HSC Y12 Physics:
Atomic Structures
0.1 Existence of Subatomic Particles
In 1897, One of the leaders in particle physics, J.J. Thomson devised an experiment,
Cathode Ray Experiment to measure the specific charge for an electron (he called
”corpuscle’ during his time), which is the ratio of the charge to its mass, me or mq .
[Note:- me is the charge per unit mass - the amount of charge in 1 kg].
Cathode Ray Experiment Setup
1. In the figure, C and A are the cathode and anode respectively, and narrow slits are cut
in opposite plates at A so that the cathode ray rays passing through are limited to a
narrow beam.
2. The cathode ray is emitted at the cathode and is made to accelerate towards the multi-
anode collimators (narrow slit) to enter the main part the tube. [A extremely large
potential difference V between cathode and anode to accelerate the ray. ]
3. The rays then strike the glass (fluorescent screen), producing a glow there.
4. The deflection of the ray can be adjusted electrostatically by means of connecting a
large battery to the horizontal plate P, Q; or magnetically by means of a current passing
through Helmholtz coils, R, S on either side of the tube near P and Q as shown by the
small circles.
5. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the paper, and if it is uniform, a constant force
acts on the cathode rays normal to its motion.
6. The particles thus begin to move along the arc HK of a circle of radius r. When they
leave the field, the particle move in a straight line and strike the glass at G.
7. The deflection is tuned to zero by adjusting either the strength of the magnetic or
electric field.
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Results
During no deflection, the ray is travelling in a straight line, this indicates the equilibrium
motion of the cathode ray.
electric upthrust = downward magnetic force
FE = FB
qE = Bqv
E
v=
B
Comment: Since E is usually numerically larger than B, therefore v is usually high. J.J.
Thomson found that v is considerably less than speed of light (3 × 108 m/sec). This leads
to
Deduction:-
1. Since the ray can be deflected by magnetic field and electric field, the ray is
charged.
2. Since the ray is not travelling at speed of light, therefore it is not a light.
Suppose the electric/magnetic field force was slightly larger than one another, there would
be a deflection of the ray. As mentioned in Setup pt6, the particle begin to move in arc of
circle.
[Note:- Since the force is perpendicular to its motion, thus the speed is constant. ]
Fcentripetal = FB
v2
m = qvB
r
q v
=
m rB
E
but v =
B
q E
=
m rB 2
Implication:- The specific charge can be entirely determined by just knowing the electric and
magnetic field strength.
Comment: The above method is slightly less accurate because the electric field was still
present even though the particle was performing an arc motion, thus the force that provided
this kind of motion was not entirely because of magnetic force.
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More Accurate Analysis:-
1. The magnetic field B is turned off. The electric field deflects beam. The deflection y
of the light spot on the screen is measured.
2. The electron that enters the electic field with a velocity v is acted by a force eE which
causes the electron to accelerate vertically with
FE qE
a= =
m m
3. There is no force on the electron in the horizontal direction. Hence the horizontal
component of the velocity remains constant at v. Time taken for electron to transverse
the electric field between the plate is
L
t= (, L = length of plate)
v
4. Vertical displacement s when the ray emerges from the electric field E is
1
s = ut + at2
2
1 qE L 2
= ( )( )
2 m v
5. After emerging from the electric field, the ray travels in a straight line and hits the
fluorescent screen at P . The light spot is deflected through a small distance y. The
line PQ produced cuts the horizontal at the centre C of the space between the plates.
The are OP can be approximate to a straight line. Using similar triangles
s L/2
=
y x
Ly qRL2
s= =
2x 2mv 2
Ly qEL2
=
2x 2m(E/B)2
q Ey
=
m xLB 2
Which is in terms of measurable quantities E,y,x, L and B.
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J.J Thomson repeated the experiment with variety of different cathodes, yet it shows that
all cathodes rays yielded the same value of specific charge. His result produced a value of
ratio of about 1 × 1011 C/kg; the accepted value today is 1.76 × 1011 C/kg.
In the previous year, German physicist Emil Wecchert has measured the specific charge
of hydrogen atoms (known as proton today). J.J Thomson noticed that his result of ra-
tio was about 2000 times larger compared to Wecchert’s. Either cathode rays carried an
enormous charge or they were light compared to their charge.
me 1 mproton me 1
= 11
kg/C = 1.04 × 10−8 kg/C =
e 1.76 × 10 e mproton 1830
Conclusion/Deduction
1. Nature of the Charged Cathode Ray
The beam in his tube was deflected toward positive plate and away from a negative
plate, so the particle involved must have negative charge. This was confirmed by
deflection of the beam by magnetic field
2. Consistency of Nature of Cathode Ray
When the beam was deflected, it remained as tight, single beam rather than a spreading
into a broad beam. This showed that, if the beam consisted of particles, they must all
have the same mass, charge and speed. (Lighter particles would have been deflected
more than heavier particles; particles with greater charge would be deflected more;
faster particles would be deflected less.)
3. Large Specific Charge of Cathode Ray
J.J Thomson was able to show that the specific charge of the particle of cathode ray
is 2000 times larger than the specific charge ratio of the hydrogen. This led him to
believe the particle in the cathode ray were subatomic particles, called electrons. This
disproved Dalton’s model of atom which stated atom is smallest particle and it is
indivisible. He then later proposed the ’plum pudding’ model of atom.
Plum Pudding Model (1904)
Electrons are negatively-charged particles and that atoms have no net electric charge.
The plum pudding model has electrons surrounded by a volume of positive charge, like
negatively-charged ”plums” embedded in a positively-charged ”pudding”.
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0.2 Determination of Charge of Electron
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment 1909
1. Two parallel plates A and B are placed inside the container surrounded by constant
temp bath.
2. It is enclosed to avoid the disturbance due to air currents
3. The separation between the plates is d and the upper plate has a small hole H
4. A potential difference V is applied to the plates, hence the electric field E between the
plates is E = Vd
5. An atomizer (oil spray) is used for spraying drops into the container.
6. These oil drops are very small with radii varying from 10−4 to 6 × 10−4 cm. They are
in the form of mist.
7. The drops produced by the atomizer are electrically charged, presumably the charge
is produced as the drops rub against the walls of atomizer.
8. Some of these drops happen to pass through the hole in the upper plate and travel
towards the lower plate.
9. The droplets would be observed in a low-power microscope by reflected light when the
chamber was brightly illuminated.
10. The drop was seen as a pin-point of light, and its downward velocity was measured by
timing its fall through known distance by means of ac scale in the eyepiece.
11. By adjusting the potential difference, a given droplet between the 2 plates could be
suspended in air if the gravitational force acting on the drop was equal to the electrical
force.
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mass
Knowing that density, ρ = volume
(density depends on the oil) and assume the droplet is
spherical,
Fg = FE
mg = qoildrop E
4 V
ρ πr3 g = qoildrop ( )
3 d
4 ρπr3 dg
qoildrop = (Found)
3 V
The charge is in terms of measurable quantities. Note: The above expression is simplified.
Strictly, the weight of the drop is less than the upthrust on the drop due the surrounding air.
The upthrust is equal to weight of the air displaced by the drop and is taken into account
in the accurate Millikan’s experiment. ρair << ρoil , air resistance is neglected.
Result
The charge qoildrop on the same oil drop can be changed by ionising the air between the
plates, so that the drop picks up more charges from the ions. This is done by using an
alpha-particle or X-ray source from the apparatus. Each time a new charge is obtained by
the drop, the potential difference V is altered until the drop becomes stationary again. qnew
is determined again.
Tabulation of Data
Q = Ne
Charge on oil drop, Q (×10−19 C) Fraction of the lowest charge, F R = Q/Qlowest No. of electrons on oil drop
Quantisation
3.2 1 2 2e
6.4 2 4 4e
9.6 3 6 6e
11.2 3.5 7 7e
Analysis/Method:-
1. Column 1 =⇒ 3.2 × 10−19 C is not basic, fundamental, elementary charge since F R 6=
whole number in every case.
2. Quantisation of Charge: Any charge Q that is observed in the lab must be multiple
of fundamental charge. Therefore, Q = N e, where N is a positive or negative integer
and e is the fundamental electric charge. Thus charge is said to be quantised. In our
case, Qlowest 6= fundamental charge. So by inspection (Trial & error), we can multiply
them by some integer to make them a whole number.
3. Column 3:- The difference charge on the drops were practically whole numbers: 2, 4, 6, 7
of the basic unit charge. This leads to conclusion that a charge is a multiple of a basic
fundamental charge Q = N e, N is an integer.
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Determine the basic unit charge. [2 marks]
1. Method 1:- [1/2 marks] Why? - Inaccurate
First row: we have 2 quanta charges in the oil drop of charge 3.2 × 10−19 C .So
2e = 3.2 × 10−19 C.
Therefore e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.
2. Method 2:- more accurate, less random error
P
Q
e= P
N
3.2 + 6.4 + 9.6 + 11.2
= × 10−19
2+4+6+7
e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
Millikan found, working with hundred drops, that the charge was always a simple multiple
of a basic unit 1.6 × 10−19 C. He concluded that this is the fundamental basic unit charge
during his time.
Implication of Millikan’ Oil Drop Experiment: Quantisation of Charge
The charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10−19 C. No particles has been observed to carry a fraction
of this charge during Millikan’s time.
1. Quantisation of Charge
Any charge Q is a integer multiple of fundamental charge. Thus, charge is quantised.
2. Because e is so small and N is consequently large, in the usual lab. Q behaves as
thought it was continuous that is the ’graininess’ is not apparent.
3. The quantisation of charge is only based on during Millikan times because quarks had
not yet been discovered to have ± 31 e or ± 23 e
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0.3 Discovery of Nucleus of Atom
Implication of Plum Pudding Model
If the atom was as Thomson pictured it, with a negatively charged electrons scattered through
a pudding of positive charge (basically a diffused ball), an individual α-particle would pass
through it like a bullet (the one which does not have head-to-head collisions), hardly being
deflected at all.
WHY ? Forces acting on them is purely based on electric field which is weak. The Coulomb
force acting on the α-particle is small and the acceleration is low because they are much
heavier than electrons because they are moving at a very high speed. They might push an
electron out of the atom. Their own path would be scarcely affected.
Geiger–Marsden/RutherFord Gold Foil Experiments
1. The α-particle source was encased in metal with a small aperture allowing a fine beam
of α-particle to emerge.
2. Air in the the apparatus was pumped out to leave a vacuum; α-radiation is absorbed
by a few centimetres of air.
3. One reason for choosing gold was that it can be made into a very thin sheet or foil.
Rutherford’s foil was only few hundreds of atom thick (10−6 m thick).
4. The α-particle were detected when they struck a solid ’scintillating’ material. Each
α-particle gave a tiny flash of light and these were counted by experimenters (Geiger
and Marsden).
5. The detector could be moved round to detect the α-particle scatterd through different
angles
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Result and Its Deduction
1. Observation
(a) 99% of α-particle went straight through.
Deduction:-
Most of an atom is empty space
(b) Some were deflected slightly.
Deduction:-
An α-particle is deviated due to the repulsive force between the α-particle and
the positive charge in the atom
(c) Only 1 in 20, 000 were deflected through an angle of more than 90◦ , so that they
appeared to bounce back off the foil.
Deduction:- So most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in a small space (the
nucleus) and most of an atom is empty space.
2. Rutherford’s Explanation
(a) Suppose the mass and positive charge of the atom were concentrated at one point
in the atom, an α-particle striking this part would be striking something more
massive than itself and with a greater charge.
Due to law of conservation of momentum, since massive atom acts like a static
wall, the head on collision would send the α-particle backwards. The result de-
duced that the mass is concentrated in one tiny space of atom.
(b) During the head-on collision, the nucleus must and alpha-particle both experience
an equal but opposite repulsive electrostatic force. However, since mass of nucleus
is heavier, the force only has greater effect.
According to Rutherford’s calculation, the diameter of gold’s nucleus was about
10−14 m.
(c) The closer the path of the α-particle gets to the nucleus, the greater the electro-
static repulsion due to Coulomb’s law, hence the larger the deflection.
Estimation of Radius of Atom
By varying the electric field and magnetic field to ensure a fine beam of α-particle, the speed
E
is able to determined. v = B .
Suppose only the α-particle with deflection of 180◦ after it re-bounces from the atom is con-
sidered, this indicates all the previous kinetic energy is converted into electrostatic potential
energy, since the repulsive force is preventing it to continue to move forward.
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By Law of Conservation of Energy,
1 qα qgold
mα v 2 =
2 4π0 r2
r
B qα qgold
r=
2E π0
Rutherford’s Planetary Model of Nuclear Atom:-
Electrons orbited around the outside of a much more massive positive centre or ‘nu-
cleus’ much as the planets orbit the Sun.
This large nucleus contained 99.9% of the atom’s overall mass.
0.4 Discovery of Proton
In 1919 Rutherford found that energetic alpha-particles could penetrate nitrogen atoms and
that protons were ejected after the collision. A source of alpha-particles, A, was placed in a
container D from which all the air had been pumped out and replaced by nitrogen. Silver foil,
B, sufficiently thick to stop alpha-particles, was then placed between A and a fluorescent
screen C, and scintillations were observed by a microscope M. The particles which have
passed through B were shown to have a similar range, and the same charge, as protons.
Protons were also obtained with the gas fluorine, and with other elements such as the metals
sodium and aluminium. It thus became clear that the nuclei of all elements contain protons.
The number of protons must equal the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus, so that
each is equal to the atomic number, Z, of the element. A proton is represented by the symbol,
JH ; the top number denotes the mass number, the whole number nearest to the relative
atomic mass, and the bottom number the nuclear charge in units of +e. The helium nucleus
such as an alpha-particle is represented by 42 He ; its mass number is 4 and its nuclear charge
is +2e, so that the nucleus contains two protons. One of the heaviest nuclei, uranium, can
be represented by 238
92 U ; it has a mass number of 238 and a nuclear charge of +92e, so that
its nucleus contains 92 protons.
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0.5 Discovery of Neutron
In 1932 Chadwick measured the velocity of protons and of nitrogen nuclei when they were
ejected from materials containing hydrogen and nitrogen by the penetrating radiation. He
used polonium, A, as a source of a-particles and the unknown radiation X, obtained by im-
pact with beryllium, B, was then incident on a slab C of paraffin-wax. The velocity of the
protons emitted from C could be found from their range in air, which was determined by
placing various thicknesses of mica, D, in front of an ionization chamber, E, until no effect
was produced here. By previous calibration of the thickness of mica in terms of air thickness,
the range in air was found.
Chadwick repeated the experiment with a slab of material containing nitrogen in place
of paraffin-wax. He then applied the laws of conservation of linear momentum and energy to
the respective collisions with the hydrogen and nitrogen atoms, assuming that the unknown
radiation was a particle carrying no charge and the collisions were elastic. From the equations
obtained, he calculated the mass of the particle, and found it to be about the same mass as
the proton. Chadwick called the new particle a neutron, and it is now considered that all
nuclei contain protons and neutrons. The neutron is represented by the symbol n as it has
an atomic mass of 1 and zero charge. a helium nucleus, 42 He, has 2 protons and 2 neutrons,
a total mass number of 4 and a total charge of +2e. Generally, a nucleus represented by A ZX
has Z protons and A − Z neutrons.
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0.6 Quantum Nature of Subatomic Level
Limitations of Rutherford’s Model of Atom
1. According to Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism, an accelerating charge causes
its own electric field lines to jiggle, hence, it emits out electromagnetic radiation.
If electron is orbiting around the nucleus in a circular motion, it should be experiencing
centripetal force and emitting out photon. Giving out the energy will cause it to lose
its kinetic energy and will eventually spiral into the nucleus with increasing speed and
collapse with it. The atom will be unstable.
Yet, this was not observed.
2. It cannot explain why atoms emitted characteristic spectral lines which is discrete
and consisting of specific colours and unique for each element like unique harmonic
structure.
0.6.1 Bohr’s Model of Atom
In 1900, Planck proposed the quantisation of energy of electromagnetic radiation, (was later
called photon), has led him to solve the problem of ”Ultraviolet catastrophe” which troubled
theory of black body radiation. Planck interpreted his result as meaning that the atomic
oscillators that produced the radiation which vibrate only with certain discrete amount
of energy (quanta). This inspired Bohr to claim the atomic oscillator were probably the
electron in the atom. He was then introduced to Balmer’s equation for the wavelengths of
the spectral lines of hydrogen which inspired him the idea of how the electrons were arranged
in the hydrogen and how ideas of quantum could be introduced. Balmer’s Equation
n2
λ = b( 2 ) (, b = 364.56 nm)
n − 22
Rydberg modified Balmer’s equation to more general form:- Rydberg’s Equation
1 1 1
= RH ( 2 − 2 )
λ nf ni
where λ is the wavelength of the emitted radiation, RH is the Rydberg’s Constant (1.097×107
m−1 ) and nf , ni are integers representing orbit number.
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Bohr’s Postulates 1913:-
1. The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus
without radiating any energy contrary to what classical electromagnetism
suggests. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at
certain discrete distances from the nucleus. The electron cannot have any
other orbit in between the discrete ones.
2. The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momen-
tum of the revolving electron is an integral multiple of the reduced Planck’s
h
constant: mvr = n 2π , where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is called the principal quantum
number. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the
proton. These orbits are associated with discrete definite energies and are
also called energy shells or energy levels.
3. Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit
to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency f
determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck
relation: ∆E = E2 − E1 = hf
Bohr’s Classical Quantum Mechanics
This was not entirely based on new ideas. Bohr was still using Coulomb’s Law collaborated
with his idea of quantum angular momentum to derive the energy level of the hydrogen
atom.
Using Coulomb’s law, one can write the energy of the electron travelling in the orbit of
hydrogen atom:-
Fcentripetal = FE
mv 2 e2
=
r 4π0 r2
1 2 1 e2
mv =
2 8 π0 r
1 e2
KE =
8 π0 r
e2
EP E = −
4π0 r
Etotal/orbit = EP E + KE
1 e2
=−
8 π0 r
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Using the quantisation of state of angular momentum:-
h
mvr = n
2π
1 2πmv
=
r hn
1
Substitute r
into KE:-
1 2 1 e2
mv =
2 8 π0 r
1 2 1 e2 2πmv
mv =
2 8 π0 hn
1 e2 1
vn = ( )
2 0 h n
Substitute v into r and then substitute r back into Eorbit , they yield:-
h2 0 2
rn = ( )n
me2 π
e4 m 1
En = −( 2 2 ) 2
80 h n
These equations show the quantisation of velocity, radius and energy of orbit due to depen-
dency of integer n. This indicates if the electron is bounded in the atom, the orbital speed,
radius and energy can only exist in a certain discrete amount.
Using Planck Relation:-
c
E2 − E1 = hf = h
λ
e4 m 1 1 c
2 2
( 2 − 2) = h
80 h n1 n2 λ
1 e4 m 1 1
= 2 3 ( 2 − 2)
λ 80 h c n1 n2
1 1 1
=⇒ = RH ( 2 − 2 )
λ nf ni
4
where RH = 8e2 hm3 c .
0
Note: n = 1, =⇒ The smallest radius of hydrogen orbit is 0.0529 nm. The lowest energy
state (ground state) has energy of −13.6 eV . Thus, orbital radius and energy can be written
as rn = 0.0539n nm and En = −13.6( n12 ) eV
The ionization energy is energy to remove electron from the atom. Thus the final orbit will
− ∞. Therefore, ionized energy of hydrogen ∆E = −13.6( ∞12 − 112 ) = 13.6 eV .
be at n →
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Verfication of Bohr’s Model
The equation derived by Bohr has the same form as Balmer’s equation and it agrees with
the Rydberg Constant in Balmer’s equation (Balmer equation is an empirical equation from
experiment). Theory matches with experiment.
Energy Level Diagram
The energy level gap becomes smaller because the energy is converging to zero.
0.6.2 Bohr’s Model’s Limitations
Phenomena which cannot be explained by Bohr’s Model of atom:-
1. Bohr’s model is only able to predict the wavelength of the light emitted from the
hydrogen gas, but fail to predict the wavelength of spectral lines of all other atoms.
Implication:-
It only works to explain atom with one valence electron. Atom with multiple valence
electrons have more complicated behaviour during excitation.
2. It does not explain the inconsistency of intensity of spectral lines.
3. It does not provide the explanation on why the electron would be favoured over others.
4. It does not explain the hyperfine lines which indicates there are some splitting of energy
levels of Bohr atom.
5. It does not explain the splitting of spectral lines when the atom is magnetically excited.
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0.7 Matter waves
De Broglie
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