Introduction
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OSI Layers
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework developed by the ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) to standardize networking and communication systems.
Purpose:
Provides a universal standard for different networking protocols to interoperate seamlessly across devices and platforms.
Breaks down the complex process of communication into smaller, manageable layers.
Structure:
Composed of 7 layers, each with specific responsibilities, enabling modular design and easier troubleshooting.
Key Goals:
To promote interoperability between diverse hardware and software systems.
To standardize communication processes for better scalability and reliability.
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OSI Layers
Abstraction:
Each layer abstracts specific tasks, such as physical transmission (Physical Layer), routing (Network Layer), and data
formatting (Presentation Layer).
Flexibility:
The layered design allows updates or replacements of protocols within a layer without affecting other layers.
Applications:
Used as a reference model for understanding and designing network architecture.
Guides protocol development and implementation in modern networking.
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OSI Layers
7 Layers of the OSI Model
• Physical Layer:
– Function: Transmits raw binary data (0s and 1s) over physical mediums like cables or radio waves.
– Examples: Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi signals, hubs.
– PDU (Protocol Data Unit): Bits.
• Data Link Layer:
– Function: Handles error detection and correction and manages data framing for reliable communication.
– Examples: MAC addresses, switches, ARP.
– PDU: Frames.
• Network Layer:
– Function: Determines the best path for data transfer and handles logical addressing.
– Examples: IP addresses, routers.
– PDU: Packets.
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OSI Layers
• Transport Layer:
– Function: Ensures reliable data transfer with error checking and flow control.
– Examples: TCP, UDP.
– PDU: Segments.
• Session Layer:
– Function: Manages and maintains communication sessions between applications.
– Examples: NetBIOS, RPC.
– PDU: Data.
• Presentation Layer:
– Function: Translates data into a format that the application layer can understand, handles encryption and compression.
– Examples: SSL/TLS, JPEG, ASCII.
– PDU: Data.
• Application Layer:
– Function: Provides the interface for end-user applications to interact with the network.
– Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
– PDU: Data.
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OSI Layers
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Networks
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Networks
• Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of switched nodes
• Nodes not concerned with content of data
• End devices are stations —Computer, terminal, phone, etc.
• A collection of nodes and connections is a communications network
• Data is routed by being switched from node to node
• Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to stations and other nodes
• Node to node links usually multiplexed
• Network is usually partially connected —Some redundant connections are desirable for reliability
• Two different switching technologies
—Packet switching
—Circuit switching
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Packet Switching
• In packet-switching, packets are sent to their destination
independently, without dependency on other packets.
• There is no predetermined path; routers make local
decisions on forwarding packets towards their destinations.
• Packets may often take the same path, but IP routing does
not mandate that all packets follow the same route.
• Line Efficiency: A single node-to-node link can be shared by
multiple packets over time. Packets are queued and
transmitted as quickly as possible.
• Each packet treated independently
• Data Rate Conversion: Stations connect to local nodes at
their own speeds, with nodes buffering data if needed to
equalize transmission rates.
• Packets can take any practical route
• Network Traffic Handling: Packets are accepted even when • Packets may arrive out of order
the network is busy, although delivery may slow down.
• Packets may go missing
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Circuit Switching
• In circuit-switching, a dedicated path is
established before data transmission begins.
• The system selects the route using a
resource-optimizing algorithm.
• The path remains exclusive and fixed
throughout the communication session.
• The route is released only after the session
terminates.
• Inefficient —Channel capacity dedicated for Set up (connection) takes time
duration of connection —If no data, capacity
wasted Once connected, transfer is transparent
Developed for voice traffic (phone)
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Trends – Global Traffic
Global Traffic Growth: In 2022, global mobile-broadband
traffic reached 913 exabytes (EB), more than double the
419 EB in 2019. Fixed-broadband traffic grew from 1,991
EB in 2019 to 4,378 EB in 2022, nearly five times mobile-
broadband traffic.
Annual Growth Rates: Between 2019 and 2023, mobile-
and fixed-broadband traffic grew annually by 30% on
average, with the highest growth during the 2020 COVID-
19 pandemic.
Fixed Broadband Dominance: Fixed broadband remains
the preferred service for high data usage, accounting for:
96.6% of all Internet traffic in 2020. https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/2023/10/10/ff23-internet-traffic/
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Trends – Optical Fiber
The global fiber optics market generated a
revenue of USD 9,391.2 million in 2023 and is
expected to reach USD 14,933.8 million by
2030.
The market is expected to grow at a Compound
Annual Growth Rate - CAGR (2024 - 2030) of
6.9% by 2030.
In terms of region, Asia Pacific was the largest
revenue generating market in 2023.
Country-wise, Germany is expected to register
the highest CAGR from 2024 to 2030.
https://www.grandviewresearch.com/horizon/outlook/fiber-optics-market-size/global
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Trends – IP Traffic vs Optical Fiber
30% 6.9% 13
Multiplexing
• Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) - data is sent
across physically separated media
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) – uses
different electrical frequencies to transport data
on one and the same physical media
• Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) – data is
transported (and differentiated) by different types
of code
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) - uses different
time slots to transport data on one and the same
physical media
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) – uses
different wavelengths to transport data on one
and the same physical media
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Questions !!!
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