3 Direct-reading compasses

Compasses of this type were the first of the many airborne flight and
navigational aids ever to be introduced in aircraft, their primary
function being to show the direction in which an aircraft is heading
with respect to the earth's magnetic meridian.
As far as present-day aircraft are concerned, the use of direct-
reading compasses as a primary directional reference source is
confined to small types of air9raft whose design and operating
requirements are at a fairly basic level. In the more sophisticated
types of aircraft, directional references are derived from flight
instrument systems and navigational aids based on advanced
technology, and although airworthiness requirements still necessitate
the installation of direct-reading compasses, they are relegated to a
secondary role.
The operating principle of a direct-reading compass is based on
established fundamentals of magnetism, and on the reaction between
the magnetic field of a suitably suspended magnetic element, and that
of terrestrial magnetism.

Terrestrial magnetism The surface of the earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field
which culminates in two internal magnetic poles situated near the
North and South true or geographic poles. That this is so is obvious
from the fact that a magne.t freely suspended at various parts of the
earth's surface will be found to settle in a definite direction, which
varies with locality. A plane passing through the magnet and the
centre of the earth would trace out on the earth's surface an
imaginary line called the magnetic meridian as shown in Fig. 3.1.
It would thus appear that the earth's magnetic field is similar to
that which would be expected at the surface if a short but strongly
magnetized bar magnet were located at the centre. This partly
explains the fact that the magnetic poles are relatively large areas,
due to the spreading out of the lines of force, and it also gives a
reason for the direction of the field being horizontal in the vicinity of
the equator. The origin of the earth's field is still not precisely
known, but, for purposes of explanation, -the supposition of a bar
magnet at its centre is useful in visualizing the general form of the
magnetic field as it is known to be.
The field differs from that of an ordinary magnet in several
78
Figure 3. I Terrestrial
magnetism. i_ines AA, BB and
CC are isoclinals.
ANGLE Of 0d'
(INCREASING FROM EOOATOfl)

TRUE
NORTH

VARIATION
VARIATION (EASTERLY}
{WESTERLY)

respects. Its points of maximum intensity, or strength,. are not at the

a,
magnetic poles (theoretically they should be) but occur four other
positi'ons, two near each pole, known as magnetic foci. Moreover, the
poles themselves are continually changing their positions, and at any
point on the earth's surface the field is not symme:rical and is subject
to changes both periodic and irregular.

Magnet'ic variation
As meridians and parallels are constructed with reference to the true
or geographic North and South pcles, so can magnetic meridians be
constructed with reference to the magnetic poles. If a map were
prepared to show both true and magnetic meridians, it would be
observed that these intersect each other at angles varying from 0° to
180° at different parts of the earth, diverging from each other
sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other. The
horizontal angle contained between the true and the magnetic
meridian at any place is known as the magnetic variation or
declination.
'When the direction of the magnetic meridian inclines to the left of
the true meridian, the variation is said to be westerly, while an
 inclination to the right produces easterly variation. It varies in amount
from 0° along those lines where the magnetic and true meridians run
together, to 180° in places between the true and magnetic poles. At
some places on the earth, where the ferrous nature of the rock
disturbs the main magnetic field, local attraction exists and abnormal
variation occurs which may cause large changes in its value over very
short distances. While the variation differs all over the world, it does
not maintain a constant value in any one place, and the following
changes, themselves not constant, may be experienced: (i) Secular
change, which takes place over long periods due to the changing
positions of the magnetic poles relative to the true poles; (ii) Annual
change, which is a small seasonal fluctuation superimposed on the
secular change; (iii) Diurnal or daily change.
Information regarding variation and its changes are given on special
charts. Lines are drawn on the charts, and those which join places
having equal variation are called isogonal lines, while those drawn
through places where the variation is zero are called agonic lines

Magnetic dip
As stated earlier, a freely suspended magnet will settle in a definite
direction at any point on the earth's surface and will lie parallel to
the magnetic meridian at that point. It will not, however, lie parallel
to the earth's surface at all points for the reason that the lines of
force themselves are not horizontal, as may be seen from Fig. 3.2.
These lines emerge vertically from the North magnetic pole, bend
over and descend vertically into the South magnetic pole; it is only at
what is known as the magnetic equator that they pass horizontally
along the earth's surface. If, therefore, a suspended magnet is carried
along a meridian from north to south, it will be on end, red end
down, at the start, horizontal near the equator, and finish up again on
end but with the blue end down.
The angle the lines of force make with the earth's surface at any

Figure 3.2 Relationship

between magnetic components
and dip.
a - c = Vertical component Z
c - b = Horizontal component H
a - b = total force T
Given angle of dip IJ and H,
z
- = tan IJ and Z ·= H tan IJ
H
H
,:=cos8andT=Hcos/J

r2 = H2 + z2

80
 given place is called the angle of dip or magnetic inclination, and
varies from 0° at the magnetic equator to 90° at the magnetic poles.
The angle of dip at all places undergoes changes similar to those
described for variation and is also shown on charts of the world.
Places on these charts having the same dip angle are joined by lines
known .as isoclinals, while those at which the angle is zero are joined
by a line known as the aclinic line or magnetic equator, of which
mention has already been made.

Earth's total force

When a magnet freely suspended in the earth's field comes to rest, it
does so under the influence of the total force of the field. This total
force is resolved into its horizontal and vertical components, termed
H and Z respectively. The relationship between these components and
dip is shown in Fig. 3.2.
As in the case of variation and dip, charts of the world are
published showing the values of the components for all places on the
earth's surface, together with the mean annual change. Lines of equal
H and Z forces are referred to as isodynamic lines.
The earth's magnetic force may be stated either as a relative value
or an absolute value. If stated as a relative value, and in the case of
compasses this is the case, it is given relative to the H force at
Greenwich.

Compass Direct-reading compasses have the following common principal

construction features: a magnet system housed in a bowl; liquid damping; liquid
expansion compensation; and deviation compensation. The majority of
compasses currently in use are of the card type, and the construction
of two examples is illustrated in Fig. 3.3. '
The magnet system of the example shown at (a) comprises an
annular cobalt-steel magnet to which is attached a light-alloy card.
graduated in increments of 10°, and referenced against a lubber line
fixed to the interior of the bowl. The system is pendulously
suspended by an iridium-tipped pivot resting in a sapphire cup
supported in a holder or stem. The pivot point is above the centre of
gravity of the magnet system which is balanced in such a way as to
minimize the effects of angle of dip over as wide a range of latitudes
North and South as possible.
The bowl is of plastic (Diakon) and so moulded that it has a
magnifying effect on the card and its graduations. It is filled with a
silicone fluid to make the compass aperiodic, i.e. to ensure that after
the magnet system has been deflected, it returns to equilibrium
directly without oscillating or overshooting. The fluid also provides
81
Figure 3.3 Typical card ·e· AND ·c- CORRECTOR MOUNTING PLATE
compasses. INDICATORS

HORIZONTAL ('B· AND

CORRECTORS

BELLOWS
·c)
I ""''° ""'

STEM ANO BRACKET

ASSEMBLY MAGNET BOWL
(a) SYSTEM

BOWL

LIQUID
EXPANSION
CAPSULES

ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOi1
(b) MAGNET (1 of 2)

82
 the system with a certain buoyancy, thereby reducing the weight on
the pivot and so diminishing the effects of friction and wear. Changes
in volume of the fluid due to temperature changes, and their resulting
effects on damping efficiency, are compensated by a bellows type of
expansion device secured to the rear of the bowl.
Compensation of the effects of deviation due to longitudinal and
lateral components of aircraft magnetism (see page 87) is provided
by permanent magnet coefficient 'B' and 'C' corrector assemblies
secured to the compass mounting plate.
The compass shown at (b) of Fig. 3.3 is designed for direct
mounting on a panel. Its magnet system is similar to the one
described earlier except that needle-type magnets are used. The bowl
is in the form of a brass case which is sealed by a front bezel plate.
Changes in liquid volume are compensated by a capsule type of
expansion device. A permanent-magnet deviation compensator is
located at the underside of the bowl, the coefficient 'B' and 'C'
spindles being accessible from the front of the compass. A small
lamp is provided for illuminating the card of the magnet system.

Compass location The location of a compass in any one type of aircraft is of

importance, and is pre-determined during the design stage by taking
into account the effects which mechanical and electrical equipment in
cockpit or flight deck areas may have on indications. In this
connection it is usual to apply the compass safe distance rule which,
precisely defined, is 'the minimum distance at which equipment may
be safely positioned from a compass without specified design values
of maximum deviation being exceeded under all operating
conditions'. The distance is measured from the centre of a compass
magnet system to the nearest point on the surface of equipment.
Values are quoted by manufacturers as part of the operating data
appropriate to their equipment.

Errors in indication The pendulous suspension of a magnet system, although satisfactory

from the point of view of counteracting dip, is unfortunately a
potential source of errors under in-flight operating conditions in
which certain force components are imposed on the system. There are
two main errors that result from such components, namely
acceleration error and turning error.

Acceleration error
This may be broadly defined as the error, caused by the effect of the
earth's field component Z, in the directional properties of the magnet
83
Figure 3.4 Acceleration
-- p
errors. (a) Acceleration on N--r:::::::::=- ----.:--S
nonherly heading in northern ~ ' ---
hemisphere: (b) deceleration on
nonherly heading in nonhem
(b)
R---\ C.G. I
hemisphere: (c) acceleration on
easterly heading in northern EASTl:RLY W!:STERLY
hemisphere; (d) deceleration on DEVIATION DEV!ATION
~
;~
easterly heading in nonhern N N
hemisphere.
-\
I
p -e
-e
R C.G. R

(c)
I s (d) s

system when its centre of gravity is displaced from its normal

position, such errors being governed by the heading on which
acceleration or deceleration takes place.
When accelerating or decelerating on any fixed heading, a force is
applied to the magnet system at the point of suspension P, this being
its only connection. The reaction to this force will be equal and
opposite and must act through the centre of gravity, which is below
and offset from P due to the slight dip of the magnet system. The
two forces constitute a couple which, dependent on the heading being
flown, causes the magnet system merely to change its dip offset
angle, or to rotate in azimuth.
Consider now an acceleration on a northerly heading in the
northern hemisphere. The forces brought into play will be as shown
in Fig. 3.4(a). Since both the point P and centre of gravity are in the
plane of the magnetic meridian, the reaction R causes the 'N' end of
the magnet system to go down, thus increasing the dip offset angle
without any azimuth rotation. Conversely, when decelerating, the
reaction R tilts the 'S' end of the magnet system as shown at (b).
In either the northern or southern hemispheres, acceleration or
deceleration on headings other than the N-S meridian will produce
azimuth rotation of the magnet system and consequent errors.
When an acceleration occurs on an easterly heading in the northern
hemisphere, as at (c) of Fig. 3.4, a force will again act through point
P, and the reaction R through the centre of gravity. In this case,
however, they are acting away from each other and the couple
produced tends to rotate the magnet system in a clockwise direction,
thus indicating an apparent turn to the north, or what is termed
easterly deviation. The reverse effects occur during a deceleration,
producing an apparent turn to the south or westerly deviation.
 Hence, in the northern hemisphere, acceleration causes easterly
deviation on easterly headings, and westerly deviation on westerly
headings, whilst deceleration has the reverse effect. In the southern
hemisphere the results will be reversed in each case.
As northerly or southerly hea<lir,gs are approached, the magnitude
of the apparent deviation decreases, the acceleration error varying as
the sine of the compass heading.
One further point may be mentioned in connection with these
errors, and that is the effect of aircraft attitude changes. If an aircraft
flying level is put into a climb at the sa:ne speed, the effect on its
compass magnet system will be the same as if the aircraft had
decelerated. If the change in attitude is also accompanied by a change
in speed, the apparent deviation may be q:iite considerable.

Turning errors
During a turn, the point P of a compass magnet system is carried
with the aircraft along the curved path of the turn. The system's
centre of gravity, being offset, is subjected to the centrifugal
acceleration force produced by the tum, causing the system to swing
outwards and to rotate so that apparent deviations, or turning errors,
will be observed. In addition, the magnet system tends to mabtain a
position parallel to the transverse plane of the aircraft, thus giving it
a lateral tilt the angle of which is governed by the aircraft's bank
angle. For a correctly banked tum, the tilt angle would be maintained
equal to the bank angle, because the resultant of centrifugal force and
gravity ·lies normal to the aircraft's transverse plane, and also to the
plane through the point P and centre of gravity of the magnet system.
In this case, centrifugal force itself would have no effect other than
to exert a pull on the centre of gravity and so decrease the offset dip
angle of the magnet system.
As soon as the system is tilted, however, and regardless of whether
or not the aircraft is correctly banked, the system is free to move
under the influence of the earth's component Z which will then have
a component in the lateral plane of the system, causing it to rotate
and further increase the turning error.
The extent and direction of the error is dependent upon the
aircraft's heading, the magnet system tilt angle, and the dip. In order
to form a clearer understanding of its effects, we may consider a few
examples of heading changes from the magnetic meridian, and in
both the northern and southern hemispheres.

Turning from a nonherly heading towards east or west

Figure 3.5(a) represents the magnet system of a compass in an
aircraft flying on a northerly heading in the northern hemisphere. Let
us assume that a change in heading to the eastward is required. As
85
Figure 3.5 Turning errors.

c,@r.,@• '1J ,@,

(11) '.c) t (e C.F. (g) s t
s
N N, f
SOUTHERN c.F .... c.F~c.<1
p E
(vc.G.-
l p.... E ~ C.G.
[E
I --,
'' C.F
(b) (d) t -- (f) (hi s '
~ ~:-- ....... _
~ _,,./ \.._-;.F.C.~.J--_

soon as the turn commences, the centrifugal acceleration acts on the

centre of gravity causing the system to rotate in the same direction as
the turn, and since the system is tilted, the earth's component Z
exerts a pull on the N end causing further rotation of the system.
Now, the magnitude of system rotation is dependent on the rate at
which turning and banking of the aircraft is carried out, and resulting
from this three possible indications may be registered: (i) a turn of
the correct sense, but smaller than that actually carried out when th~
magnet system turns at a slower rate than the aircraft; (ii) no tum at
all when the system and aircraft are turning at the same rate; (iii) a
turn in the opposite sense when the system turns at a rate faster than
the aircraft. The same effects will occur if the heading changes from
N to W whilst flying in the northern hemisphere.
In the southern hemisphere (diagram (b)) the effects are somewhat
different. The south magnetic pole is now the doll)inant pole and so
the offset dip angle of the magnet system changes to displace the
centre of gravity to the north of point P. We may again consider the
case of an aircraft turning eastward from a northerly heading. Since
the centre of gravity is now north of point P, the centrifugal
acceleration acting on it causes the magnet system to rotate more
rapidly in the opposite direction to the turn, i.e. indicating a turn in
the correct sense but of greater magnitude than is actually carried
out.

Turning from a southerly heading towards east or west

If the turns are executed in the northern hemisphere (Fig. 3.5(c)) then
because the magnet system's centre of gravity is still south of point
86
 P, the rotation of the system and the indications registered will be the
same as turning from a northerly heading in the northern hemisphere.
In turning from a southerly heading in the southern hemisphere
(Fig. 3.5(d)) the magnet system's centre of gravity is north of the
point P and produces the same effects as turning from a northerly
heading in the southern hemisphere.
In all the above cases, the greatest effect on compass indications
will be found when turns commence near to northerly or southerly
headings, being most pronounced when turning through north. For
this reason the term nonherly turning error is often used when
describing the effects of centrifugal acceleration on compass magnet
systems.

Turning through east or west

When turning from an easterly or westerly heading in either the
northern or southern hemispheres (diagrams (e)-(h)) no errors will
result because the centrifugal acceleration acts in a vertical plane
through the magnet system's centre of gravity and point P. The
centre of gravity is merely deflected to the north or south of point P.
thus increasing or decreasing the magnet system's pendulous
resistance to dip.
A point which may be noted in connection with turns from E or W
is that when the N or S end of the magnet system is tilted up, the
line of the system is nearer to the direction where the directive force
is zero, i.e. at right angles to the line of dip. Thus, if a compass has
not been accurately adjusted during a 'swing', any uncorrected
deviating force will become dominant and so cause indications of
apparent turns.

Aircraft magnetism Magnetism is unavoidably present in aircraft in varying amounts, anJ

and Its effects on can therefore also produce errors in the indications of compasses.
compasses However, by analysis it is divided into two main types and also
resolved into components acting in definite directions, so that steps
can be taken to minimize the errors, or deviations as they are called,
resulting from such components.
The two types of magnetism can be further divided in the same
W'iJ.Y that magnetic materials are classified according to their ability to
be magnetized, namely hard-iron and soft-iron.
Hard-iron magnetism is of a peramenent nature and is caused, for
example, by the presence of magnetically 'hard' materials in an
aircraft's structure, in power plants and.other equipment, the earth's
field building itself into such materials during the many varied
manufacturing and assembly processes involved in the overall
construction of an aircraft.
87
 Soft-iron magnetism is of a temporary nature and is caused by the
metallic materials of an aircraft which are magnetically 'soft'
becoming magnetized due to induction by the earth's field. The effect
of this type of magnetism. is dependent on an aircraft's heading,
attitude and its geographical position.
There is also a third type of magnetism, due to the sub-permanent
magnetism of what is called 'intermediate' iron, which can be
retained for varying periods. Such magnetism depends, not only on
heading, attitude and geographical position of an aircraft, but also on
the nature of its previous motion, vibrations, lightning strikes and
other external effects
The various magnetic components which cause deviations are
designated by letters, those for permanent hard-iron magnetism being
capitals, and those for soft-iron magnetism being small letters. The
resulting deviations are termed easterly when positive, and westerly
when negative.

Components of hard-iron magnetism

The total effect of this type of magnetism at a compass position may
be considered as having originated from equivalent bar magnets lying
longitudinally, laterally and vertically, as shown in Fig. 3.6. The
components are respectively denoted as P, Q and R, and are either
positive or negative depending on the locations of the blue poles of
the equivalent magnets. The strength of these components does not
vary with heading or change of latitude, but may do so with time due
to a weakening of aircraft magnetism. The deviations caused by each
of the components are set out in Table 3.1.

Figure 3.6 Components of

~ u,
hard-iron magnetism. ~I~
!!;j
-R

COMPASS
POS!TlON

---
-P

l+R
I
 Table 3.1

Component Axis Component Aircraft heading

polarity
Nonh East South West

Deviations

p +ve 0 max. +ve 0 max. -ve

Horizontal
-ve 0 max. -ve 0 max. +ve

+ve max. +ve 0 max. -ve 0

Q Lateral
-ve max. -ve 0 max. +ve 0

Aircraft nose up

+ve 0 max. +ve 0 max. -ve

-ve 0 max. -ve 0 max. +ve

Aircraft nose down

+ve 0 max. -ve 0 max. +ve

-ve 0 max. +ve 0 max. -ve
R Vertical
Aircraft banked to port

+ve max. +ve 0 max. -ve 0

-ve max. -ve 0 max. +ve 0

Aircraft banked to stb'd

+ve max. -ve 0 max. +ve 0

-ve max. +ve 0 max. ·-ve 0

Notes: I. +ve and -ve deviations are termed easterly and westerly respectively.
2. Component R effective only in the aircraft altitudes indicated.

Components of soft-iron magnetism

The effect of this type of magnetism may be considered as originating
from a piece of soft-iron in which magnetism has been induced by
the earth's field. This field, as we already know, has two components
designated H and Z, but in the analysis of soft-iron magnetism H is
resolved into two additional components X and Y. These, together
with component Z, are also related to the three principal axes of an
aircraft, namely X - longitudinal, Y - lateral and Z - vertical.
The polarities and strengths of components X and Y vary with
changes in aircraft heading relative to the fixed direction of the
earth's component H. Components X, Y and Z also change with
geographical location because this results in changes in the earth's
field strength and direction. A change in the polarity of component Z
will only occur with a change in magnetic hemisphere.
00
 Table 3.2

Component Axis Component Aircraft heading

polarity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
North NE East SE South SW West NW

Deviations

+ve 0 max. +ve 0 max. -ve 0 max. +ve 0 max. -ve

aX
-ve 0 max. -ve 0 max. +ve 0 max. -vc 0 max. +ve

+ve 0 -ve max. -ve -ve 0 -ve max. -ve -ve

bY Longitudinal
-ve 0 +ve max. +ve +ve 0 +ve max. +ve +ve

+ve
cl -ve
• Same as corresponding polarities of component P.

+ve max. +ve +ve 0 +ve max. +ve +ve 0 +ve

dX -ve max. -ve -ve 0 -ve ma>:. -ve -ve 0 -ve

+ve Same as - ve component aX.

eY Lateral
-ve Same as + ve component aX.

+ve
JZ • Same as corresponding polarities of component Q.
-ve

+ve
gX
-ve

+vc
hY Vertical
-ve
• Same as corresponding polarities of component R.

+ve
kZ
-ve

* See Table 3.1.

Note: I. +ve and -ve deviations are termed easterly and westerly respectively.
2. The polarities and direction of components cZ and jZ depend on whether an aircraft is in the northern or southern
hemisphere.

Each of the three components produce three soft-iron components

that are designatej aX, b Y, cZ; dX, e Y, JZ; and gX, h Y, kZ. The
deviations caused by such components are set out in Table 3.2.

Total magnetic effect

The total effect of the magnetic fields that produce deviating forces
relative to each of the three axes of an aircraft is determined by
algebraically summing the quantities appropriate to each of the related
components. Thus:
TOTAL X 1 (longitudinal) = X+P+aX+bY+cZ
TOTAL Y' (lateral) = Y+Q+dX+eY+JZ
TOTAL Z 1 (vertical) = Z+R+gX+hY+kZ
Figure 3. 7 Relationship
between aircraft magnetism and
deviation coefficients.

l'.IORIZONTAl

COMPONENT 0

_:~~,ITT:·~,i-· _
AAIIOl./HT Of . _ . . !~ N T C
·~-,~~r ~(1.
COEFFlCIENT 8
JLIAA"'
COEfl'lCl£NTA\
+ ·-·T·-· --------.--
rs
DEVIATION
MAX.OEVL,\TlON MAX DEVIATION CONSTANT
ON ON EiW DEVltATION

I
CORRECTOR MAGNETS REALIGN
ELECTROMAGNETIC OR COMPASS
MECHANICAL/MAGNETIC

Deviation coefficients
Before steps can be taken to minimize the deviations caused by hard-
iron and soft-iron components of aircraft magnetism, their values on
each he.,ding must be obtained and quantitatively analysed into
coefficients of deviation. There are five coefficients designated A, B,
C, D and E, termed positive or negative as the case may be, and
expressed in degrees. The relationship between them and the
components of aircraft magnetism is shown in Fig. 3.7.

Coefficient A
This represents a constant deviation and may be termed as either real
A, which is caused by the soft-iron components bY and dX, or
apparent A, which is a deviation produced by non-magnetic causes
such as misalignment of a direct-reading compass or of a flux
detector unit where appropriate (see page 182) with respect to an
aircraft's longitudinal axis. In practice it is not necessary to
distinguish between them, since they are both understood to be
included in the term coefficient A.
The coefficient is calculated by taking the average of the algebraic
differences between deviations measured on a number of equidistant
91
compass headings; this also applies to the other four coefficients. In
the case of A, the average may be determined from deviations ·on
either the four cardinal headings or, for greater accuracy, on these
headings plus the four quadrantal headings. Thus:
A = Deviation on N+E+S+W
4
or
A = Deviation on N+NE+E+SE+S+SW+W+NW
8
The coefficient is positive or negative, depending on whether the
constant deviation which it represents is easterly or westerly.

· Coefficient B
This represents the resultant deviation due to the presence, either
together or separately, of hard-iron component P and soft-iron
component cZ. When these components are of like signs, they cause
deviation in the same direction, but when of unlike signs they tend to
counteract each other. The coefficient is calculated from the formula:
B = Deviation on E - Deviation on W
2
Since components P and cZ cause deviation which varies as the
sine of an aircraft's heading 8, then deviation due to coefficient B
may also be expressed as Bx sin 0.

Coefficient C
This represents the resultant deviation due to the presence, either
together or separately, of hard-iron component Q and soft-iron
component jZ. When of like and unlike signs these components cause
deviations whose directions are the same as those caused by
components P and cZ. The coefficient is calculated from the formula:
C = Deviation on N - Deviation on S
2
Since components Q and jZ cause deviation which varies as the
cosine of an aircraft's headin~. then deviation due to coefficient C
may also be expressed as C x cos ().

Coefficient D
This represents the deviation due to the presence, either together or
separately, of components aX and eY which cause deviations of the
same direction when they are of unlike signs and counteract each
other when of like signs. When a +aX or a -eY predominates, o.r
when they are present together, the coefficient is said to be positive,
whilst a -aX or a +eY predominating or together cause a negative
coefficient D. It is calculated from the formula:
D = (Dev. on NE+Dev. on SW)-(Dev. on SE+Dev. on NW)
4
The deviations caused by components aX and e Y vary as the sine of
twice an aircraft's heading; therefore deviations may also be
expressed as D x sin 2fJ.

Coefficient E
This coefficient represents the deviation due to the presence of
components bY and dX of like signs. When a +bY and a +dX are
combined, coefficient Eis said to be positive, whilst a combination of
a -by and a -dX gives a negative coefficient; the two components
must in each case be equal in magnitude. The coefficient is calculated
from the formula:
E = (Dev. on N + Oev. on S) - (Dev'. on E +Dev. on W)
4
The deviations caused by the components b Y and dX vary as the
cosine of twice an aircraft's heading; therefore deviations may also be
expressed as E x cos 20.
The total deviation on an uncorrected compass for any given
direction of an aircraft's heading by compass may be expressed by
the equation:
Total deviation =A + BsinO + CcosO + Dsin20 + Ecos2fJ

Deviation compensation
In order to determine by what amount compass readings are affected
by hard- and soft-iron magnetism, a special calibration procedure
known as 'swinging' is carried out so that adjustments can be made
to compensate for the deviations.
These adjustments are effected by compensator or corrector magnet
devices which, in the case of direct-reading compasses, always relate
only to deviation coefficients B and C. Adjustment for coefficient A
is effected by repositioning the compass in its mounting by the
requisite number of degrees.
A compensator forms an integral part of a compass (see Fig. 3.3)
and in common with the majority of those in current use it contains
two pairs of permanent magnets which can be rotated through gearing
as shown in Fig. 3.8.
One pair of magnets is positioned laterally to provide a variable
longitudinal, field, thereby permitting adjustment for coefficient B,
93
Figure 3.8 Deviation
compensator device.
B
E/W ADJUSTER

while the other pair is positioned longitudinally to provide a variable

lateral field and so permit adjustment for coefficient C. Thus, the
fields are effective in neutralizing the deviations on only the two
cardinal headings appropriate to each of the coefficients.
The manner in which compensation is carried out may be
understood by considering the case of an adjustment having to be
made for coefficient B, as indicated in Fig. 3.9. When the
appropriate compensator magnets are in the neutral position, as
shown at (a), the fields produced are equal and opposite, and if as
also shown the aircraft is heading north, then the total field is aligned
with the earth's component Hand the compass magnet system.
Variation of the field strength by rotating the magnets will, therefore,
have no effect. This would also be the case if the aircraft was
heading south.
At (b) of Fig. 3.9, the aircraft is represented as heading east and,
as before, the compensator magnets are in the neutral position. The
total field of the magnets, however, is now at right angles to the
earth's component and the compass magnet system, and so if the
magnets are now rotated from the neutral position to the positions
shown at (c), the distance between poles N2 and S 1 is smaller. Since
tl1e intensity of a field varies in inverse proportion to the square of
the distance from its source, then in this case, a strong field will exist
between the poles of the magnets. The north-seeking pole of the
compass magnet system will, therefore, experience a greater repulsive
force, resulting in deflection of the system through 'an appropriate
number of degrees. If the magnets are rotated so as to strengthen the
field between poles N 1 and S 2 , the compass magnet system will then,
of course, be deflected in rhe opposite direction. Deflection of the
compass magnet system would be obtained in a similar manner with
the aircraft heading west.
The coefficient C compens;;ting magnets also produce similar
effects but, as a study of diagrams (d) to (f) will show, deflections of
the compass magnet system are only obtainable when an aircraft is
heading either north or south.
It will be apparent from the foregoing operating sequences that
maximum compensation of deviation on either side of cardinal
headings is obtained when the magnets are in complete alignment.
94
 t
t

Figure 3. 9 Operation of a
compensator. (a) Aircraft
heading north; (b) and (c)
aircraft heading east; (d) and
(e) aircraft heading north;
(f) aircraft heading east.