltaic Systems
Lecturer: Jose Bilbao ([email protected])

PV Economics
 PV systems economics

• PV projects are capital intensive, with low ongoing costs

• The cost of capital has an important impact on the economic
feasibility of the project
• Capital costs may include:
– Land & site preparation costs (fencing, grading etc.)
– Approvals (building & development) & grid connection
– Civil works
– Component costs
– Installation costs
– Extras (lightning protection, fall arrest systems,
documentation, etc.)
• Ongoing costs may include:
– Loan repayments
– O&M
 Simple payback time (SPBT)

• Simple payback is the most basic metric for assessing

economic viability
• It should only be used as references or if the PBT is
really short (e.g. homeowners)
• It assumes each cashflow is the same after the capital
expenditure
• Expressed in units of years, it is the capital cost divided
by the annual savings or net revenue
%4
0 23 =
05
Simple cashflows
 SPBT - Example

• Previous graph shows a 10kWp residential PV system

with:
– Installation costs of $2/W
– Specific Yield of 1413 kWh/kW/yr,
– Electricity tariff (savings) of $0.25/kWh.
• What is the SPBT?

$2/ × 10,000
0 23 =
1,413 ⁄ / × 10 × $0.25/

0 23 ≈ 6 =' #
 Discounted cashflow

“A discounted cash flow (DCF) is a valuation method used to

estimate the attractiveness of an investment opportunity. DCF
analysis uses future free cash flow projections and discounts them
to arrive at a present value estimate, which is used to evaluate the
potential for investment.” Investopedia

• Spending money on one thing forgoes the possibility of revenue

from another thing (i.e. lending/investing) → cost of opportunity.
• Having money now is more valuable than the same amount in
the future → time value of money.
• DCF analysis attempts to capture these by discounting future
cash flows
 Discounted cashflows

Same cashflows as before, except with a 10% discount rate applied

 Wait, it can get more complicated…

• Project finance
• Subsidies (e.g. LGCs and STCs)
• Debt vs Equity finance
– Interest rate
– Expected return on equity
– Weighted cost of capital
– Debt Service Coverage Ratio
• Tax
– On energy sales?
– Deductions (O&M, fuel costs, interest payments,
depreciation)
• System degradation
 Discounted cashflows

50% loan fraction at 7.5% interest p.a. and 10 year repayment period.
O&M & depreciation at tax rate of 30%, output degradation of 0.8% p.a.
 Net Present Value (NPV)

• When we discount cash flows then we can ‘bring

them’ to the present.
• Net Present Value is the is the difference
between the present value of cash inflows
(revenue) and the present value of cash outflow
(costs).
– A zero NPV suggests the specified return on
equity can be met (investment earns a rate of
return equal to the discount rate)
– A positive NPV suggests it can be exceeded,
while a negative NPV suggests it cannot
 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

• Internal Rate of Return is the rate of return which

gives an NPV of zero.
• If you discount a cash flow using a 5% and that
produces a $0 NPV, then your investment would
earn a 5% rate of return (so IRR = 5%)
 Levelized Cost of Energy - LCOE

• Is the ratio between total project lifetime costs and the generation of
the system during the same lifetime.
• Discounted costs are divided by the ‘discounted’ energy production
to give the LCOE, a lifetime cost-of-energy metric.

3@A'B (@#A# @C= BD =AD =

>%? =
3@A'B =B=(A D(DA E=F= 'A=) @C= BD =AD =
%H
∑J
HK4 1 + H
>%? =
LH
∑J
HK5 1 + H

• Where, Cn and Qn are the total costs and total energy generated at
year n, and r is the discount rate.
• LCOE is expressed in $/kWh or c/kWh
 LCOE

• The LCOE is the tariff that would need to be charged in order

for the project to break even (discounted)
• It does not account for the value of energy production
• Includes all the costs (capital, development, operational,
maintenance, tax, permits, etc.)
• Includes all the incentives and benefits (max. demand
reduction, rebates, carbon certificates, etc.)
• Energy generation over lifetime must include degradation
• It’s one of the most comprehensive metrics.
• Can be used to compare different technologies.
• Became a standard within the PV industry.
• Real and nominal LCOE (more on that on next slide)
• It allows direct comparison of the cost of electricity generated by
the PV system to the electricity from the grid
 Real vs. Nominal

• Real analysis adjust for inflation changes

• Nominal analysis does not adjust inflation
changes
• So the real rate is the nominal rate minus
inflation
• The real LCOE is the breakeven tariff in today’s
money
• The nominal LCOE is the average breakeven
tariff over the project life
 Incentives and rebates

• LGCs, large-scale generation certificates, only

available for PV systems larger than 100kW
– Systems must be metered.
– LGCs are created yearly
• STCs, small-scale technology certificates, available
for PV systems smaller than 100kW.
– System does not need to be metered
– Claim STCs upfront for up to 15 years
– Good incentive to reduce capital investment
• Incentives and rebates depend on location (council,
state, country, etc.)
 Tariff Structure
• Commercial vs Residential
• Residential tariffs usually have a flat rate or a simple ToU
rate.
• Fee in Tariff (FIT): mostly non existent in Australia at the
moment (usually 6 c/kWh in NSW)
• Commercial tariffs include
– Retail electricity charges
– Network charges
– Demand charges
– Metering charges
– Environmental charges
• It’s important to know the tariff structure (variable vs. fix
costs)
 Lifetime

• PV systems have a lifetime of 25 years

• Battery inverters have a lifetime of 10-15 years
• Lead acid battery systems have a lifetime of 7-10
years if operated within manufacturers guidelines
• Lithium-ion battery system have a lifetime of 10-15
years if operated within manufacturers guidelines
• Project economics are rarely assessed over
periods greater than 20-25 years
 Business case

• A sound business case must include the

performance and economic metrics and
• Must use realistic assumptions (deal with regulatory
and market risks http://greenmarkets.com.au/)
• Usually good to include more than one economic
metric (NPV and LCOE for example) as they are
complimentary.
• Different financing institutions have different
requirements
 Content

• Safety
• Site Visit
• Installing arrays
– Roof
– Free standing
• Plugs & sockets
• Cable in buildings
• Installing Inverters
• Documentation
• Metering
• Wiring of DC polarised breakers
 To work safely, you must have

• Good work habits

• A clean and orderly work area
• Proper equipment and have had training in its
use
• An awareness of potential hazards and how to
avoid them
• Periodic reviews of safety procedures
• Instruction in cardio-pulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) and basic first aid
 Safety tips when working with grid
systems
• You are your own best safety system: be alert,
check everything, and work carefully.
• Never work on a system alone!
• Study and understand the system before you
start work on it.
• Review the safety, test, and installation steps
with everyone involved before starting work
(toolbox meeting)
 Safety tips when working with grid
systems (cont…)
• Make sure that your tools and test equipment
are in proper working order.
• Check your test equipment before going to the
job site.
• Wear appropriate clothing, including a safety
helmet, eye protection, and dry leather gloves (if
possible). Also, remove all jewellery that might
come in contact with electrical components.
 PV modules

• PV module is live when ever in sunlight

• PV often on roof, so take precautions not to fall.
(more later…)
• PV modules are heavy, up to 20kg (particularly
the 72 cells modules) and have a large surface
area.
• PV module and frame being aluminum can get
very hot.
• Metal roof can get very hot
 Inverters

• Do not work on AC wires

when inverter is on.
• Only authorised person
can connect and
disconnect an inverter
• Inverters can be very
heavy
 Hazards

• Physical (non-electrical, non-chemical)

– Exposure to elements
– Insects, etc.
– Dehydration
– Cuts and bumps
– Falls, slips, sprains, strains
– Thermal burns
• Electrical Hazards
– Electric shocks!!
 Personal safety resources

• A work partner (NEVER WORK ALONE!)

• An understanding of safety practices,
equipment, and emergency procedures
• Safety checklist and risk assessment
• PPE (personal protection equipment)
– Safety helmet (when appropriate)
– Eye protection
– Dry leather gloves for installation
 Site safety

• Safety plan: Risk

Assessment and toolbox
meetings
• First-Aid kit
• Fire extinguisher
• Harness for roof work
• Appropriate ladders
• Appropriate lifting
equipment
• Proper labels on all
equipment, wiring, etc.
 Site safety

• Most important: Who will help you !!

• Recommended that at least one staff member
on site has first aid experience.
 Workplace Health & Safety

Workplace health and safety resources per State

• QLD www.justice.qld.gov.au
• ACT www.ors.act.gov.au
• NSW www.workcover.nsw.gov.au
• VIC www.workcover.vic.gov.au
• SA www.safework.sa.gov.au
• WA www.docep.wa.gov.au/WorkSafe
• NT www.worksafe.nt.gov.au
• TAS www.workcover.tas.gov.au
 Working on roofs

• Covered by legislation

• Recommend that you must do a working at

heights course
 Definitions

• Hazard are a situation or thing that has the potential to

harm a person (e.g. a moving forklift, chemicals,
electricity, working at heights, etc.).
• Risk is the possibility that harm (death, injury or illness)
might occur when exposed to a hazard.
• Risk control means to eliminate health and safety risks
so far as is reasonably practicable, or if not possible,
minimising the risks so far as is reasonably practicable.
Eliminating a hazard will also eliminate any risks
associated with that hazard.
Risk assessment and control measures

• Identify the hazards.

• Assess the risk(s) from the hazards.
• Use appropriate control measures to eliminate
or reduce the risk.
• Control measures should be reviewed from time
to time, as appropriate to the control measures.
Risk assessment matrix
 How to eliminate or minimize risk

Assess risk and then take action if required by:

1. Elimination (design the risk out)
2. Substitution (use something else)
3. Engineering Controls (isolation)
4. Administrative Controls (training)
5. Personal Protection Equipment (last resort)
 Job Site Assessment (JSA) Example
Activity Hazards Controls Responsible
(List the tasks (Against each task list (List the control measures to eliminate or minimise (Write the name
required to perform the hazards that could the risk of injury arising from the identified hazard) of responsible
the activity in the cause injury when the to implement
sequence they are task is performed) controls)
carried out)
• Hold a basic first-aid kit in vehicle at the work
First-aid Minor injury
site
• Conduct checks of all safety equipment on a
daily basis
• Ensure that all equipment and material Is stored
Equipment General in a safe manner
• Personal Protection Equipment - Ensure that all
workers use the personal protection necessary
for each tasks
• Assess site risks with property owner or
authorized person.
Risk assessment on Weather conditions • Do not attempt to work in high wind or rain or
arrival Hazard identification electrical storms.
• Inspect site to identify workplace and electrical
risks
• Wear long sleeve shirt, long trouser, hat.
Exposure to heat, sun
Working outdoors • Use 30+ sun screen on exposed skin.
and cold
• Maintain water intake on hot days.
 Job Site Assessment (JSA) Example
Activity Hazards Controls Responsible
(List the tasks (Against each task list (List the control measures to eliminate or minimise (Write the name
required to perform the hazards that could the risk of injury arising from the identified hazard) of responsible
the activity in the cause injury when the to implement
sequence they are task is performed) controls)
carried out)
• All ladders be set at an appropriate angle (70 –
80°)
Roof access (ladders) Fall from height
• extend at least 1 meter beyond access point
• be secured at the top and bottom
• All workers are appropriately trained
• Must wear appropriate non-slip footwear
• Never walk or work on roof that is damaged or wet
On roof inspection Fall from height
• Safety harnesses will be worn on high risk surfaces
where no other fall protection is available. A
secure retaining line will be provided.
• Notify someone before entering roof space.
Heat stress and
In roof space • Ensure adequate light in roof space prior to entry.
ventilation
• Maintain drinking water intake.
• Do not use ladders within 2 metres of power lines.
Inspection of LV AC
• Notify owner and isolate power at main switch or
connections and wiring
Electrical work service fuse
LV DC connections
• Follow ‘live work’ procedures and use appropriate
and wiring
safety equipment.
Lifting equipment onto roof - how do
you do it safely?

NO
Use scaffolding
Use a platform
 Harness system

Tools tethered

Safety harness
Site safety

Access to site restricted

Site safety

Secure ladder
Working on steep roofs
Working on steep roofs
Working on steep roofs
 Planning an installation

• The performance of a reliable installation that

fulfils a customers expectations requires both
careful design and correct installation practice.
• Conformance with relevant Health and Safety
regulations is necessary.
• Conformance with relevant Standards is
necessary.
• Installation is about safety but also about quality
and achieving the expected performance.
 Planning an installation - Site visit

1. To discuss energy efficient initiatives that could

be implemented by the site owner.
2. To access what are the occupational safety and
health risks when working on that particular site.
3. Estimating the solar resource for the site (solar
access and shading).
4. To determine the available space for the solar
array.
 Planning an installation - Site visit
(cont…)
5. To determine whether the roof is suitable for
mounting the array.
6. To determine how the modules are mounted on
the roof (flush, tilted, landscape, portrait, etc.).
7. To determine where the switchboard is located.
8. To determine where the inverter, and junction
boxes will be located.
9. To determine the cabling route and therefore
estimate the lengths of the cable runs.
 PV array - Orientation and tilt

In General:
• Roof will not be at latitude angle. Typically 16 to
23 degrees
• Roof will not be facing true North
• Use tables and software provide to help
determine output (refer for example to Clean
Energy Council design guidelines)
• Match load profile
 PV Array - Roof mounting (1/3)

• It is preferable to allow sufficient space below the

array (> 50mm) for ventilation cooling. This will be
subject to the constraints of the customer or
architect. Insufficient ventilation will result in high
operating temperatures for the modules.
• It is important to allow sufficient clearance to
facilitate self-cleaning of the roof to prevent the build
up of leaves and other debris (see roofing
manufacturers guidelines).
• If possums and other fauna are a problem in the
vicinity of the installation then consideration should
be given to how to prevent them gaining access
under the array.
 PV Array - Roof mounting (2/3)

• All array supports, brackets, screws and other metal

parts should be of similar galvanic material or
stainless steel to minimise corrosion.
• If dissimilar metals are used then they should be
galvanically isolated (refer to manufacturers
guidelines to ensure that materials are compatible).
• Where timber is used it must be suitable for long-
term external use and fixed so that trapped moisture
cannot cause corrosion of the roof and/or rotting of
the timber. The expected replacement time should
be stated in the system documentation.
 PV Array - Roof mounting (3/3)

• Any roof penetrations must be sealed and

waterproof for the expected life of the system
(refer to roofing manufacturers guidelines).
• If not possible then this must be detailed in the
system’s maintenance timetable.
• The installer must follow the array frame
supplier/manufacturer’s recommendations when
mounting the array to the roof support structure
to ensure that the array structure still meets
AS1170.2 certification.
Typical Roof Mounting Frame
 PV Array - Free standing

• Must be wind rated in accordance with AS

1170.2 Part 2: Wind Loads
 Verification of AS1170.2

1. Installers shall obtain (from supplier) a copy of the

AS1170.2 engineering certificate for the frame.
2. Must also obtain information on how the frame is to
be mounted on the roof/floor to maintain this
certification.
3. The installation checklist now includes a clause
stating that the system has been installed in
accordance with the recommendations of the
supplier/manufacturer.
4. Copies of both these documents shall be included
in the manual provided to the customer
 PV Array - Roof mounting isolators

Now (AS/NZS
5033:2014) roof
mounted isolators
must be at least IP55
 PV Array – Plugs, sockets and
connectors
• AS/NZS5033-2012 (4.3.7)
– only be mated with those of the same type
from the same manufacturer
– E.g. MC3 with MC3 and MC4 with MC4.
 PV Array – Cabling inside building

• AS/NZS5033-2012 (4.3.6.3.2)
– PV array cables within buildings shall be
constructed in such a manner as to reduce
the risk of short-circuit to a minimum.
– Cabling in the building must be medium-duty
conduits and labelled.
– External conduits must be UV stabilized.
– Conduits in cavities must be enclosed in
heavy-duty insulating conduit to AS/NZS
2053.1.
 Inverter installation - Module inverters

• If the inverter is designed to be installed behind

the module (AC module) then consideration
should be given to adequate ventilation to avoid
excessive loss of capacity through high
temperature, and to the ease of replacement in
the event of an inverter failure.
 Inverter installation - Central inverters

• Installed on walls, in enclosure or in building

BUT
• Must be installed to manufacturers
recommendations
• Inverters need to have enough clearance for
ventilation
• Meet IP??
 Inverter installation - String inverters

• In households common locations include:

– Garage
– Switchboard for inverter
 Documentation

• List of equipment supplied.

• Shutdown and isolation procedure for emergency
and maintenance.
• Maintenance procedure and timetable.
• Commissioning records and installation checklist.
• Warranty information (performance, product,
installation).
• System connection diagram.
• Equipment manufacturers documentation
• Handbooks for all equipment supplied
 Metering fundamentals
import
meter
• Metering a set of loads is S
grid loads
simple

export
meter
• Metering a set of generators S
grid generators
is also simple

• Metering a system utility side customer side

comprising both loads and generators
generators is less simple grid
loads

By GSES
 Utility-side metering schemes

• Basic philosophy - only worry about what happens on

grid side of common point
– Relevant to small generators
– Generator seen as a demand-side device

utility side customer side

generators
grid
loads
 Net metering - One meter

• True net metering with single bidirectional meter

• Typically induction disk meter with detenting
mechanism removed

net import
meter Sg
generator(s)
Sn
grid
load(s)
 Net metering - Two meters

• Import-export metering with two detented meters

import export
meter meter Sg
generator(s)
Sn
grid
load(s)
 Net metering - Electronic meter

• Import-export metering with dual-element

electronic meter

dual-element
electronic meter Sg
generator(s)
Sn
grid
load(s)
 Gross metering - Two meters

• Generation-consumption metering with two

meters

generation
meter Sg
generator(s)

grid
Sn
load(s)
consumption
meter
 Gross metering - Electronic meter

• Generation-consumption metering with dual-

element electronic meter

dual-element
electronic meter Sg
generator(s)

grid
Sn
load(s)
 Customer-side metering schemes
• Metering takes place on customer side of common
point
• Allows separate measurement of generation and
consumption

utility side customer side

generators
grid
loads
 Isolation devices

• In photovoltaic systems isolators on the DC side

are only for load disconnection. They do not act
to interrupt a fault current because the array can
not generate one.
• DC circuit breakers are often used as an isolator
due to availability and cost.
 Types of DC isolators

• There are two types of DC circuit breaker:

– Polarised
– Non-polarised

• Only non-polarised circuit breakers are

currently allowed (see 4.3.4 AS/NZS5033:2012)
• Historically (prior to AS/NZS5033:2012) many
polarised breakers were installed and if wired
incorrectly represent a fire hazard.
 Polarised DC isolators

• Polarised circuit breakers use magnets to direct

any arcs that form into the arc suppression
chute.
• The current must be flowing in the correct
direction for the arc to be extinguished.
• If the current flows in the wrong direction it can
cause a fire.
– This is because the arc gets directed into the
circuit breaker housing, not pulled into the
chute.
 Correct circuit breaker wiring
The PV array should be considered as the source in grid
connected PV system.
Single marked DC isolators
Which one is the correct one??
Double marked DC isolators
 Double marked DC isolators

• Some circuit breakers are marked on both ends.

• Both terminals of each breaker are labelled
positive or negative to indicate the required
direction of current flow
• Positive and negative outputs of array connect to
the respective breaker terminals
 Non-polarised DC isolators

Non-polarised circuit breakers can safely break a

current flowing in either direction.
• There are no positive or negative terminals, or
markings.
• They have larger arc extinguishers and are
physically larger.
 Non-polarised DC isolators
Comparative sizes of non-polarised and polarised breakers
Non-polarised DC isolators
TAXONOMY OF THE ELEMENTS
IN LARGE PV PLANTS

JJ FERRANDIS
HEAD OF ENGINEERING
TODAE SOLAR
Structures Consumption and
Land /Terrain Weather
Energy Demand
Certificates Data
Estimation
BIPV PROJECT Inspections
Tilt Mount
CIVIL Loads ENERGY Flush MANAGEMENT
Mount MAINTENANCE Corrective

AESTHETICS Preventive
Software
Solar Cleaning
Panels Inverters Cables Control & OPERATIONS
GRID Responsibility Performance
TECHNICAL Mount Costs & & CONTROL
Team Tools
& DESIGN Negotiations PPEs
Electrical PRODUCT Lifting
Tariffs Equipment
INSTALLATION
Grid Protection Conduits
Fixings
Electrical Storage
Settings DESIGN
LOGISTICS Delivering
Anti-Islanding
Drawings
TAXONOMY OF Purchasing
Point of Connection Documentation
Software
THE ELEMENTS IN QUALITY WHS
Grid Application
LARGE PV PLANTS
ISO9001
Physical
ISO14001
Electrical
STC / LGC

Roof Lease
Environmental Impact
PPA
Flora ECONOMY OF
LEGAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL THE PROJECT Grants / Rebates
Fauna ECONOMICS
Cash Flow
Heritage
DNSP ROI
Glare Study
PERMITS D.A.
STANDARDS Feed in Tariff
Corrosion Clean Energy
Regulator Taxes
Wind
Client Product Clean Energy Council
Fees / Guarantees
Weather Data Regulations
Grid Connection
DNSP Costs
Electrical National International Local National

Council…
TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
Structures Consumption and
Land /Terrain Weather
Energy Demand
Certificates Data
Estimation
BIPV PROJECT Inspections
Tilt Mount
CIVIL Loads ENERGY Flush MANAGEMENT
Mount MAINTENANCE Corrective

AESTHETICS Preventive
Software
Solar Cleaning
Panels Inverters Cables Control & OPERATIONS
GRID Responsibility Performance
TECHNICAL Mount Costs & & CONTROL
Team Tools
& DESIGN Negotiations PPEs
Electrical PRODUCT Lifting
Tariffs Equipment
INSTALLATION
Grid Protection Conduits
Fixings
Electrical Storage
Settings DESIGN
LOGISTICS Delivering
Anti-Islanding
Drawings
TAXONOMY OF Purchasing
Point of Connection Documentation
Software
THE ELEMENTS IN QUALITY WHS
Grid Application
LARGE PV PLANTS
ISO9001
Physical
ISO14001
Electrical
STC / LGC

Roof Lease
Environmental Impact
PPA
Flora ECONOMY OF
LEGAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL THE PROJECT Grants / Rebates
Fauna ECONOMICS
Cash Flow
Heritage
DNSP ROI
Glare Study
PERMITS D.A.
STANDARDS Feed in Tariff
Corrosion Clean Energy
Regulator Taxes
Wind
Client Product Clean Energy Council
Fees / Guarantees
Weather Data Regulations
Grid Connection
DNSP Costs
Electrical National International Local National

Council…
TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / MOUNT STRUCTURES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / MOUNT STRUCTURES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / MOUNT STRUCTURES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / MOUNT STRUCTURES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / MOUNT STRUCTURES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / MOUNT STRUCTURES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / STRUCTURES OF BUILDINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / STRUCTURES OF BUILDINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / STRUCTURES OF BUILDINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / STRUCTURES OF BUILDINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / INVERTER STATIONS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / INVERTER STATIONS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / INVERTER STATIONS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / INVERTER STATIONS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / INVERTER STATIONS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / INVERTER STATIONS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / FIXINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / FIXINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > STRUCTURES / FIXINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > LAND, TERRAIN / SITE EARTHWORKS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > LAND, TERRAIN / SITE EARTHWORKS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > LAND, TERRAIN / SOIL TEST
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > LAND, TERRAIN / TRENCHES AND CONDUITS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > LAND, TERRAIN / TRENCHES AND CONDUITS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > LAND, TERRAIN / TRENCHES AND CONDUITS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > CERTIFICATES / MOUNT CERTIFICATES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > CERTIFICATES / PANEL CERTIFICATES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > CERTIFICATES / STRUCTURAL ADEQUACY
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > CERTIFICATES / CORROSION
When two different metals are in contact in a corrosive environment, one
of the metals experiences accelerated galvanic corrosion while the other
metal remains galvanically protected. Metals near each other in the
galvanic series have little effect on each other.
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > CIVIL > CERTIFICATES / CORROSION

Techniques to minimise corrosion

TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE

http://www.mapdwell.com/
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > ENERGY ESTIMATION / SOFTWARE
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > WEATHER DATA
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > WEATHER DATA

• Units in kWh/m2
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > WEATHER DATA

• Units in kWh/m2 Hourly Values

TECHNICAL & DESIGN > ENERGY > CONSUMPTION AND DEMAND

Average Hourly Load Profile for each month

350.0

300.0

Annual Utilization by Day 250.0

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
200.0
May
8000 kWh kWh
Jun
150.0 Jul
Aug

100.0 Sep
Oct
7000 kWh Nov
50.0
Dec

-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour of Day
6000 kWh

Solar Utilisation - Weekdays (kWh)

350
5000 kWh
300

250

200
4000 kWh 150

100

50

-
3000 kWh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Total Self Consumption Weekdays Total Export Weekdays

Total Solar Weekdays Load Profile WeekDAY (kWh/hr)

2000 kWh

300
Imported Profile
1000 kWh 250

200
Load Profile
0 kWh 150 WeekDAY (kWh/hr)
1/1/14 15/1/14 29/1/14 12/2/14 26/2/14 12/3/14 26/3/14 9/4/14 23/4/14 7/5/14 21/5/14 4/6/14 18/6/14 2/7/14 16/7/14 30/7/14 13/8/14 27/8/14 10/9/14 24/9/14 8/10/14 22/10/145/11/14 19/11/143/12/14 17/12/1431/12/14 Load Profile
100 WeekEND (kWh/hr)

50
Solar GeneratedExported SolarTotal Load
-
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID ELECTRICAL TARIFFS

Solar Utilisation - Weekdays (kWh)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Total Self Consumption Weekdays Total Export Weekdays

Total Solar Weekdays Load Profile WeekDAY (kWh/hr)
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID GRID QUALITY

Harmonics are primarily caused by

loads that draw current repetitively
but in a non-sinusoidal manner.

Examples of Harmonic Loads

include:
• Ballast / Fluorescent Lighting
& Computer power supplies
• Uninterruptable Power
Supplies (UPS’) & Variable
Speed Drives
• Charging circuits
incorporating rectifiers
• Arc Welders & 3 phase
machines
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID SETTINGS

• Voltage and Frequency ratings

• Power Factor.
• Harmonic Currents..
• Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker.
• Direct Current Injection.
• Loads (Export)
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID SETTINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID ANTI-ISLANDING
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID ANTI-ISLANDING
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION / HV
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION / HV
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION / HV
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > GRID POINT OF CONNECTION / HV
TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS BIPV
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS FLUSH MOUNT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS FLUSH MOUNT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS FLUSH MOUNT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS FLUSH MOUNT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS TILT MOUNT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > AESTHETICS TILT MOUNT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN DRAWINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN DRAWINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN DRAWINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN DRAWINGS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN DOCUMENTATION

• Certificates
• Contracts
• Bill of Materials
• Calculations
• Guidelines
• Calculations
• Checklist
• Operation &
Maintenance
• Monitoring
documents
• Installation
Instructions
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN SOFTWARE
• CAD
• 3D Design
• Energy
Simulators
• Electrical
Calculations
• Structural
Calculations
• Bill of Materials
• Monitoring
• Visualization
and Analysis
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN ELECTRICAL
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN EARTHING
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN PHYSICAL
TECHNICAL & DESIGN
1. CIVIL
2. ENERGY
3. GRID
4. AESTHETICS
5. DESIGN
6. PRODUCT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT SOLAR PANELS

Swanson's Law is an observation that the price of solar photovoltaic modules

tends to drop 20 percent for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume.
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT SOLAR PANELS

THE FOUR MOST COMMON CHALLENGES IN THE AREA OF MODULES

1.) TCO corrosion: It occurs when sodium from the cover glass of the module reacts with moisture, under the influence of negative
potential against ground.

2.) Polarization: The charge carriers set free in the semiconductor during the photovoltaic process may accumulate around internal
boundary areas under certain circumstances. This alters the original characteristic curve and reduces the cell's output. This effect is usually
still reversible so that permanent damage to the modules will not occur.

3.) Capacitive leakage currents: In essence, a PV module is an electrically chargeable surface connected to a grounded frame – it
behaves similarly to a capacitor. If the module is charged with potential fluctuations on the DC side by the inverter, periodic displacement
currents will occur.

4.) Insulation resistance (Riso): Every PV system should be insulated against ground as well as possible in order to avoid leakage currents. In
the worst case, they may lead to injuries or damages. Therefore, modern inverters check the insulation resistance of the PV array every
time prior to connecting. For systems with galvanic isolation, Riso monitoring with deactivation is not required, since only double failures
can lead to a hard short circuit, so only a warning message will appear.
However, a transformerless device may not connect at values above 1 mA (=1 kOhm/V), a value that a completely functional, large PV
array with a peak power of a few kW can easily reach under wet conditions. Such a situation occurs more easily when the total surface of
a PV array belonging to an inverter is large. Sometimes, however, damaged plugs may also be the cause of the problem.

http://www.sma.de/en/partners/knowledgebase/which-inverter-is-the-right-one.html
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT INVERTERS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT INVERTERS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT INVERTERS
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT CABLES
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT CABLE MANAGEMENT
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT ELECTRICAL

• Fuses
• DC Isolators
• Enclosures
• SPDs
• AC Isolators
• AC Boards
• MCBs
• MCCBs
• Relays
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT ELECTRICAL

• Connectors
• Fuses
• DC Isolators
• Enclosures
• SPDs
• AC Isolators
• AC Boards
• MCBs
• MCCBs
• Relays
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT ELECTRICAL

• Connectors
• Fuses
• DC Isolators
• Enclosures
• SPDs
• AC Isolators
• AC Boards
• MCBs
• MCCBs
• Relays
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT ELECTRICAL
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT ELECTRICAL
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > PRODUCT MONITORING

• Data-logger
• Temperature
Sensors
• Module Temp.
Sensors
• Wind Speed
Sensor
• PV Array
irradiance
sensor
• Global
Irradiance
sensor
(Pyranometer)
• Electrical
Meters
• Cameras
• Router /
Modem
• …
TECHNICAL & DESIGN > DESIGN DRAWINGS
OPERATIONS & CONTROL
1. INSTALLATION
2. MAINTENANCE
3. LOGISTICS
4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5. QUALITY
6. MONITORING
Structures Consumption and
Land /Terrain Weather
Energy Demand
Certificates Data
Estimation
BIPV PROJECT Inspections
Tilt Mount
CIVIL Loads ENERGY Flush MANAGEMENT
Mount MAINTENANCE Corrective

AESTHETICS Preventive
Software
Solar Cleaning
Panels Inverters Cables Control & OPERATIONS
GRID Responsibility Performance
TECHNICAL Mount Costs & & CONTROL
Team Tools
& DESIGN Negotiations PPEs
Electrical PRODUCT Lifting
Tariffs Equipment
INSTALLATION
Grid Protection Conduits
Fixings
Electrical Storage
Settings DESIGN
LOGISTICS Delivering
Anti-Islanding
Drawings
TAXONOMY OF Purchasing
Point of Connection Documentation
Software
THE ELEMENTS IN QUALITY WHS
Grid Application
LARGE PV PLANTS
ISO9001
Physical
ISO14001
Electrical
STC / LGC

Roof Lease
Environmental Impact
PPA
Flora ECONOMY OF
LEGAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL THE PROJECT Grants / Rebates
Fauna ECONOMICS
Cash Flow
Heritage
DNSP ROI
Glare Study
PERMITS D.A.
STANDARDS Feed in Tariff
Corrosion Clean Energy
Regulator Taxes
Wind
Client Product Clean Energy Council
Fees / Guarantees
Weather Data Regulations
Grid Connection
DNSP Costs
Electrical National International Local National

Council…
OPERATIONS & CONTROL
1. INSTALLATION
2. MAINTENANCE
3. LOGISTICS
4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5. QUALITY
6. MONITORING
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > INSTALLATION TEAM

• Supervisor
• Electricians
• Roofers
• Constructors
• WHS manager
• Logistics
• Project
Manager
• Engineer
• …
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > INSTALLATION TOOLS
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > INSTALLATION PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > INSTALLATION LIFTING EQUIPMENT
OPERATIONS & CONTROL
1. INSTALLATION
2. MAINTENANCE
3. LOGISTICS
4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5. QUALITY
6. MONITORING
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONS
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > MAINTENANCE CORRECTIVE / PREVENTIVE

• Monitoring
• Alarms
• Performance
• Irradiance vs.
Generation
• Labelling to
identify each
component
(inverter,
protection,
string…)
• …
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > MAINTENANCE CLEANING

• Soiling Losses
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > MAINTENANCE THERMAL IMAGES
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE
OPERATIONS & CONTROL
1. INSTALLATION
2. MAINTENANCE
3. LOGISTICS
4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5. QUALITY
6. MONITORING
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > LOGISTICS STORAGE
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > LOGISTICS PROCUREMENT
OPERATIONS & CONTROL
1. INSTALLATION
2. MAINTENANCE
3. LOGISTICS
4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5. QUALITY
6. MONITORING
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > PROJECT MANAGEMENT
OPERATIONS & CONTROL
1. INSTALLATION
2. MAINTENANCE
3. LOGISTICS
4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5. QUALITY
6. MONITORING
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > QUALITY WORK, HEALTH & SAFETY
OPERATIONS & CONTROL > QUALITY QUALITY CONTROL
LEGAL & ECONOMICS
1. ECONOMY OF THE PROJECT
2. PERMITS
3. STANDARDS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL
Structures Consumption and
Land /Terrain Weather
Energy Demand
Certificates Data
Estimation
BIPV PROJECT Inspections
Tilt Mount
CIVIL Loads ENERGY Flush MANAGEMENT
Mount MAINTENANCE Corrective

AESTHETICS Preventive
Software
Solar Cleaning
Panels Inverters Cables Control & OPERATIONS
GRID Responsibility Performance
TECHNICAL Mount Costs & & CONTROL
Team Tools
& DESIGN Negotiations PPEs
Electrical PRODUCT Lifting
Tariffs Equipment
INSTALLATION
Grid Protection Conduits
Fixings
Electrical Storage
Settings DESIGN
LOGISTICS Delivering
Anti-Islanding
Drawings
TAXONOMY OF Purchasing
Point of Connection Documentation
Software
THE ELEMENTS IN QUALITY WHS
Grid Application
LARGE PV PLANTS
ISO9001
Physical
ISO14001
Electrical
STC / LGC

Roof Lease
Environmental Impact
PPA
Flora ECONOMY OF
LEGAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL THE PROJECT Grants / Rebates
Fauna ECONOMICS
Cash Flow
Heritage
DNSP ROI
Glare Study
PERMITS D.A.
STANDARDS Feed in Tariff
Corrosion Clean Energy
Regulator Taxes
Wind
Client Product Clean Energy Council
Fees / Guarantees
Weather Data Regulations
Grid Connection
DNSP Costs
Electrical National International Local National

Council…
LEGAL & ECONOMICS
1. ECONOMY OF THE PROJECT
2. PERMITS
3. STANDARDS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY ROOF LEASE

• STC/LGC
• Roof Lease
• PPA
• Roof Lease
• Grants /
Rebates
• ROI
• Feed in Tariff
• Taxes
• Fees /
Guarantees
• Costs
• …
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY GRANTS / REBATES / FIT
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY CASH FLOW
LEGAL & ECONOMICS
1. ECONOMY OF THE PROJECT
2. PERMITS
3. STANDARDS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY PERMITS

• DNSP
• D.A.
• Clean Energy
Regulator
• Clean Energy
Council
• Grid
Connection
• National
• Council
• Heritage
• …
LEGAL & ECONOMICS
1. ECONOMY OF THE PROJECT
2. PERMITS
3. STANDARDS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY STANDARDS

• Customer Internal
Standards
• Electrical
• National
• International
• Council State
• Federal
Regulations
• DNSP
• Product
• …
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY STANDARDS

• Customer Internal
Standards
• Electrical
• National
• International
• Council State
• Federal
Regulations
• DNSP
• Product
• …
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY STANDARDS

• Customer Internal
Standards
• Electrical
• National
• International
• Council State
• Federal
Regulations
• DNSP
• Product
• …
LEGAL & ECONOMICS
1. ECONOMY OF THE PROJECT
2. PERMITS
3. STANDARDS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL
LEGAL & ECONOMICS > ECONOMY ENVIRONMENTAL

• Environmental
Impact
• Flora
• Fauna
• Heritage
• Glare Study
• Corrosion
• Wind
• Weather Data
• …
Structures Consumption and
Land /Terrain Weather
Energy Demand
Certificates Data
Estimation
BIPV PROJECT Inspections
Tilt Mount
CIVIL Loads ENERGY Flush MANAGEMENT
Mount MAINTENANCE Corrective

AESTHETICS Preventive
Software
Solar Cleaning
Panels Inverters Cables Control & OPERATIONS
GRID Responsibility Performance
TECHNICAL Mount Costs & & CONTROL
Team Tools
& DESIGN Negotiations PPEs
Electrical PRODUCT Lifting
Tariffs Equipment
INSTALLATION
Grid Protection Conduits
Fixings
Electrical Storage
Settings DESIGN
LOGISTICS Delivering
Anti-Islanding
Drawings
TAXONOMY OF Purchasing
Point of Connection Documentation
Software
THE ELEMENTS IN QUALITY WHS
Grid Application
LARGE PV PLANTS
ISO9001
Physical
ISO14001
Electrical
STC / LGC

Roof Lease
Environmental Impact
PPA
Flora ECONOMY OF
LEGAL &
ENVIRONMENTAL THE PROJECT Grants / Rebates
Fauna ECONOMICS
Cash Flow
Heritage
DNSP ROI
Glare Study
PERMITS D.A.
STANDARDS Feed in Tariff
Corrosion Clean Energy
Regulator Taxes
Wind
Client Product Clean Energy Council
Fees / Guarantees
Weather Data Regulations
Grid Connection
DNSP Costs
Electrical National International Local National

Council…
CASE STUDIES
CASE STUDY STOCKLAND SHELLHARBOUR 1.22 MW
CASE STUDY STOCKLAND SHELLHARBOUR 1.22 MW

Calendar Year Expected

2016 1,743,954
2017 1,735,234
2018 1,726,558
2019 1,717,925
2020 1,709,336
2021 1,700,789
2022 1,692,285
2023 1,683,824
2024 1,675,405
2025 1,667,028
2026 1,658,692
2027 1,650,399
2028 1,642,147
2029 1,633,936
2030 1,625,767
2031 1,617,638
2032 1,609,550
2033 1,601,502

Voltage
System No. Inverters Current (A) 4C AC Cable (mm2) Earth (mm2) Distance (On Site)
Drop
1 5 181 95 16 28 0.50%
2 7 254 185 35 45 0.58%
3 7 254 185 35 55 0.70%
4 6 217 150 25 50 0.68%
5 5 181 120 25 50 0.69%
6 6 217 150 25 44 0.68%
7 7 254 120 25 30 0.62%
CASE STUDY EGGEBEK 83.9 MW
CASE STUDY EGGEBEK 83.9 MW
CASE STUDY EGGEBEK 83.9 MW
THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION
 Storage is key to high penetration of
renewables
• Energy storage
– Providing backup
• Power conditioning
– Load levelling/shifting
– Assisting voltage/frequency regulation
• Grid conditioning
– Deferment of grid augmentation
– Security
– Time shift
 Electric Energy Storage

BATTERIES
FLY-WHEEL

MOLTEN SALT COMPRESSED AIR PUMPED-HYDRO

 Energy storage technologies
Installed
Power
• ELECTROCHEMICAL (batteries) 0.05%
• ELECTRICAL <0.01%
• CHEMICAL <0.01%
• THERMAL 0.02%
• MECHANICAL >99%
(pumped-hydro, compressed air, fly wheels)
 Mechanical storage
• Pumped-hydro: use low-
demand electricity to pump
water to higher reservoir; eff
>80%
• Compressed air: use low-
demand electricity for
compressing air; then
discharging air through
turbine; eff 40-70%
• Flywheel: storing kinetic
energy in massive high-speed
rotating wheel; eff 70-85%
 The ‘other’ storage technologies
• Electrochemical:
– Battery storage, most batteries >80% efficient
• Chemical:
– Water splitting into H+O; burning them in electrical
generator; eff ~30%
• Electrical:
– super-capacitors and superconductors; new, high
power density but low energy density; expensive; eff
>90%
• Thermal:
– molten salt, eff >90%; heat-exchangers, liquefied-air
 Energy density

Specific
Less
Technology Energy Eff
Than Petrol
kWh/kg
Petrol 13 1 25-30%
Molten Salt 0.35 37 70%
Li-Ion 0.15 86 90%
Flywheel 0.12 108 70-85%
Lead-acid 0.04 325 85%
Compressed Air 0.022 590 40-75%
Pumped-Hydro 0.00025 52,000 80-85%
 Battery definitions
• Voltage: average/nominal voltage through discharge cycle (AA
1.2-1.5V)
• Capacity: energy (A*h, W*h) that can be withdrawn before V falls
below certain value (AA ~2Ah)
• C-rate: charge/discharge rate equal to nominal capacity per hour
• Power: max power in Watts or max current in Amperes battery can
deliver
• Efficiency: fraction of energy can be recovered over full
charge/discharge cycle. Typically 80-90%
• Energy density: energy content in W*h (or J) per kg or per litter of
storage
• State-of-Charge (SOC): fraction of remaining capacity
• Depth-of-Discharge (DOD): fraction of used capacity
• SOC+DOD = 100%
Discharge rate, capacity and voltage
 Internal resistance

A major source of loss of efficiency, voltage, capacity

• No current: V=ε
• Current: V= ε – I*r <ε
• Capacity lost due to too low V
• Energy/Efficiency lost via
heating resistor
 Battery requirements

• Long lifetime (>10 years) and cycle-time

(>3,000) (PV)
• Deep-cycle (ability to discharge to low DOD
(<30%) and stay low for long time without
capacity loss) (PV)
• Low cost, low maintenance
• High energy efficiency (>~90%); very low self-
discharge rate
• High specific energy /energy density (depending
on space/weight limitations)
How battery works

- +
 How battery works
ANODE (negative): CATHODE (positive):
METAL with negative - + METAL/METAL-OXIDE/
electrode potential METAL-SALT with
(Pb, Li, Na, etc) positive electrode
potential
(PbO2, LiCoO2, S, etc)

ELECROLYTE/SEPARATOR:
ion conductor (NOT electron!)
Anode (fuel) reaction: Cathode reaction:
Me↔Me+ + e- (-n eV) Ox + e- ↔ Ox- (+m eV)
EMF=(n+m) eV
~ battery Voc
 Standard reduction potentials

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/batteries/standard_potential
Lead-acid & Lithium ion
2V 3.2-3.7 V
 Lead-acid battery
• Flooded (old): must be kept upright; produce H2/O2 when
overcharged; top-up electrolyte required
• Valve regulated (VRLA): sealed, maintenance-free
– absorbed glass mat (AGM): with fiberglass mesh
separator
– gel: filled/thickened with silica dust
• Sulfation at higher DOD (>30%), hi rate of discharge:
excessive PbSO4 growth on anode
• Deep-cycle: anode Pb/Sb alloy, thicker plates &
separator, DOD 60-75%
• Advanced: ultra-battery (hybrid with supercapacitor),
http://www.csiro.au/en/Research/EF/Areas/Energy-
storage/UltraBattery, higher DOD, charge/discharge
rates, longer life
 Lead acid battery evolution of H2 and O2 gas

http://www.battcon.com/papersfinal2008/odonnellpaper2008proof_6.pdf
 Lithium ion
• Electrolyte: Li salt in organic solvent (e.g. ether, dimethyl/or
diethyl carbonate):
– risk overheating/explosion when overcharged/damaged
• Standard cathode: LiCoO2 (LCO) for electronics
• Charge control is VERY important
• Overall battery stack management important to achieve
safe long term operation.
• Changing cathode improves safety, lifetime, power but
lower specific energy:
– Lithium-Manganese Oxide (LMO) for power tools
– Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt Oxide (NMC) – for
electric cars
– Lithium-Iron-Phosphate, (LFP); for electric cars, storage
– (Sulfur – very hi specific energy, 500 Wh/kg; R&D)
LEAD-ACID Li-ION
1-50 W*h

0.1-10 KW*h

1-100 MW*h
Battery technology at a glance
 Battery charging

• Charging regime important for all batteries. Incorrect

charging:
– loss of performance
– short lifetime
– battery damage/explosion
• Lead-acid, Li-ion irreversibly damaged by full
discharge (DOD>95%) – MAST BE PROTECTED
• Three major charging phases:
1) Bulk
2) Absorption
3) Float
 Stages of charging

http://www.chargetek.com/basic-information.html
 Battery forecast
MW installed
Price trend

Future capacity trend

More than 20-fold
increase expected
within 10 years
 Battery Overview

Lead Acid Nickel Based Li-ion

Life cycle 80% DOD 1500 1000 4000
Life cycle 20% DOD 3500 7000 8000
Effect of Overcharging Loss of Electrolyte. Can cause irreparable Thermal runaway and
damage, particularly in sealed batteries cell rupture – fire.
Self discharge/month 5% 20% <5%
Allowed charge temp -20 to 50 ºC 0 to 45 ºC 0 to 45 ºC
Allowed discharge -20 to 50 ºC -20 to 65 ºC -20 to 60 ºC
temp
Maintenance 3-6 months 1-2 months Infrequent
Relative cost Low Moderate High
Energy density 15-40Wh/kg 40-65Wh/kg 115-155Wh/kg
 Installation of Batteries

• Large Energy Storage

– Treat with great respect
• Contain a volume of chemicals
• Lead Acid batteries can vent H2 gas
– Explosive
– Ventilation important
– No sparks please!
 Installation of Batteries (cont…)

• Keep batteries off the ground or concrete floor –

can cause thermal gradients
• Keep dry - moisture encourages corrosion
• Uniform temperature in enclosure
• Safety covers for battery terminals-connections
• Access for safe maintenance
• Warning signs and procedures
 Installation of Lead acid batteries -
STANDARDS

• AS 3011-1992 Electrical installations -

Secondary batteries installed in buildings
• AS 4086.1-1993 Secondary batteries for use
with stand-alone power systems - General
requirements
• AS 2676-1992 Guide to the installation,
maintenance, testing and replacement of
secondary batteries in buildings
 Selection and Sizing

• Why are we installing batteries?

– To cover backup for grid failure
– Offsetting peak load
– Minimising import/export from the grid
• Charge and Discharge rates important
• Fault current rating important for protection
 Battery Energy

• Batteries typically rated for Amp hours (Ah)

• Energy stored is V x Ah = Wh
• How do we achieve a specified energy capacity for
a project?
𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑇
𝐶𝑥 =
𝑉𝐷𝐶 × 𝐷𝑂𝐷𝑀𝐴𝑋

• Cx = battery capacity required in Ah

• ETOT = total energy the battery must supply
(including losses)
• VDC = nominal battery voltage
 Paralleling Batteries

• Not recommended
• If absolutely have to then no more than 2 strings
• All electrical current paths identical
• Uniform temperature across strings
• Careful overcurrent protection
• Careful charge control to maintain even charge
distribution
 Selection and sizing of inverters

• Normal PV grid connect inverters

– cannot independently produce a grid
equivalent voltage.
• Multimode inverters (for Battery Systems)
– are able to operate in grid connect and
independently (i.e. as UPS)
– Can when enabled operate bi-directionally
oCharging batteries or
oSupplying grid or independent load from
battery
 Multimode Important Issues

• Must be matched to the battery

– Technology
– Voltage and current
• Matched to loads
– Voltage
– Power
– VA and or pf
– Surge rating
• Match the application
– Operating modes and power flows
 Typical Efficiencies

Component Efficiency
Cable
Separate Solar controller/regulator 95-96%
Multimode Inverter 88-96%
Grid Connect Inverter 95-96%
Battery – Coulombic/Faraday efficiency 90-95%
Battery – Watt Hour efficiency 70-90%

System control & energy flows affect the overall system efficiency.
 Simple Battery System

• Multimode
PG
Inverter
PL
• Inverter controls PPV

power & energy

flows
PB
 Another – Battery -PV System

• Multimode
PG
Inverter
PPV
PL
• System control for
power & energy
flows
PB
Safety of ports
 DVC

Decisive Voltage Limits of Working Voltage

Classification AC Voltage AC Voltage DC Voltage
(DVC) rms peak mean

A ≤25 ≤35.4 ≤60

(16) (22.6) (35)
B 50 71 120
(33) (46.7) (70)
C >50 >71 >120
(>33) (>46.7) (>70)
(xx) Values for wet locations
 PV with no Battery
1200

44c
1000
15c 25c 15c

800

600 Export Load (W)

PV Power
8c
400 Charge

200 Supply
Charge Load

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
 TETB island grid project
PV Array 3.6kW

PV Inverter

420Ah

Draft design by SMA Australia

 Disclaimer

• Note: This course has only just scratched the

surface of battery systems issues and design.
 Resources

• http://batteryuniversity.com/
• http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/batteries/overvie
w
• http://www.mpoweruk.com/
• http://energystorage.org/energy-storage
• “Understanding Batteries”, by R.M. Dell et al,
2001, ISBN10: 0854046054
• “Linden's Handbook of Batteries”, by T. Reddy,
2011, ISBN10: 007162421X
 Connection voltage

• Influences the cost of connection

• Higher voltage - higher cost
– due to the general increase in size and
insulation requirements of plant and
equipment
• Site specific geographical and technical
parameters can influence the connection voltage
• There may be some overlap between the
voltage boundaries for a given gen size.
 Typical Connection Voltages – Just a
Guide!!!
Generator Size Location: Urban Typical
(3-phase) or Rural Connection
Voltage
0 – 0.25 MW Rural 400V
0 – 0.5 MW Urban 400V
0.25 – 4.0 MW Rural 11,000V
0.5 – 7.0 MW Urban 11,000V
4.0 – 20.0 MW Rural 33,000V
7.0 – 20.0 MW Urban 33,000V
+ 20.0 MW Urban + Rural 132,000V

Site specific issues may change this general guide considerably.

 Distributed Benefits
- Putting Generation near loads
• Modularity of PV systems
• Can provide "distributed benefits“ such as:
– delaying the need for transformer, conductor
or circuit upgrading, reducing transmission,
distribution and transformer losses, increasing
reliability and providing kVAR support in some
specialised cases.
• True if done properly
 Delaying circuit upgrading
• A distribution line to a region of the grid may be
approaching thermal overload as the demand at
the end of the line grows, say on summer
afternoons
• Add PV?
• No storage?
Feeder load before PV
PV generation 500kW array
Feeder load pattern with PV
 Solar & load profiles

Solar & Load

1.2

0.8

0.6 Array Output

0.4 Load
0.2

-0.2
 Result of this simple system with
respect to feeder.
• Reduction of transmission power during the
middle of the day. Therefore reduction in
transmission losses.
• Little reduction in the peak power on feeder.
• Very marginal benefit in terms of reduction of
need for infrastructure.
 PV tracking
To track or not to track?
• Disadvantages:
– Cost
– Maintenance
• Advantages:
– Increased Yield
– Flatter daily output profile
• Most of the time the advantages don’t cover the
extra costs
Tracking Benefits

Dual Axis Tracking

20-35%
increased
yield
Monte Alto 9.55MW
System
 Microgrids

• A microgrid is a cluster of distributed generators,

storage systems and loads that presents itself to
the grid as a single entity that can respond to
central control signals.
• To increase reliability and security, the microgrid
can separate from the grid if a grid disturbance
is present.
 TETB island grid project
PV Array 3.6kW

PV Inverter

420Ah

Draft design by SMA Australia

 Microgrids connected to grid

• While connected to the main grid generation

dispatch may be centrally controlled within the
microgrid to produce an outcome for the wider
grid.
– Zero power import/export
– Grid export to support the grid
– Export at high system price
– Contingency relief for grid
 Microgrids in island operation

• While Islanded:
– load and generation must balance
– VArs must balance.
• Some load shedding may have to occur.
• Fast control of generation must rely on local
frequency and voltage signals.
• Slower central control may change control slopes to
vary generation and load mix.
– Frequency controls power export
– Voltage controls VArs
 Smart Grid – Large Networks

• Smart meters
– Data gathering
– Remote reading
• Communications :
– with local Energy Management System
– for Local Storage management
– Load and Generation control
Smart grid needs energy storage
Smart Grid Possibilities

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

 Smart Grid

• Requires:
– Local autonomous fast control
– Communications for parameter changes
and/or price signals
• Security and stability are issues
 International developments

• Firefighter Safety
• New DC Switch developments
– Mechanical
– Electronic
• Arc detection now in use in USA
• Rapid Shutdown now required in USA
• 62109-3 requirements for PV module with integrated
electronics
– Controllable junction boxes
– AC modules/microinverters
 PV Fires

• Are a major issue

• Could be started by PV
OR
• PV may just be on the building

• Both situations are of concern to emergency

services
Australia
Buerstadt Germany
UK
USA
Fires are a major problem
 Main causes

Bad connections  ARCS

Burnt connectors
Connectors
Switch Failures
Modules
Switch board
 Firefighter Safety

• Extensive discussion on
firefighter safety.
– Distance from modules –
water spray
– Pools of water
– Firefighters clothing
– Routing of wires through
buildings
German fire incidents up to 2012
German fire incidents up to 2012 (cont)
 Major issues for firefighters

• How do I know there is a system installed?

• Operating procedure to shutdown/disable.
• How can I safely extinguish it?
• Risks associated with entering a building.
Fire hose testing (1000V)
ELECTRODE

WATER STREAM

NOZZLE
UL fire hose testing
5m distance
1000Vdc

Solid stream above

perception i.e. >2mA

10 deg angle below

perception i.e. <2mA

FOG NOZZLE on 1000V

-below perception at
1.5m distance
Cables hanging

Danger for firefighters:

• Live cable hanging
down from roof either
during or after a fire.
• Wet clothing not safe
for electrical protection
Danger in flooded areas or in water
pooling
 Flood Safety
• Electric Shock
• Fires
• High Water Issues
• After the water has receded Queensland flood

PV
Water in enclosures
German code - cable opt 1 - External

DC cabling outside
of the building and
inside a cable
conduit rated for
outdoor exposure
German code - cable opt 2 – Internal A

DC cabling inside of
the building and
inside a cable
conduit rated for fire
(e.g. metal).
German code - cable opt 3 – Internal B

DC cabling inside
the building and
NOT in fire resistant
conduit.
German code - cable opt 4 – Inverter
close to array
Almost no DC
cabling
Rapid shutdown in USA
 NEC - Rapid shutdown of PV systems

• “PV system circuits installed on or in buildings shall include a rapid

shutdown function that controls specific conductors in accordance
with 690.12(1) through (5) as follows.

– (1) Requirements for controlled conductors shall apply only to

PV system conductors of more than 1.5 m (5 ft) in length inside a
building, or more than 3 m (10 ft) from a PV array.

– (2) Controlled conductors shall be limited to not more than 30

volts and 240 volt-amperes within 10 seconds of rapid shutdown
initiation”.
 Rapid shutdown
SOURCE CIRCUIT COMBINER W/ CONTACTOR PV ARRAY
ACTUATED BY LOSS OF AC POWER
WITHIN 10' OF ARRAY IF OUTSIDE,
OR WITHIN 5' OF ENTERING THE ROOF,
WHICHEVER IS SHORTER

30 VOLTS OR LESS
CONDUIT RUN
OVER 10' LONG
80 VOLTS OR LESS

ABOVE 80 VOLTS

GARAGE
DC SWITCH ACTUATED
BY LOSS OF AC POWER

INVERTER
AC EQUIPMENT
INVERTER DISCONNECT

EXISTING EXTERIOR
SERVICE PANEL
 Rapid shutdown

PV ARRAY
ROOFTOP JUNCTION BOX TO TRANSITION
FROM TC-ER CABLE TO THWN-2

30 VOLTS OR LESS

80 VOLTS OR LESS

ABOVE 80 VOLTS CONDUIT RUN

OVER 10' LONG

GARAGE

EXISTING EXTERIOR
SERVICE PANEL
Rapid shutdown
PV ARRAY

SOURCE CIRCUIT COMBINER W/ CONTACTOR

CONTROLLED BY DC DISCONNECT
WITHIN 10' OF ARRAY

30 VOLTS OR LESS

80 VOLTS OR LESS

ABOVE 80 VOLTS
CONDUIT RUN UNDER 10' LONG
ON HOUSE EXTERIOR SERVICE
DISCONNECT

INVERTER

DC DISCONNECT WITH CONTROL

OF ROOFTOP CONTACTOR
Rapid shutdown
PV ARRAY WITH DC/ DC CONVERTERS
ON EACH MODULE

ROOFTOP JUNCTION BOX TO TRANSITION FROM

TC-ER CABLE TO THWN-2

30 VOLTS OR LESS

80 VOLTS OR LESS

ABOVE 80 VOLTS
CONDUIT RUN UNDER 10' LONG
ON HOUSE EXTERIOR SERVICE
DISCONNECT

INVERTER

DC DISCONNECT FOR INVERTER

USA Fire Service & Insurance Industry
Proposal (2017)
• PV array voltage should be reduced when main
service is shut down.

• Reduce conductor voltage within in PV array.

– < 80Vdc within array footprint.
– < 30Vdc outside of array boundary (< 1ft).

• Requirement for all building mounted systems.

– Highest life hazard & property values.
 Label for current systems

• Label required for legacy systems that do not

conform to NEC 2014 or NEC 2017

Dotted line around array indicates that anything within that box is dangerous.
 Label for systems - NEC 2014

• Labels Required for systems that meet NEC

2014 Rapid Shutdown Requirements

Dotted line around array indicates that anything within that box is dangerous.
 Labels for systems - NEC 2017

• Labels Required for systems that meet NEC

2017 Rapid Shutdown Requirements
 System Commissioning

• Section in AS/NZS5033
• Extensive document IEC 62446-1:2016 on
commissioning (more comprehensive)
– Being revised to include more detail and wider
range of tests particularly useful for larger
systems.
 Important Commissioning Tests:

• Continuity of protective earthing and/or

equipotential bonding conductors
• Polarity test
• PV string - open circuit voltage measurement
• PV string - current measurement
• PV array insulation resistance test (dry and wet)
• Functional tests
 One string reversed???

• What are the consequences?

• What can/should you do?
Insulation Testing

• Remove SPDs from

Array
• Disconnect inverter
• Remove functional
earths.
IR testing
 All in one commissioning testers
• Earth / ground continuity measurement
• PV string Voc to 1000V DC
• String polarity indication
• PV string Isc to 15A DC
• Insulation test at:
250/500/1000V
 I-V
Curve Tracing.
• Excellent document by
Solmetric on Interpreting IV
curves:
• http://resources.solmetric.co
m/get/Guide%20to%20Interp
reting%20I-V%20Curves.pdf 600V
20A
• Done by using a capacitor
and measuring I and V
Examples of IV curves

66
 Other developments

• IEC 62109-1 & 2 in the process of being

updated.
• Possible new standard forecast to cover MPPT
accuracy and efficiency.
 New projects on PV Performance

• Predicting and
• measuring PV performance
• Important contractual issue
• EU project complete see
– http://www.pv-performance.org/
Finally
 BEWARE! May 2014

http://nationalreport.net/solar-panels-drain-suns-energy-experts-
say/#sthash.TtuFwIz2.dpuf
Good luck in your careers!!!
Transformerless PV inverters – Recent Test Results and
a Discussion of DC Current Injection and Safety Issues
1 2 3 4 2
Martina Calais , Andrew Ruscoe , Claude Morris , Mike Dymond , Houman Pezeshki
1
School of Engineering and Energy, Murdoch University,
Murdoch WA 6150, Australia, [email protected]
2
Research Institute for Sustainable Energy (RISE), Murdoch University
3
Horizon Power, 4Sungrid PTY LTD

ABSTRACT
With the variety of PV inverter types and the number of transformerless PV inverters on
the Australian market increasing, we revisit some of the issues associated with these
topologies. A recent electric shock incident in Queensland (luckily without serious
outcome) associated with a transformerless PV system, highlights the need for earthing
PV array structures and PV module frames to prevent capacitive leakage currents
causing electric shock. The presented test results of the relevant voltages associated
with leakage currents of five transformerless PV inverters stress this requirement, which
is currently being addressed by both the Clean Energy Council and Standards Australia.
DC current injection tests were performed on the same five inverters and were used to
develop preliminary recommendations for a more meaningful DC current test procedure
for AS4777 Part 2. The test circuit, methodology and results are presented and
discussed. A notable temperature dependency of DC current injections with three of the
five inverters suggests that DC current injection should be tested at high and low
internal inverter temperatures whereas the power dependency noted only for one
inverter does not seem to justify recommendations for a (rather involved) standard test
procedure at different power levels.
Keywords ⎯ DC current injection, grid connected PV systems, standards,
transformerless PV inverters

INTRODUCTION
The federal Government’s Solar Homes and Communities Plan as well as Feed-In
Tariffs in a number of states resulted in rapid growth of grid connected photovoltaic
(PV) installations in Australia in 2009-2010. This increase in installations also led to a
larger variety of single phase PV inverter types available on the Australian market.
More and more inverter designs utilising transformerless topologies have gained
AS4777 accreditation over the last two years. This aligns with market share
development trends in Germany shown in Fig. 1 below. The figure is based on surveys
of varying sample size (given in brackets) conducted by the German PHOTON
magazine (e.g. (Siemer 2010)) and shows the consistently high and rising proportion of
transformerless inverters in systems with single phase PV inverters since 2001.

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

100%

80%
Topology Unknown
60%
With High Frequency
40%
transformer
20% With Line Frequency
Transformer
0%
Transformerless
)

)
)
W
W

W
M
M

5M

6M
.6
8

(0
9.

0.

5.

8.

3.

2.
(2

(2

(2

(5

(8

(8
05
01

02

03

04

08

10
20
20

20

20

20

20

20

Fig. 1: Inverter topology market share for single phase grid connected PV systems using
inverters of 10 kW rating or less.
While there are clear associated advantages of implementing transformerless topologies,
there are known issues such as DC current injection and capacitive leakage currents
associated with these topologies and previous work of the authors investigated these. In
our previous paper (Calais et al. 2009) we reported on our tests showing the effects of
DC currents on distribution transformers and electricity meters.
The previous work also presented DC current injection tests results of three
transformerless PV inverter topologies. During these tests we observed temperature
dependencies and noted that AS4777.2 Section 4.9 (Standards Australia 2005) provides
little guidance on the DC current injection test procedure. The standard merely states
that a type test is required for single phase inverters which do not incorporate a mains
frequency isolating transformer and that this type test aims to ensure the DC output
current to be below 0.5% of the rated inverter current (or 5 mA whichever is the greater)
at all power levels. There is no guidance on whether instantaneous values or averaged
values (and how these should be averaged) be used. Furthermore, requesting a type test
at all power levels leads to impractical test durations.
One aim of this paper is therefore to revisit the temperature dependencies noted during
the initial DC current injection tests. We assume that a cause of DC current injection
may be the error in the inverter internal current measurement device(s) (mostly Hall-
effect sensors) due to their temperature dependency. We set out to investigate and
attempt to verify and quantify a dependency between DC current injection and internal
inverter operating temperature and more specifically, the internal current measuring
device. The findings enable us to provide recommendations on a more meaningful DC
current test procedure and with that design guidelines for manufacturers, in line with
feedback we received following publication of our previous work.
A second issue of interest investigated in our previous work is associated with leakage
currents on the PV array side. Recorded voltages between the active conductors of the
PV array and earth (imposed by the three example transformerless inverters we
Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference
1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
2
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

investigated) and measurements of the capacitance between PV array and earth were
used to assess leakage currents occurring in transformerless systems, confirming
findings presented in the literature. The results highlighted the need for amendment of
AS5033 with regards to the compulsory earthing of PV array frames and structures in
transformerless PV systems. This amendment has not yet occurred and feedback from
installers shows that frames are generally not earthed in PV system installations
regardless whether they incorporate transformerless inverters or not.
In July 2010 there was an incident in Queensland where a home occupier did receive a
shock from a ladder leaning against the gutter of a house. Fortunately there was no
serious outcome. Investigation showed that the house had a PV system with a
transformerless inverter and that the voltage on the ladder was only present when the
inverter was running, clearly indicating the source of the problem as the PV system.
Safety testing did not reveal any fault and the conclusion was the array capacitance was
coupling into the roof and then onto the ladder via the gutter. The installer was unaware
of the potential problem and had installed to Australian Standards. This incident
demonstrates the importance of the safety issue highlighted in Calais et al. (2009) and
the current paper with regard to earthing practices and transformerless inverters.
We revisit the issue of capacitive leakage currents, presenting further background and
test results of transformerless inverters and discuss the importance of earthing in view
of controlling capacitive leakage currents.

DC CURRENT INJECTION EVALUATION

Developing a more meaningful DC current test procedure for AS4777 requires its
justification and:
A clear description of the test circuit and method used to measure the DC
current injection (including test duration, number of tests required per inverter,
the power levels of the inverter during the test(s) as well as environmental
conditions).
A clarification on whether the limit for DC current injection (currently 5mA or
0.5% of the inverters rated current) is a maximum value or averaged over a
period of time.
Selected international standards were first reviewed to gain an overview of existing
methods. Tests on a number of transformerless inverters were then performed and
analysed in view of the above requirements. The following sections summarise the
findings and recommendations.

Review of International Standards

Table 1 lists selected international standards with their scope and summarises aspects
associated with DC current injection limits and test procedures. The German standard is
different from the others as it aims to prevent DC injection at a limit of 1A and hence
has an appropriate type test method. Whereas the European standard has no details on
test procedures associated with DC current injection, the IEEE Standard 1547.1 is more
detailed. We examined the procedure documented there and used it as a starting point
for our tests.

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
3
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

Methodology and Test Setup

Minimising DC injection from a transformerless inverter is a difficult task for the
inverter designer. This is the because the DC levels involved are very small compared to
the AC current and this presents a measurement challenge when price, power
consumption, and number of components required for the measurement must be limited.
DC injection must be measured by the inverter for it to be regulated. Even with high
quality lab equipment in a controlled environment (as used in the testing outlined
below) it is difficult to achieve an uncertainty of better than 4%. Hence it was theorised
that the temperature drift known to exist in Hall-effect current sensors and operational
amplifier circuitry would cause an inverter's DC injection to change. It was further
theorised that changing the AC current would affect the DC current measurement of the
inverter's control circuitry. It was therefore hypothesised that changing the inverter's
ambient temperature or operating power would result in a change in the DC injection.
To verify the above hypotheses we tested five transformerless inverters (see Table 2) as
shown in Fig. 2. A temperature sensor (RTD) was installed within the inverter (Device
Under Test (DUT)) near what was suspected to be current sensing circuitry and fixed to
be not in contact with any components. This was intended to measure the ambient
temperature experienced by the control electronics within the inverter. The DUT was
then placed in an environmental chamber. The DC side of the DUT was connected to
the RISE PV simulator and the AC was connected to a simulated grid (i.e., large
resistive load connected to an AC source) operated at 240V. The following parameters
were sampled and logged every 15 seconds: internal inverter, environmental chamber,
and laboratory ambient temperatures, DC current injection (2 second averaged data),
and AC current. The test setup was wired such that current going into the DUT active
and out of the DUT neutral conductor was measured as positive. The DUT was operated
at 100% rated AC power output in a 10ºC ambient until DUT temperature and DC
injection stabilised.
The DUT power was then reduced to 30% (by reducing the output of the PV simulator)
for a period of approximately 10 minutes. It was intended that this was a period during
which DUT temperature would change little and hence any change in DC injection
during this period would most likely be due to the power change rather than the
associated temperature change. The power was then increased and the inverter was
operated at 100% until the inverter temperature and DC injection stabilised. This
procedure was then repeated at an ambient temperature of 30°C while maintaining
logging.
This procedure was used for all of the inverters tested except the Sungrow inverter. The
Sungrow was being tested following a different procedure for purposes outside the
scope of this paper. Temperature and DC current injection information was gathered
during this testing but unlike the other inverters, power level was not changed during
the test.

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
4
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

Tab. 1: Selected standard summaries associated with DC current injection for single
phase PV inverters
Country Standard Standard scope and summary of DC current injection aspects
Australia AS4777.2:2005 The standard specifies the requirements for inverters (with ratings up to
Grid 10kW, single phase and up to 30kW, three phase) connected to the low
connection of voltage distribution system.
energy systems
Section 4.9 requires a type test for single phase inverters which do not
via inverters
incorporate a mains frequency isolating transformer. This type test aims to
Part 2: Inverter
ensure the DC output current is below 0.5% of the rated inverter current (or
requirements
5 mA whichever is the greater) at all power levels. (Standards Australia
2005)
USA IEEE Std IEEE Std 1547 defines requirements for the interconnection of distributed
1547-2003 for resources to an electric power system.
Interconnecting
Distributed Section 4.3.1 states that the distributed resource shall not inject a DC
Resources with current greater than 0.5% of the full rated output current at the point of
Electric Power distributed resource connection. (IEEE 2003)
Systems
USA IEEE Std The standard provides conformance test procedures to establish and verify
1547.1-2005 compliance with the requirements of IEEE Std 1547-2003.
Conformance
Section 5.6 of this standard defines the type test to verify that an inverter
Test
without interconnection transformers complies with the dc injection limit
Procedures for
specified in IEEE Std 1547. In particular, it stipulates to test the inverter at
Equipment
33, 66 and 100% of its continuous rated output current. The test process
Interconnecting
should allow the inverter to run for at least 5 min prior to taking any test
Distributed
measurements (or until the inverter temperature stabilizes). The averaging
Resources with
window for all measurements shall be not less than one cycle and not more
Electric Power
than 60 cycles. Measurements are taken at a sampling rate of not less than
Systems
the reciprocal of the selected averaging window for a period of 5 minutes.
(IEEE 2005)
Europe IEC 61727 The standard specifies PV inverter requirements (with ratings less than
Ed 2 (2004) 10kW) connected to the low voltage distribution system. Type certification
Photovoltaic meeting the detailed standards is deemed acceptable for installation without
(PV) systems - any further testing.
Characteristics
Section 4.4 states that “The PV system shall not inject DC current greater
of the utility
than 1% of the rated inverter output current, into the utility AC interface
interface
under any operating condition”. (IEC 2004)
Germany DIN V VDE V The standard specifies the requirements of an automatic disconnection
0126-1-1:2006- device between a generator and the public low-voltage distribution grid.
02. Automatic
Section 4.4 and 6.4 are concerned with DC current monitoring. DC
disconnection
injection due to a system fault needs to be prevented and disconnection is
device between
required within 0.2s. The fault itself or the measurement of the DC current
a generator and
can be used as a criterion for disconnection.
the public low-
voltage grid The type test of prevention of the DC injection can be by either a) or b):
a) By injecting a DC current of 1 A into the measurement setup of the
inverter (shunt, or a sensor). The disconnection has to occur within 0.2s.
b) Simulation of a fault and concurrent measurement of the injected
current. If the DC component is > than 1 A, disconnection has to occur
within 0.2s. (DIN und VDE 2006)

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
5
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

Induction DC PV Array Inverter

High Speed Power Meter
Motor Generator Simulator (DUT)
Circuit Fuse (Output of Inverter)
Breaker

Current
Voltage
In Active
AC

Out Neutral

Meter for DC
Current Injection
Oscilloscope

Shunt Resistor

3 Phase Conductor
Ch 1 Ch 2 Ch 3

Active

Neutral
Resistive Load
DC

Cooling Fan
powered by 12V

(Modelled Grid)
AC

Source

AC Source
Power Meter
(Power being Supplied to Load)
Current
Voltage

Circuit Breaker High Speed Fuse In Active

Out Neutral

Fig. 2: Testing circuit used to measure DC current injection. Meter for DC: Agilent DMM
3458A, Power Meter: Yokogawa WT2030, Shunt Resistor: Tinsley Instruments 10m ,
AC Source: California Instruments MX45. (Morris 2009)
Tab. 2: Investigated transformerless PV inverters (Clean Energy Council 2010)
Inverter Model/ AS4777 Details
Manufacturer certified
AT2700 / Sunways No 2.7kW AC rated power, transformerless two stage inverter with
front end boost converter and HERIC full bridge, MPPT voltage
range: 150 - 600VDC, three phase monitoring
SB5000TL / SMA Yes 4.6kW AC rated power, transformerless two stage inverter with
front end boost converters (2 individual MPPT’s) and H5 full
bridge, MPPT voltage range: 175 - 440VDC
Orion SPG-360-2K0 / Yes 2kW AC rated power, transformerless topology, MPPT voltage
Solar Energy Australia range: 150 – 360VDC
SG2k5TL/ Sungrow no 2.5kW AC rated power, transformerless two stage inverter with
front end boost converter and full bridge topology, MPPT
voltage range: 150 - 380 VDC
Aurora PVI-2000-AU / yes 2kW AC rated power, transformerless topology with front end
Power-One boost converter, MPPT voltage range: 90 - 580 VDC

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
6
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

Test Results and Discussion

Tab. 3: DC injection test results, (* no quantifiable dependency given uncertainty)
Manufacturer Model AC AS4777 DC Max DC Temp. Power
Power limit observed dependency dependency
rating
W mA mA mA/ºC mA
Sunways AT2700 2700 56 2.4 -0.1 0*
SMA SB5000TL 4600 96 15 0* 0*
Orion SPG-360-2K0 2000 42 18 -0.5 20
Sungrow SG2K5TL 2500 52 180 3.4 (Not tested)
Power-One PVI-2000-AU 2000 42 18 0.7 0*

Table 3 summarises the test results for the five inverters. As previously described, the
DC injection was averaged over 2 seconds by the Digital Multimeter (Agilent DMM
3458A) and the DMM value was sampled and logged every 15 seconds along with
temperature information. The DC levels expressed in Table 3 were these sampled values
averaged over up to 1 hour. This averaging was required to ensure an acceptable level of
uncertainty on logged data that often exhibited a high standard deviation (SD). The high
SD likely represented real fluctuations in DC injection rather than noise because noise
was quantified as small and not all inverters exhibited the high SD.
All but one inverter have DC injection well below the AS4777 limit under the tested
temperature and power level conditions. Three inverters showed notable temperature
dependency and one showed power level dependency of the DC injection magnitude.
The Sungrow inverter did not undergo the same test methodology but was tested with
regards to temperature dependency only. The test results are shown in Fig. 3 below,
indicating a strong correlation between DC injection and inverter temperature.
Although measurement uncertainties were minimised using various methods (shielding,
offset and noise compensation, frequent autocalibration), the tests particularly at low
DC current levels (e.g. 5mA) are associated with high uncertainties (50%), typical DC
current levels (e.g. 20 mA) showed uncertainties of approx. 20% and 50 mA current
levels uncertainties of 10%. Considering the results in the light of these uncertainties the
results in Table 3 remain valid in as much as both power and temperature dependency
of DC current injection can be related in some inverters and that some manufacturers do
not seem to address these issues.
For temperature stabilisation reasons the tests at two temperatures span over a day and
due to the length of the tests, repeatability of test results was not consistently checked
for all inverters at all temperatures. Further work is therefore required to confirm these
results. At this stage, our recommendations for a standard DC current injection test
procedure can therefore only be preliminary:
The power dependency noted for one inverter (resulting in DC injection still
well below the AS4777 limit) does not seem to justify recommendations for a
(rather involved) standard test procedure at different power levels (as e.g. in
IEEE 1547.1).

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
7
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

Notable temperature dependencies suggest that DC injection should be tested at

a high internal inverter temperature (e.g. 100% rated AC power, 30°C ambient
temperature) as well as at a low internal inverter temperature (e.g. 30% AC
power rating, 10°C ambient temperature).
The test circuit presented in Fig. 2 along with the chosen sampling and
averaging settings is considered adequate.

200 70

60

150
50

40

Temp (degC)/AC Current (Arms)

100
DC Injection (mA)

DC Current (mA) 30
Chamber Temp
Inverter Temp
AC Current (Arms) 20

50

10

0
0
9:50:01
10:08:16
10:26:31
10:44:46
11:03:01
11:21:16
11:39:31
11:57:46
12:16:01
12:34:16
12:52:31
13:10:46
13:29:01
13:47:16
14:05:31
14:23:46
14:42:02
15:00:17
15:18:32
15:36:47
15:55:02
16:13:17
16:31:32
16:49:47
17:08:02
17:26:17
17:44:32
18:02:47
18:21:02
18:39:17
18:57:32
19:15:47
-10

Fig. 3: -50Sungrow inverter test results demonstrating

Time
strong temperature
-20
dependency of
DC current injection

PV ARRAY CAPACITIVE LEAKAGE CURRENTS

Fig. 4 shows a typical connection and relevant voltages in a single phase
transformerless PV system. The voltages v+ and v- are observed between the PV array’s
active conductors (positive and negative respectively) and earth. Depending on the
topology and the control of the transformerless PV inverter the voltages v+ and v- can
vary in their AC components. Magnitude, waveform and frequency of these voltages
along with the capacitance between the PV array and earth determine the capacitive
leakage currents in the system. A good understanding of these input voltages is hence
important and we recorded these for the tested inverters. In presenting these we refer to
Schmidt and Burger (Schmidt & Burger 2009), who have categorised inverter
topologies into three groups (A-C) in relation to these input voltages:
Group A inverters have neither PV array active conductor (positive or negative)
connected directly to earth, but nevertheless “quiet” input voltages, with the only AC
component being the single phase topology inherent 100 Hz ripple. Depending on the
topology the voltages v+ and v- can be symmetrical or unsymmetrical with respect to
earth. Group A inverters include inverters with and without transformer. Group A
inverters with transformer generally show a symmetrical distribution of the voltages v+
and v- with respect to ground. (We did not test any inverters belonging to Group A.)
Group B inverters are transformerless inverters which generally have input voltages v+
and v- with sinusoidal, grid frequency AC components at half the grid voltage
Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference
1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
8
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

amplitude (i.e. root mean square values of 120V). All but one of the tested inverters
belong to this group with example topologies shown in Fig. 5 and corresponding input
voltages shown in Fig. 6. The input voltage waveforms associated with this group of
inverters depend on the switching schemes used and some are more distorted than
others. Apart from the sinusoidal waveforms shown in Fig. 6, square wave (e.g.
Thyristor based inverters) or near half-wave rectified waveforms (e.g. Orion SPG-360-
2K0, see Fig. 7(b)) are also possible.
Group C inverters have one active conductor of the PV array (either positive or
negative) connected directly to earth either within or outside the inverter. This achieves
a fixed potential of v+ and v- with respect to earth. Example voltages for a Group C
inverter (AT2700 Sunways) are shown in Fig. 7(a).
Transformerless PV
PV array inverter
Positive Active

v+ Grid
Neutral
vPV
MEN link
Negative PE

PV array - earth v-
capacitance

Fig. 4: Voltage definitions for v+, v-, and vPV = v+ - v- (PE: Protective Earth, MEN:
Multiple Earthed Neutral)

PV arrays

PV array Boost Active

v+
Stage
vPV

Boost Active
v+ Neutral
Stage
vPV Grid v-
H5 Bridge

Neutral

v- Full Bridge
v+
Boost
vPV Stage

(b)
(a) (b) v-

(a)
(a)

Fig. 5: Group B (simplified) topology examples (a) transformerless inverter with full
bridge and front end boost converter, (b) SB5000TL

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
9
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

Test Results

400 500
500

300 400
400

300
200 300

200 200
100
100 100
0
0 20 40 60 80 0 0
-100 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
-100 -100

-200 -200 -200

-300 -300 -300

-400 -400
-400

-500 -500
-500

(a) Sungrow SG2k5TL (b) SMA SB5000TL (c) Power-One PVI-2000-AU

Fig. 6: Examples for Group B inverter input voltages (x-axis: time (ms), y-axis: v (V))

(a) Sunways AT2700 (b) Orion SPG-360-2K0

(b)
Fig. 7: v+ (CH2) and v- (CH1) for two investigated inverters (MATH or CH3 show the
inverter input voltage vPV = v+ - v-).
Discussion and recommendations
Apart from the Sunways AT2700 all inverters tested are capable of causing capacitive
leakage currents, with magnitude, waveform and frequency of the input voltages and
size of the PV array-earth capacitance being the significant parameters in determining
the magnitude of the leakage currents. The PV array-earth capacitance depends on the
PV module structure (larger for thin film (CIS, a-Si, CdTe), lower for crystalline
technologies), the PV support structure, PV array size, and environmental conditions
(moisture). For example, our previously reported measurements on the RISE 4.5 kW
crystalline PV array reported a maximum PV earth capacitance measured of
154nF/kWp under wet conditions. With voltages shown in Fig. 6, a leakage current of
up to 5.8 mA/kWp is then possible, for voltages shown in Fig. 7(b), up to 11.6 mA/kWp
is expected. The value for thin film arrays is likely to be more than 5 times higher,
Schmidt and Burger (2009) estimate 35mA/kWp for input voltages shown in Fig. 6.
Earthing the frames and support structure of PV arrays prevent leakage currents to flow
Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference
1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
10
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

via a person touching PV array structures in transformerless PV systems. If this is not

done, incidents such as the one in Queensland can occur. One should note, that once
body impedance is added in series with the PV earth capacitance, leakage current
magnitudes are lower than the above values quoted but may still be well above
perception threshold.
Transformerless inverters compliant to DIN V VDE V 0126-1-1 incorporate a DC
sensitive residual current device (RCD) which shuts down the inverter once a 30 mA
jump in leakage current is detected (protection against electric shock) or the leakage
currents exceeds 300 mA (fire protection). The authors support the requirement of such
an RCD for transformerless PV inverter systems in Australia.
At the time of writing it is understood the Clean Energy Council (CEC) Grid-Connected
PV System Installation Guidelines will be updated in August 2010 to include the need
for earthing of array frames at least on systems with transformerless inverters. This will
effectively cover most systems currently being installed in Australia. Updates to the
Australian Standard will occur to address the leakage current issue but the process will
take longer.
Installers should also carefully check PV module manufacturers’ recommendations with
regards to the use of transformerless inverters in conjunction with thin film modules
since corrosion and/or degradation problems have been reported (Schmidt & Burger
2009).

CONCLUSIONS
DC current injection tests were performed on five inverters and were used to develop
preliminary recommendations for a more meaningful DC current test procedure for
AS4777 Part 2. The test circuit, methodology and results are presented and discussed. A
notable temperature dependency of DC current injections with three of the five inverters
suggests that DC current injection should be tested at high and low internal inverter
temperatures whereas the power dependency noted only for one inverter does not seem
to justify recommendations for a (rather involved) standard test procedure at different
power levels.
With regards to the electric shock hazard caused by capacitive leakage currents in
transformerless PV systems, the presented test results of the voltages associated with the
leakage currents highlight the need for earthing PV array structures and frames which is
currently being addressed by the CEC and Standards Australia. Additionally, a DC
sensisitive RCD as required by DIN V VDE V 0126-1-1 for transformerless inverters is
recommended as it increases protection against electric shock and fire.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following support for this project is gratefully acknowledged: Murdoch
University’s Division of Research and Development for providing funding for this
project, SMA for the donation of the SunnyBoy 5000TL inverter and RISE for
providing extensive in-kind support and access to testing facilities.

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
11
 M.Calais, A. Ruscoe, C. Morris, M. Dymond, H. Pezeshki

REFERENCES
Calais, M., A. Ruscoe, et al. (2009). Transformerless PV inverter issues revisited - are
Australian standards adequate? Solar09, the 47th ANZSES Annual Conference. Townsville,
Queensland, Australia.
Clean Energy Council. (2010, 22/07/2010). "Tested and approved grid connected
inverters." Retrieved 07/08/2010, 2010, from
http://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/cec/accreditation/Solar-PV-
accreditation/approvedproducts.html.
DIN und VDE (2006). DIN V VDE V 0126-1-1 Automatic disconnection device
between a generator and the public low voltage network (Selbsttätige Schaltstelle
zwischen einer netzparallelen Eigenerzeugungsanlage und dem öffentlichen
Niederspannungsnetz, in German). Berlin, VDE Verlag.
IEC (2004). IEC 61727 Ed 2 (2004) Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Characteristics of the
utility interface. Geneva, IEC.
IEEE (2003). IEEE Standard 1547-2003 for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with
Electric Power Systems. New York, IEEE.
IEEE (2005). IEEE Standard 1547.1-2005 Conformance Test Procedures for Equipment
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems. New York, IEEE.
Morris, C. T. (2009). Grid-connected Transformerless Single-phase Photovoltaic
Inverters: An Evaluation on DC Current Injection and PV Array Voltage Fluctuation.
School of Engineering and Energy. Murdoch, Murdoch University.
Schmidt, H. and B. Burger (2009). Interactions between solar modules and inverters.
Freiburg, Germany, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE).
Siemer, J. (2010). "Historic Maximum Demand (Historisches Nachfragemaximum -
Angebote fuer Solarstromanlagen sind heiss begehrt und entsprechend schwer
erhaeltlich, in German)." PHOTON(April): 108-123.
Standards Australia (2005). AS4777 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters
Part 2: Inverter requirements. Sydney, Standards Australia.

BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF PRESENTER

Martina Calais completed her electrical engineering degree at Darmstadt University of
Technology, Germany. She first worked as a research engineer on automotive power
supplies in the Electrical Drives Department at Daimler Benz Research and Technology
in Frankfurt before moving to Perth where she completed her PhD in Power Electronics
at Curtin University. Since 2000 Martina is with Murdoch University where she was
principally involved in the development and coordination of the Renewable Energy
Engineering Degree. She now lectures in Power and Renewable Energy Engineering
and is a research associate with RISE, pursuing her research interest in grid connected
PV system technology. During 2007 she worked with Verve Energy and gained
experience in sustainable energy business development. She is a member of AUSES,
ISES, IEEE and the Institution of Engineers Australia.

Solar2010, the 48th AuSES Annual Conference

1-3 December 2010, Canberra, ACT, Australia
12