Chapter Three

Basic Semiconductor Device

3.1. Atomic Theory

3.2. Semiconductor Material
3.3. Semiconductor diode and their application
Introduction
A study of modern electronic devices like diodes, transistors and integrated circuits must begin
with a study of the materials from which those devices are constructed. Knowledge of the
principles of material composition at the level of the fundamental structure of matter is an
important prerequisite in the field of electronics. The vital concern of this field is predicting and
controlling the flow of the atomic charge. The study of electronic devices is now almost
synonymous with the study of semiconductor devices. The label semiconductor itself provides a
hint as to its characteristics. The prefix semi is normally applied to a range of levels midway
between two limits. So, a Semiconductor is a material that has conductivity level somewhere
between the extremes of an insulator and conductor. Conductor is applied to any material that will
support a generous flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across
its terminals. Insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure
from an applied voltage source.
Resistivity; - Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of
charge, or current. That is, the higher the conductivity level, the lower the resistance level. In
tables, the term resistivity (ρ, Greek letter rho) is often used when comparing the resistance levels
of materials.

Figure 3.1 Defining the metric unit of resistivity.

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 Table 3.1
Note in Table 3.1 the extreme range between the conductor and insulating materials for the 1-cm
length (1-cm2 area) of the material. Ge and Si have received the attention they have for a number
of reasons. One very important consideration is the fact that they can be manufactured to a very
high purity level. In fact, recent advances have reduced impurity levels in the pure material to 1
part in 10 billion (1:10,000,000,000). The ability to change the characteristics of the material
significantly through this process, known as “doping,” is yet another reason why Ge and Si have
received such wide attention. Further reasons include the fact that their characteristics can be
altered significantly through the application of heat or light—an important consideration in the
development of heat- and light-sensitive devices.

3.1. Atomic Theory

Some of the unique qualities of Ge and Si noted above are due to their atomic structure. The atoms
of both materials form a very definite pattern that is periodic in nature (i.e., continually repeats
itself). One complete pattern is called a crystal and the periodic arrangement of the atoms a lattice.
For Ge and Si the crystal has the three-dimensional diamond structure of Fig. 3.2

Figure.3.2. Ge and Si (Single-crystal structure Silicon Lattice).

Any material composed solely of repeating crystal structures of the same kind is called a single-
crystal structure. For semiconductor materials of practical application in the electronics field, this

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single-crystal feature exists, and, in addition, the periodicity of the structure does not change
significantly with the addition of impurities in the doping process.
How the structure of the atom might affect the electrical characteristics of the material?
As you are aware, the atom is composed of three basic particles: the electron, the proton, and the
neutron. In the atomic lattice, the neutrons and protons form the nucleus, while the electrons
revolve around the nucleus in a fixed orbit. The Bohr models of the two most commonly used
semiconductors; Germanium and silicon are shown in Fig. 3.3

Figure 3.3 Atomic structures: (a) germanium; Figure 3.4 Covalent bonding of the silicon
(b) Silicon atom

As indicated by Fig. 3.3a, the germanium atom has 32 orbiting electrons, while silicon has 14
orbiting electrons. In each case, there are 4 electrons in the outermost (valence) shell. The potential
(ionization potential) required to remove any one of these 4 valence electrons is lower than that
required for any other electron in the structure. In a pure germanium or silicon crystal these 4
valence electrons are bonded to 4 adjoining atoms, as shown in Fig. 3.4 for silicon. Both Ge and
Si are referred to as tetravalent atoms because they each have four valence electrons. A bonding
of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of valence electrons, is called covalent bonding.

3.2. Semiconductor Material

Semiconductor materials are basically Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is one, which is pure enough that impurities do not appreciably affect
its electrical behaviour. In this case, all carriers are created due to thermally or optically excited
electrons from the full valence band into the empty conduction band. Thus, equal numbers of
electrons and holes are present in an intrinsic semiconductor. Electrons and holes flow in opposite

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directions in an electric field, though they contribute to current in the same direction since they are
oppositely charged. Hole current and electron current are not necessarily equal in an intrinsic
semiconductor, however, because electrons and holes have different effective masses (crystalline
analogues to free inertial masses). The concentration of carriers is strongly dependent on the
temperature. At low temperatures, the valence band is completely full making the material an
insulator. Increasing the temperature leads to an increase in the number of carriers and a
corresponding increase in conductivity. This characteristic shown by intrinsic semiconductor is
different from the behaviour of most metals, which tend to become less conductive at higher
temperatures due to increased phonon scattering.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by the addition of
certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor material. These impurities, although
only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter the band structure sufficiently to totally change
the electrical properties of the material.
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic
material.

3.3. Semiconductor diode and their application

A semiconductor diode is simply a pn junction that has two terminals: An anode and a cathode.
The circuit symbol for a diode is shown in Fig.2.1a and the diode volt-ampere characteristic is
displayed in Fig. 2.1b.

-V BD

0.7V

Figure 3.5 Semiconductor diode.

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As shown in Fig.3.5a, the voltage v D across the diode is referenced as positive from anode to

cathode. Similarly, the diode current i D is referenced as positive from anode to cathode. Notice in

the characteristics that if the voltage v D across the diode is positive, relatively large amounts of
current flow for small voltages. This condition is called forward bias. Thus, current flows easily
through the diode in the direction of the arrowhead of the circuit symbol (conventional current).
On the other hand, for moderately negative values of v D , the current i D is very small. This is called
the reverse-bias region, as shown on the diode characteristics. If a sufficiently large reverse-bias
voltage is applied to the diode, its operation enters the reverse-breakdown region of the
characteristic, and currents of large magnitude flow. Provided that the power dissipated in the
diode does not raise its temperature too high, reverse-breakdown operation is not destructive
(helpful) to the device. In fact, we will see that diodes are often deliberately operated in the reverse-
breakdown region.

Volt-Ampere Characteristics equation of a diode

V-I characteristic equation or diode current equation. It gives the mathematical relationship
between applied voltage V and the diode current I. It is given by

𝑉𝑉�
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 1� 𝐴𝐴

Io = Reverse saturation current in Amperes

V = applied voltage

𝜂𝜂 = 1 for germanium diode

= 2 for silicon diode

VT = voltage equivalent of temperature in volts

The factor ′𝜂𝜂’ is called emission coefficient or ideality factor. This factor takes into account the
effect of recombination taking place in the depletion region. The effect is dominant in silicon
diodes and hence for silicon 𝜂𝜂 = 2, the range of factor is from 1 to 2. The voltage equivalent of
temperature indicates dependence of diode current on temperature. The voltage equivalent of
temperature T is calculated as

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 VT = KT volts

K = Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62*10-5 ev/ok

T = temperature in ok

At room temperature of 27oC, T = 27+273 = 300oK and the value of VT is 26mV, as seen earlier.
The value of VT also can be expressed as

𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = = = 𝑇𝑇�11600
1 1
� �𝐾𝐾 � � � �
8.62 ∗ 10−5

Key point: - The diode current equation is applicable for all the conditions of diode. Unbiased,
forward biased and reverse biased. When unbiased V=0 hence we get

I = Io (eo -1) = 0A

Thus, there is no current through diode when unbiased.

Key point: - For forward biased, V must be taken positive and we get current I positive which is
forward current. For reverse biased, V must be taken negative and we get negative current I which
indicates that it is reverse current. If both sides of diode current equation is divided by cross
sectional area A of the junction

𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉�𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
= �𝑒𝑒 − 1�
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉�
𝐽𝐽 = 𝐽𝐽𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 1� 𝐴𝐴/𝑚𝑚2

J = Forward current density

Jo = Reverse saturation current density

Example-1: - A silicon diode has a reverse saturation current of 7.12 𝜂𝜂A at room temperature of
27oC. Calculate its forward current if it is forward biased with a voltage of 0.7V.

Solution: - the given values are Io = 7.12 𝜂𝜂A = 7.12 * 10-9 A

V = +0.7V as forward biased

𝜂𝜂 = 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒

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 T = 27oC = 27+273 = 300oK

Now VT = KT = 8.62 * 10-5 * 300 = 0.026V

According to diode current equation

𝑉𝑉�
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 1�

0.7�
𝐼𝐼 = 7.12 × 10−9 �𝑒𝑒 2×0.026 − 1�

𝐼𝐼 = 7.12 × 10−9 [701894.59 − 1]

𝐼𝐼 = 4.99 × 10−3 = 5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Thus, the forward current is 5mA.

Example-2: The voltage across a silicon diode at room temperature of 300oK is 0.71V when
2.5mA current flows through it. If the voltage increases to 0.8V, Calculate the new diode current.

Solution: - The current equation of diode is

𝑉𝑉�
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 1�

𝑉𝑉 = 26𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 26 × 10−3 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉 = 0.71𝑉𝑉 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼 = 25𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜂𝜂 = 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

0.71�
2.5 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 2×26× 10−3 − 1�

𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 2.93 × 10−9 𝐴𝐴

Now V = 0.8V

0.8�
𝐼𝐼 = 2.93 × 10−9 �𝑒𝑒 2×26× 10−3 − 1�

I = 0.0141A = 14.11mA

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Example-3: A germanium diode has a reverse saturation current of 3µA. Calculate the forward
bias voltage at the room temperature of 27oC and 1% of the rated current is flowing through the
forward biased diode. The diode forward rated current is 1A.

Solution: - The given values are Io = 3µA, T = 27oC = 27+273 = 300oK, 𝜂𝜂 = 1

I rated = 1A for diode,

I = 1% of I rated at 27oC

I = 1/100 * (1) = 0.01A

VT = KT = 8.62 * 10-5 * 300 = 0.026V

According to diode equation

𝑉𝑉�
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 1�

𝑉𝑉�
0.01 = 3 × 10−6 �𝑒𝑒 1×0.026× − 1�

𝑉𝑉�
3333.333 = 𝑒𝑒 0.026 −1

𝑉𝑉�
𝑒𝑒 0.026 = 3334.3333

𝑉𝑉�
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �𝑒𝑒 0.026 � = ln[3334.3333] 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑔𝑔 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝑉𝑉
= 8.112
0.026

𝑉𝑉 = 0.2109𝑉𝑉

Example-4: A diode operating at 300oK at a forward voltage of 0.4V carries a current of 10mA.
When voltage is changed to 0.42, the current becomes twice. Calculate the value of reverse
saturation current and 𝜂𝜂 for the diode.

Solution: - At V1= 0.4V, I1 = 10mA and V2 = 0.42V

I2 = 2I1 =20mA

𝑉𝑉�
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 1�

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 0.4�
10 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂×26×103 − 1�………………. (1)

0.42�
20 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂×26×103 − 1�………………. (2)

𝑉𝑉�
In forward bias condition 1 ≪ 𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 neglecting 1

15.384�
10 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
16.153�
20 × 10−3 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)

Dividing the two equation (3) and (4)

15.384�
1 𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂
= 16.153
2 �𝜂𝜂
𝑒𝑒
16.153� 15.384�
𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂 = 2𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂

Taking natural logarithm of both side

16.153� 15.384�
𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂 = ln2 + 𝑒𝑒 𝜂𝜂

1
(16.153 − 15.384) = 0.6931
𝜂𝜂

𝜂𝜂 = 1.109, 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 9.45𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴

Application of Diode Circuits

Semiconductor diodes find many applications in electronics circuit designing. A major use is as a
rectifier in power supplies, to convert ac to dc, in radio frequency receivers; in some
instrumentation systems they are used in a similar manner to recover (detect) amplitude
modulation super imposed upon a carrier signal. They may be used as polarity sensitive dc
conductive devices (often called steering diodes) as such they pass dc of one polarity while
blocking dc of the opposite polarity. In clipping, limiting and clamping circuits they are used to
shape and alter signal profiles. Zener diodes are used as voltage regulating devices. Varactor diodes
serve as voltage tuned capacitors and find many applications in radio frequency design. Light

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emitting diodes (LEDs) are used as indicator lights and in displays, while light sensitive
photodiodes are used as optical detect.
Rectification
Diodes are used as rectifiers in electronic power supplies. Rectification is the process by which
time varying voltages are converted to pulsating d.c voltages. DC power supplies are typically
produced by rectifying the sinusoidal voltage available from the a.c power mains. The initial
rectification process produced sinusoidal voltage pulses, i.e. still the rectified voltage is a time
varying signal. To obtain a d.c voltage, the rectified voltage (pulsating d.c voltage) must be
processed by a filter. When a very stable and pure d.c voltage is required the rectified and filtered
voltage may be further processed using a voltage regulator. Of course, there are different types of
circuits of each stage. For example, there are many configurations of diodes that produce
rectification:
Half wave rectifier: which uses only one diode
Full wave rectifier: that uses two diodes and a center - tapped transformer
Bridge rectifier: that uses four diodes
Power Supply Systems
Most electronic equipment requires d.c voltages for its operation. These can be provided by
batteries or by internal power supplies that convert alternating current as available at the home
electric outlet, into regulated d.c voltages. Thus, a power supply system may be defined as an
electronic circuit which converts an a.c input of 50/60 Hz line power to a d.c output voltage. A
power supply circuit is one of the most important diode circuits. The first element in an internal
d.c power supply is a transformer, which steps up or steps down the input voltage to a level suitable
for the operation of the equipment. The transformer is then followed by a rectifier.
Fluctuations and ripples superimposed on the rectified DC voltage can be filtered out by a filter.
Finally, to get more precise control over voltage levels and ripples can be achieved by a voltage
regulator. This whole process can be shown by the following block diagram.

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 Transformer

Rectifier Filter Regulator VO

Fig.3.6 DC Power Supply System

Function of each part
a) Transformer
This block (the transformer) levels the amplitude to the desired amount, steps up and steps down
as well as it isolates the whole electronic elements from the line voltage.

Any
Desired amount
amount

We know that the line voltage from the outlet is given by

2
Vrms = Vdc2 + Vac2

b) Rectifier
The second block is the rectifier which changes a.c into pulsating d.c. Here the rectification result
is not pure d.c. It has got some a.c components and some d.c components, as it is shown in the
following figure and equation for full wave rectifier:

2
Vrms = Vdc2 + Vac2
2
Vac = Vrms − Vdc2

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c) Filter
The third block reduces the ripple (a.c) components of the rectified output and thus smoothes, the
output d.c voltage.

Vr
Vdc = Vm −
2
d) Voltage Regulator
The last block, the regulator, reduces the ripple component of the output of the filter and stabilizes
the output voltage against the variation of source and load. Thus, it provides relatively a constant
output d.c voltage to the load despite a change in input voltage (Vin) and load current (IL).

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