INDUSTRIAL PLANT ENGINEERING

Module 5. Vessels

Objectives:

1. Discuss the role of vessels in various industries.

2. Describe the proper materials is constructing vessel for a particular application.
3. Explain the relationship of pressure to the vessel shape and wall thickness.

Contents:

Vessels are a vital part of the operational units in the process industries. are containers used in industrial
processes to store, separate, mix, or react different materials, usually in the form of liquids, gases, or solids.
They are a crucial component in industries such as oil & gas, chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, and food
production.

5.1 FUNCTION

Vessels are used to carry out process operations such as distillation, drying, filtration, stripping, and reaction.
These operations usually involve many different types of vessels, ranging from large towers to small additive
and waste collection drums. Vessels are also used to provide intermediate storage between processing steps.
They can provide residence time for reactions to complete or for contents to settle.

Process vessels are essential in industrial applications for storage, pressure containment, heat transfer,
separation, reaction processing, mixing, and phase changes. Their design and function depend on the specific
needs of the process they support.

Primary functions of process vessels:

1. Storage
- Store raw materials, intermediate substances, or final products in a controlled environment.
• Examples:
o Tanks (for liquids, chemicals, fuels)
o Silos (for dry bulk materials like grains or cement)
o Cryogenic Vessels (for liquefied gases like LNG, oxygen, or nitrogen)
2. Pressure Containment
- Contain gases or liquids under high pressure safely.
• Examples:
o Pressure Vessels (for gas storage, chemical reactors)
o Boilers (to generate steam under pressure)
o Autoclaves (for high-pressure sterilization)
3. Heat Exchange (Temperature Control)
- Transfer heat between two fluids to maintain process efficiency.
• Examples:
o Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers (used in power plants, refineries)
o Plate Heat Exchangers (for compact and efficient heat transfer)
o Cooling Towers (for removing excess heat from industrial processes)
4. Separation of Components
- Separate substances based on physical or chemical properties such as density, phase, or size.
• Examples:
o Distillation Columns (for separating chemical mixtures based on boiling points)
o Scrubbers (for removing pollutants from gases)
o Cyclone Separators (for removing particulates from air or gas streams)
5. Chemical Reaction Processing
- Facilitate controlled chemical reactions for manufacturing various products.
 • Examples:
o Reactors (for polymerization, oxidation, or fermentation processes)
o CSTR (Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor) (for uniform reaction conditions)
o Batch Reactors (for controlled small-scale reactions)
6. Mixing & Agitation
- Blend multiple substances to ensure uniformity in composition.
• Examples:
o Agitated Tanks (for mixing liquids, emulsification)
o Kneaders (for high-viscosity materials like rubber or adhesives)
o Blenders (for powders, granules, or liquid mixtures)
7. Phase Change & Vaporization
- Convert materials from one phase to another (liquid to gas, solid to liquid, etc.).
• Examples:
o Evaporators (for concentrating solutions)
o Boilers (to produce steam from water)
o Condensers (to convert vapor back into liquid)
8. Controlling Process Conditions
- Maintain pressure, temperature, and fluid levels to ensure safe and efficient operation.
• Examples:
o Surge Tanks (to absorb pressure fluctuations)
o Expansion Vessels (to accommodate volume changes in thermal systems)
o Knockout Drums (to remove liquid from gas streams)
5.2 TYPES

Process vessels come in various types based on their function, pressure conditions, and industrial
applications.

1. STORAGE VESSELS - Used to store liquids, gases, or solids under controlled conditions.
a) Atmospheric Storage Tanks
Atmospheric storage tanks are vessels designed to store liquids at ambient pressure, meaning they operate at
or close to atmospheric pressure. They are widely used in industries such as oil & gas, chemical processing,
water treatment, and food production.

Types of Atmospheric Storage Tanks:

1. Fixed-Roof Tanks
These tanks have a permanent, non-movable roof that is either cone-shaped or dome-shaped.
Uses:
o Store stable liquids (e.g., water, diesel, chemicals).
o Used in refineries and chemical plants.
 2. Floating-Roof Tanks
These tanks have a roof that floats on the liquid surface, reducing vapor space and minimizing
evaporation losses.
Types:
o External Floating Roof (EFR): Exposed to the atmosphere.
o Internal Floating Roof (IFR): Has a fixed roof above the floating roof for extra protection.
Uses:
o Store volatile petroleum products (e.g., gasoline, crude oil).
3. Open-Top Tanks
Tanks without a roof, used for storing water, wastewater, and certain chemicals.
Uses:
o Firewater storage.
o Temporary storage for process liquids.
4. Dome-Roof Tanks
A variation of fixed-roof tanks with a rounded dome structure.
Uses:
o Store chemicals and petroleum products.

Materials Used:
• Carbon Steel – For general liquid storage.
• Stainless Steel – For corrosive liquids (e.g., acids, food-grade products).
• Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) – For wastewater and chemical storage.
• Concrete – For large-capacity water storage tanks.

Applications:
• Oil & Gas Industry: Stores crude oil, gasoline, and diesel.
• Chemical Industry: Stores acids, solvents, and fertilizers.
• Water Treatment: Stores drinking water, wastewater, and firewater.
• Food & Beverage: Stores edible oils, syrups, and dairy products.

Design Standards & Regulations

• API 650 – Standard for welded steel storage tanks.
• API 620 – For large, low-pressure storage tanks.
• AWWA D100 – For water storage tanks.
• OSHA & EPA Regulations – Environmental and safety compliance.

b) Pressurized Storage Tanks

Pressurized storage tanks are vessels designed to store liquids or gases under pressure higher than
atmospheric conditions. These tanks are used to safely contain volatile, hazardous, or compressed substances
and prevent vapor loss, contamination, and oxidation.
Types of Pressurized Storage Tanks:
1. Spherical Tanks
Spherical in shape, designed for high-pressure applications.
Uses:
o Storing liquefied gases (LPG, LNG, ammonia).
o Petrochemical and industrial gas storage.
2. Bullet Tanks
Cylindrical tanks with rounded ends, placed horizontally or vertically.
Uses:
o Storing pressurized liquids and gases (propane, butane, hydrogen).
o Used in oil refineries, chemical plants, and LPG distribution centers.
3. Cryogenic Tanks
Specialized insulated tanks for storing liquefied gases at extremely low temperatures.
Uses:
o Storing LNG, liquid nitrogen, liquid oxygen, and liquid hydrogen.
o Used in medical, aerospace, and industrial applications.
4. Air & Gas Storage Tanks
Used to store compressed air or industrial gases under pressure.
Uses:
o Compressed air systems in manufacturing plants.
o Oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen storage for industrial use.

Materials Used:
• Carbon Steel – Common for general pressurized storage.
• Stainless Steel – Used for corrosive or food-grade substances.
• Aluminum – Lightweight option for specific applications.
• Composite Materials – Used in cryogenic tanks for enhanced insulation.

Applications:
• Oil & Gas Industry: Stores LPG, LNG, and refined fuels.
• Chemical Industry: Stores ammonia, chlorine, and industrial gases.
• Medical Industry: Stores liquid oxygen and other medical gases.
• Food & Beverage: Stores carbon dioxide for soft drink carbonation.
Design Standards & Regulations
• ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC Section VIII) – Governs design and construction.
• API 620 & API 625 – Standards for large, low-pressure tanks.
• NFPA 58 – Standards for LPG storage.
• DOT Regulations – Governs transportable pressurized tanks.

c) Silos & Bins

Silos and bins are storage vessels designed to store bulk solids such as grains, cement, coal, powders, and
other granular materials. They are widely used in agriculture, food processing, construction, and industrial
applications.

Types of Silos & Bins:

1. Silos
Silos are tall, cylindrical or rectangular storage structures designed for long-term bulk material storage.
a) Tower Silos
Vertical, cylindrical silos made of concrete, metal, or fiberglass.
Uses:
o Storing grains, animal feed, and cement.
o Used in agriculture and industrial processing.
b) Bunker Silos
Horizontal silos made of concrete or steel, with an open top.
Uses:
o Storing silage, coal, and other bulk materials.
c) Bag Silos
Flexible, tube-like silos made of plastic.
Uses:
o Temporary grain storage.
2. Bins
Bins are smaller storage containers used for temporary or short-term bulk material storage.
a) Gravity Bins
Bins with sloped walls that allow materials to flow out by gravity.
Uses:
o Storing grain, seeds, or dry bulk materials.
b) Hopper Bins
Bins with a funnel-shaped bottom for easy discharge.
Uses:
o Used in agriculture, food processing, and manufacturing.
c) Storage Bins
General-purpose bins for short-term storage of bulk materials.
Uses:
 o Temporary storage of powders, aggregates, and grains.

Materials Used
• Concrete – Used for large, permanent silos.
• Steel – Durable and resistant to pests.
• Fiberglass & Plastic – Lightweight and corrosion-resistant.

Applications
• Agriculture: Storing grains, seeds, and animal feed.
• Construction: Storing cement, sand, and gravel.
• Mining & Manufacturing: Storing coal, chemicals, and powders.

Design Standards & Regulations

• OSHA 1910.272 – Grain handling and safety standards.
• ISO 11697 – Design and operation of silos.
• ASME & API Standards – For industrial bulk storage.

2. PRESSURE VESSELS - Designed to operate under internal or external pressure.

a) Boilers
A boiler is a closed vessel used to heat water or generate steam for various industrial, commercial, and
residential applications. Boilers are commonly used in power plants, heating systems, and industrial
processes.

Types of Boilers
1. Fire-Tube Boilers
 o Hot gases pass through tubes, which are surrounded by water.
o Example: Lancashire, Cochran, and Scotch Marine boilers.
o Suitable for low to medium-pressure applications.
2. Water-Tube Boilers
o Water flows inside tubes, and hot gases surround them.
o Example: Babcock and Wilcox, Benson, and Lamont boilers.
o Used for high-pressure and high-capacity applications (e.g., power plants).
3. Electric Boilers
o Use electricity to heat water or generate steam.
o No combustion, making them cleaner but more expensive to operate.
4. Condensing Boilers
o Extract extra heat from exhaust gases to improve efficiency.
o Common in residential and commercial heating systems.
Components:
1. Burner – Supplies fuel for combustion.
2. Heat Exchanger – Transfers heat to the water.
3. Drum (in water-tube boilers) – Collects steam and water.
4. Superheater – Increases steam temperature for efficiency.
5. Economizer – Preheats water using exhaust gases.
6. Safety Valves – Prevent overpressure conditions.
7. Chimney – Expels combustion gases.
Applications:
• Power Generation: Steam turbines in thermal power plants.
• Industrial Processes: Textile, food processing, chemical plants.
• Heating Systems: Residential and commercial central heating.
• Marine Applications: Ships and submarines.

b) Reactors
Industrial reactors are vessels or systems designed to carry out chemical reactions on a large scale in
industries such as chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and energy production. They facilitate controlled
reactions by optimizing factors like temperature, pressure, mixing, and catalyst presence.

Types of Industrial Reactors:

1. Batch Reactors
o Operate in a closed system with reactants loaded, reacted, and then discharged.
o Common in pharmaceutical and specialty chemical production.
2. Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactors (CSTRs)
o Maintain continuous input and output while stirring to ensure uniform composition.
o Suitable for liquid-phase reactions.
3. Plug Flow Reactors (PFRs)
o Reactants flow through a tubular reactor with little to no mixing in the axial direction.
 o Used for highly efficient reactions like polymerization and gas-phase reactions.
4. Packed-Bed Reactors (PBRs)
o Contain a fixed bed of solid catalyst, commonly used in catalytic reactions.
o Found in petrochemical processes such as hydrocracking.
5. Fluidized-Bed Reactors (FBRs)
o Use fluidized solid catalyst particles for improved heat and mass transfer.
o Applied in catalytic cracking and gasification.
6. Trickle-Bed Reactors
o Liquid reactants trickle over a solid catalyst bed while gas flows countercurrent or co-current.
o Used in hydrogenation and hydroprocessing.
7. Loop Reactors
o Utilize internal circulation for efficient mixing and reaction control.
o Found in polymer and biochemical industries.

Design Considerations:
Reaction kinetics: Governs reactor size and residence time.
Heat transfer: Determines cooling or heating requirements.
Mass transfer: Essential in heterogeneous and multiphase reactions.
Mixing efficiency: Affects reaction uniformity and yield.
Pressure and temperature control: Ensures safety and efficiency.
Catalyst selection: Crucial in catalytic reactors to enhance reaction rates.

c) Autoclaves
An autoclave is a pressure vessel used for conducting chemical reactions, sterilization, or material processing
under high pressure and temperature. Autoclaves are widely used in industries like chemical processing,
pharmaceuticals, composites manufacturing, food processing, and medical sterilization.

Types of Autoclaves:
A. Based on Function
1. Chemical Reaction Autoclaves
o Used in hydrothermal synthesis, polymerization, and high-pressure chemical reactions.
o Common in petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and materials science.
o Example: Polymerization reactors for making polyethylene.
2. Sterilization Autoclaves
o Used in medical, pharmaceutical, and food industries to sterilize instruments, culture media,
and packaging.
o Operate at temperatures around 121–134°C under pressurized steam.
3. Curing and Composite Processing Autoclaves
o Used in aerospace, automotive, and advanced materials manufacturing.
o Apply heat and pressure to cure composite materials like carbon fiber.
o Example: Boeing and Airbus use autoclaves to manufacture aircraft parts.
 4. Food Processing Autoclaves (Retorts)
o Used in canning and sterilizing food products.
o Ensures long shelf life by eliminating bacteria and spores.
B. Based on Operation
1. Gravity Displacement Autoclaves
o Uses steam to displace air inside the chamber.
o Suitable for sterilization in medical and laboratory applications.
2. Pre-vacuum (Vacuum) Autoclaves
o Removes air using a vacuum pump before steam injection.
o Ensures deep penetration into porous materials.
o Common in industrial sterilization and composite curing.
3. Hydrothermal Autoclaves
o Designed for high-pressure chemical reactions in aqueous solutions.
o Used in materials synthesis, such as nanomaterial production.

Components:
• High-Pressure Chamber: Usually made of stainless steel to withstand extreme conditions.
• Heating System: Uses electric, steam, or gas heating to reach required temperatures.
• Pressure Control Mechanism: Regulates internal pressure to ensure safety.
• Safety Valves: Prevents overpressure conditions.
• Cooling System: Controls temperature post-processing.
• Automation and Control Systems: Modern autoclaves feature programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
for precision.

Applications of Autoclaves:
A. Industrial and Manufacturing
• Composite Material Curing (Aerospace, Automotive)
• Vulcanization of Rubber
• Glass Lamination
B. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries
• Hydrothermal Synthesis
• Polymer and Resin Production
• Sterilization of Medical Instruments
C. Food and Beverage
• Canned Food Processing
• Beverage Pasteurization

d) Surge Vessels & Expansion Tanks

Surge vessels and expansion tanks are pressure-controlling devices used in fluid systems to manage pressure
fluctuations, water hammer, and thermal expansion. While both serve similar purposes, they operate in
different applications.
1. Surge Vessels
Surge vessels (also called surge tanks or pressure surge tanks) are used to absorb pressure surges in
pipelines and fluid transport systems. They help prevent damage caused by sudden changes in flow velocity,
often due to pump startups, shutdowns, or valve closures. When a sudden pressure increase (surge) occurs,
the vessel absorbs excess pressure by compressing an air cushion or bladder. When pressure drops, the vessel
releases stored fluid to maintain stability.

Types of Surge Vessels:

1. Bladder-Type Surge Vessels
o Contains a rubber bladder filled with gas (typically nitrogen).
o The fluid does not mix with the gas, reducing maintenance.
o Common in pumping stations and water hammer protection.
 2. Air-Cushioned Surge Tanks
o Uses a chamber of compressed air without a bladder.
o Requires air injection systems to maintain pressure levels.
o Used in hydropower plants and long pipelines.
3. Open Surge Tanks
o Connected to the system but exposed to atmospheric pressure.
o Used in dam and hydroelectric power stations.

Applications of Surge Vessels:

• Water distribution networks – Prevents pipe bursts and pressure shocks.
• Oil & gas pipelines – Controls pressure fluctuations in long pipelines.
• Pumping stations – Prevents water hammer during pump shutdowns.
• Hydroelectric power plants – Manages water pressure changes in turbines.

2. Expansion Tanks
Expansion tanks are used in closed-loop heating and cooling systems to compensate for thermal expansion of
fluids. They prevent excessive pressure buildup as fluid temperature changes. As fluid heats up, it expands,
increasing system pressure. The expansion tank absorbs excess fluid volume, preventing pressure spikes.
When fluid cools down, the tank releases stored fluid back into the system.
Types of Expansion Tanks:
1. Diaphragm (Bladder) Expansion Tanks
o Contains a flexible diaphragm separating air and water.
o Maintains constant pressure and reduces air absorption into the system.
o Used in HVAC systems and hot water heaters.
2. Open Expansion Tanks
o Exposed to atmospheric pressure, mounted at the highest system point.
o Found in older heating systems.
3. Closed Expansion Tanks
o Sealed system with an air pocket that compresses during expansion.
o Requires periodic air charging to maintain efficiency.
Applications of Expansion Tanks:
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems
• Hot water heating systems (boilers)
• Chilled water systems in industrial cooling
• Solar thermal systems

Surge Vessel vs. Expansion Tank

Feature Surge Vessel Expansion Tank
Controls pressure surges (water
Function Absorbs thermal expansion of fluids
hammer)
Application Pipelines, pumps, hydroelectric plants HVAC, boilers, closed-loop systems
Working Expands and contracts with temperature
Absorbs and releases pressure surges
Mechanism changes
Types Bladder, air-cushioned, open Diaphragm, open, closed
Gas Used Nitrogen or air Compressed air
Main Risk
Pipe bursts, water hammer Overpressure due to temperature increase
Prevented

Selection Considerations:
• System Pressure & Volume: Higher pressures need larger tanks with reinforced materials.
• Fluid Type & Temperature: Determines material compatibility (e.g., corrosion-resistant steel).
• Installation Space: Determines whether to use vertical or horizontal tanks.
• Maintenance Requirements: Bladder-type tanks require less frequent maintenance.

3. HEAT EXCHANGERS - is a device used to transfer heat between two or more fluids (liquid, gas, or a
combination) without mixing them. Heat exchangers are widely used in industries such as HVAC, power
generation, chemical processing, refrigeration, automotive, and aerospace.
Types of Heat Exchangers:
A. Based on Flow Configuration
1. Parallel Flow
o Fluids move in the same direction.
o Less efficient due to lower temperature gradients.
2. Counterflow
o Fluids move in opposite directions.
o More efficient due to higher temperature differentials.
3. Crossflow
o Fluids move perpendicular to each other.
o Common in air-cooled heat exchangers.
B. Based on Construction
1. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
o Consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed in a shell.
o One fluid flows through the tubes, while the other circulates around them.
o Used in power plants, chemical industries, and oil refineries.
o Variants: Fixed Tube, Floating Head, U-Tube Design.
2. Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE)
o Made of thin, corrugated metal plates stacked together.
o Provides high surface area and efficient heat transfer.
 o Common in food processing, HVAC, and pharmaceuticals.
o Variants: Gasketed, Brazed, Welded, and Semi-Welded.
3. Finned-Tube Heat Exchanger
o Uses extended surfaces (fins) to increase heat transfer efficiency.
o Found in air conditioning, radiators, and refrigeration systems.
4. Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger (ACHE)
o Transfers heat directly to ambient air using fans.
o Used in gas turbines, petrochemical plants, and cooling towers.
5. Regenerative Heat Exchanger
o Temporarily stores heat in a solid medium before transferring it to another fluid.
o Used in gas turbines, steel industries, and regenerative braking systems.
6. Spiral Heat Exchanger
o Fluids flow through spiral channels, ensuring compact and efficient heat transfer.
o Used in high-viscosity fluids and wastewater treatment.
7. Phase-Change Heat Exchanger
o Involves boiling or condensation to transfer heat.
o Examples: Evaporators, condensers, and reboilers in refrigeration and distillation.

Design Considerations:
• Heat Transfer Area: Determines efficiency; larger areas improve performance.
• Material Selection: Stainless steel, copper, aluminum, or titanium based on corrosion resistance.
• Fouling & Cleaning: Plate heat exchangers allow easier maintenance than shell-and-tube.
• Pressure Drop: Affects fluid flow efficiency; must be minimized.
• Temperature Limits: Determines material and type selection.

4. SEPARATION VESSELS - are industrial equipment used to separate different phases of a fluid mixture (gas,
liquid, or solid). These vessels play a crucial role in oil & gas, chemical processing, water treatment, and power
generation industries.
Types of Separation Vessels:
A. Based on Function
1. Two-Phase Separator
o Separates gas and liquid mixtures.
o Used in oil & gas production to separate crude oil from natural gas.
2. Three-Phase Separator
o Separates gas, oil, and water.
o Used in offshore and onshore oil processing facilities.
3. Scrubber
o Removes liquid droplets from a gas stream.
o Used in natural gas processing, exhaust gas treatment, and chemical plants.
4. Knockout Drum (KO Drum)
o Removes condensate (liquid) from gas streams.
o Common in refineries, petrochemical plants, and steam systems.
5. Degasser
o Removes dissolved gases from liquids (e.g., oxygen, CO₂).
o Used in boiler feedwater treatment and oil & gas drilling.
6. Coalescer
o Separates fine liquid droplets from another liquid or gas stream.
o Used in oil-water separation, aviation fuel purification, and gas dehydration.
7. Cyclone Separator
o Uses centrifugal force to separate solids from gases or liquids.
o Common in dust collection, air filtration, and particle separation.
8. Distillation Column
- is a crucial industrial device used for separating liquid mixtures based on differences in boiling
points. It is widely used in oil refineries, chemical plants, and pharmaceutical industries for purifying
components like hydrocarbons, alcohols, and solvents.

B. Based on Orientation
1. Horizontal Separators
o Used for high gas-to-liquid ratios.
o Suitable for stable level control and easier maintenance.
2. Vertical Separators
o Used for low gas-to-liquid ratios.
o Requires less space and is better for handling foamy fluids.
3. Spherical Separators
o Compact design for small-scale applications.
o Less efficient than horizontal or vertical designs.

Design Considerations:
• Separation Efficiency → Proper sizing and internals selection.
• Flow Rate & Pressure → Determines vessel size and material.
• Material Selection → Stainless steel, carbon steel, or alloys for corrosion resistance.
• Safety Features → Pressure relief valves, level indicators, and emergency shutdown systems.

5. MIXING & REACTION VESSELS - Used to mix substances or facilitate chemical reactions.
a) Agitated Tanks
• Used for blending, dissolving, and emulsifying liquids. Agitated tanks are vessels equipped with
mechanical mixing devices to enhance fluid movement, improve mass transfer, and maintain uniform
composition. They are widely used in industries such as chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, food,
and biotechnology.
b) Kneaders & Blenders
• Kneaders are designed for high-viscosity materials that require intensive shearing, folding, and
stretching. They are commonly used in applications where thorough mixing and uniform dispersion of
components are necessary.
• Blenders are used for mixing powders, granules, and low-viscosity liquids to achieve a uniform mixture.
They operate on the principles of tumbling, fluidization, or mechanical agitation.

Kneaders vs. Blenders

Feature Kneaders Blenders

Material Type High-viscosity pastes, doughs Powders, granules, low-viscosity liquids

Mixing Mechanism Shearing, folding, stretching Tumbling, agitation, fluidization

Industries Rubber, adhesives, pharmaceuticals Food, chemicals, cosmetics

Common Equipment Sigma kneader, Banbury mixer Ribbon blender, V-blender

5.3 COMPONENTS

Industrial vessels, such as pressure vessels, storage tanks, and reactors, are used in various industries,
including chemical processing, oil and gas, and power generation. Their key components include:

1. Shell
• The main body of the vessel, typically cylindrical or spherical, designed to withstand internal or external
pressure.
• Made of steel, stainless steel, or other corrosion-resistant materials.
2. Heads (End Closures)
• The curved or flat ends that cap the vessel.
• Common types: elliptical, hemispherical, and flat heads.
3. Nozzles
• Openings for inlet, outlet, instrumentation, or safety devices.
• Can be flanged or welded, depending on design requirements.
4. Support Structures
• Skirt Support (for vertical vessels).
• Saddle Support (for horizontal vessels).
• Legs or Lugs for smaller vessels.
5. Internal Components
• Baffles: Improve mixing and reduce turbulence.
• Trays & Packing: Used in distillation or separation processes.
• Coils or Tubes: Heat exchangers inside the vessel.
6. Manways & Access Openings
• Allow maintenance and inspection access.
• Sealed with bolted covers or gaskets.
7. Insulation & Cladding
• Thermal insulation for temperature control.
• Protective outer layer (cladding) for environmental resistance.
8. Pressure Relief & Safety Devices
• Pressure relief valves (PRV) to prevent overpressure.
• Bursting discs as emergency pressure release.
9. Agitators & Mixers (if required)
• Used in reactors or blending vessels.
• Can be top, side, or bottom-mounted.
10. Instrumentation & Controls
• Level indicators, pressure gauges, temperature sensors.
• Control valves for automation.

5.4 CONTAINMENT WALLS, DIKES, AND FIREWALLS

Containment walls, dikes, and firewalls serve as protective barriers in industrial, environmental, and safety
applications. Here’s an overview of their functions and distinctions:

1. Containment Walls
• Purpose: Prevent the spread of hazardous materials, such as chemicals, fuel, or wastewater, in case of
leaks or spills.
• Applications: Used around storage tanks, industrial facilities, and hazardous waste sites.
• Materials: Concrete, steel, or reinforced polymers, designed to resist chemical corrosion and
structural failure.
2. Dikes
• Purpose: Act as barriers to control water flow, prevent flooding, and contain spills in industrial settings.
 • Applications:
o In hydrology, they protect land from water bodies (e.g., levees along rivers).
o In industry, they form secondary containment for tanks holding hazardous liquids.
• Materials: Earth, clay, concrete, or synthetic liners to provide impermeability.
3. Firewalls
• Purpose: Prevent the spread of fire between sections of a building or between adjacent structures.
• Applications:
o Industrial facilities, where hazardous materials are stored.
o Residential and commercial buildings, as part of fire safety codes.
• Materials: Fire-rated concrete, masonry, or specially treated fire-resistant panels.

5.5 REACTORS

Reactors are engineered vessels or systems designed to facilitate and control chemical, nuclear, or physical
reactions. They are widely used in various industries, including energy, chemical processing, and
manufacturing.

Chemical Reactors
Used in industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and materials processing, these reactors enable
controlled chemical transformations.
Types of Chemical Reactors:
• Batch Reactors – Operate in a closed system where reactants are added, reacted, and then removed
after completion.
• Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTRs) – Maintain continuous input and output flow with mixing
for uniform reaction conditions.
• Plug Flow Reactors (PFRs) – Fluids move through a tubular system, allowing for a controlled reaction
along the length of the reactor.
• Fixed Bed Reactors – Contain solid catalysts and are common in catalytic reactions like hydrogenation
or cracking.
Nuclear Reactors
These generate energy through controlled nuclear fission reactions, commonly used in power plants and
research applications.
Types of Nuclear Reactors:
• Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) – Uses pressurized water as a coolant and moderator to sustain
chain reactions.
• Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) – Water boils within the reactor core, generating steam directly for
turbines.
• Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) – Uses fast neutrons and converts non-fissile material (e.g., U-238) into
fissile fuel.
• Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) – Uses liquid fuel salts for high efficiency and safety benefits.

Biological and Bioreactors

Used in pharmaceutical, food, and wastewater industries, bioreactors support biochemical reactions involving
microorganisms or cells.
Common Types:
• Aerobic Bioreactors – Require oxygen for microbial growth (e.g., wastewater treatment).
• Anaerobic Bioreactors – Function without oxygen (e.g., biogas production).
• Photobioreactors – Use light to grow algae for biofuels or pharmaceuticals.

5.6 MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE

The proper monitoring and maintenance of vessels (such as storage tanks, pressure vessels, and reactors) are
crucial for safety, efficiency, and regulatory compliance. These processes help prevent failures, leaks,
corrosion, and hazardous incidents.

1. Monitoring of Vessels
Continuous monitoring ensures early detection of issues and improves operational efficiency.
Monitoring Parameters:
• Pressure & Temperature – Prevents overpressurization or overheating that could lead to explosions or
structural failure.
• Corrosion & Material Degradation – Monitored through ultrasonic thickness testing (UTT), radiographic
testing (RT), or corrosion coupons.
• Leaks & Structural Integrity – Sensors and non-destructive testing (NDT) methods like magnetic
particle testing (MPT) or dye penetrant testing (DPT) help detect cracks.
• Level & Flow Monitoring – Ensures that liquid or gas levels remain within safe operating limits using
level transmitters and flow meters.
 • Vibration & Stress Analysis – Detects mechanical fatigue and potential failures in rotating equipment
connected to vessels.

2. Maintenance of Vessels
Preventive and corrective maintenance ensures vessel longevity and regulatory compliance.
Types of Maintenance:
1. Routine Inspections
o Visual inspections for surface damage, cracks, and leaks.
o Internal inspections for corrosion, scaling, and deposits.
2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
o Cleaning and descaling to remove buildup and prevent contamination.
o Protective coatings and cathodic protection to mitigate corrosion.
o Lubrication of moving parts and valve systems.
3. Predictive Maintenance (PdM)
o Uses real-time monitoring (e.g., IoT sensors) to predict failures before they occur.
o Includes vibration analysis, thermal imaging, and acoustic monitoring.
4. Corrective Maintenance
o Repairs and replacements of damaged components (e.g., pressure relief valves, gaskets, or
weld joints).
o Structural reinforcements if cracks or deformations are detected.
5. Regulatory Compliance & Safety Checks
o Compliance with standards like ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) and API 510
(Pressure Vessel Inspection).
o Pressure testing (hydrostatic or pneumatic) to verify vessel integrity.

Other Important Technical Terms to remember:

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)—organization that provides laws of regulation for boilers
and pressure vessels.
Articulated drain—a hinged drain, attached to the roof of an external floating roof tank, that moves up and
down as the roof and the fluid levels rise and fall.
Atmospheric tank—an enclosed vessel that operates at atmospheric pressure; usually cylindrical in shape,
equipped with either a fixed or floating roof, and containing nontoxic vapor liquids.
Baffle—a metal plate, placed inside a tank or other vessel, that is used to alter the flow of chemicals or
facilitate mixing.
Batch reaction—a carefully measured and controlled process in which raw materials (reactants) are added
together to create a reaction that makes a single quantity (batch) of the final product.
Bin/hopper—a vessel that typically holds dry solids.
Blanketing—the process of putting an inert gas, usually nitrogen, into the vapor space above the liquid in a
tank to prevent air leakage into the tank.
Boot—a section in the lowest area of a process drum where water or other liquid is collected and removed.
Containment wall—an earthen berm or constructed wall used to protect the environment and people against
tank failures, fires, runoff, and spills; also called a bund wall, bunding, dike, or firewall.
Continuous reaction—a chemical process in which raw materials (reactants) are continuously being fed in
and products are continuously being formed and removed from the reactor vessel.
Cylinder—a vessel that can hold extremely volatile or high-pressure materials.
Desiccant—a specialized substance contained in a dryer that removes hydrates (moisture) from the process
stream.
Drum—a specialized type of storage tank or intermediary process vessel.
Dryer—a vessel containing desiccant and screens across which process streams flow to have moisture
(hydrates) removed.
Filter—a device used to remove liquid, gas, or solid particulates from the process stream.
Fixed bed reactor—a reactor vessel in which the catalyst bed is stationary and the reactants are passed over
it; in this type of reactor, the catalyst occupies a fixed position and is not designed to leave the reactor.
Floating roof—a type of vessel covering (steel or plastic), used on storage tanks, that floats upon the surface of
the stored liquid and is used to decrease vapor space and reduce potential for evaporation.
Fluidized bed reactor—a reactor that uses high-velocity fluid to suspend or fluidize solid catalyst particles.
Foam chamber—a reservoir and piping installed on liquid storage vessels and containing fire-extinguishing
chemical foam.
Gauge hatch—an opening on the roof of a tank that is used to check tank levels and obtain samples of the tank
contents.
Heat tracing—a coil of heated wire or tubing that adheres to or is wrapped around a pipe in order to increase
the temperature of the process fluid, reduce fluid viscosity, and facilitate flow.
Manway—an opening in a vessel that permits entry for inspection and repair.
Mist eliminator—a device in the top of a tank, composed of mesh, vanes, or fibers, that collects droplets of
mist (moisture) from gas to prevent it from leaving the tank and moving forward with the process flow.
Mixer—a device used to mechanically combine chemicals or other substances; also known as an agitator.
Pressurized tank—an enclosed vessel in which a greater-than-atmospheric pressure is maintained.
Reaction furnace—a reactor that combines a firebox with tubing to provide heat for a reaction that occurs
inside the tubes.
Reactor—a vessel in which chemical reactions are initiated and sustained.
Spherical tank—a type of pressurized storage tank that is used to store volatile or highly pressurized material;
also referred to as “round” tanks.
Stirred tank reactor—a reactor vessel that contains a mixer or agitator to improve mixing of reactants.
Sump—an area of temporary storage located at the bottom of a tank from which undesirable material is
removed.
Tank—a large container or vessel for holding liquids and/or gases.
Tubular reactor—a continuously flowed vessel in which reactants are converted in relation to their position
within the reactor tubes, not influenced by residence time in the reactor.
Vane separator—a device, composed of metal vanes, used to separate liquids from gases or solids from
liquids.
Vapor recovery system—the process of recapturing vapors by methods such as chilling or scrubbing; vapors
are then purified, and the vapors or products are sent back to the process, sent to storage, or recovered.
Vessel—a container in which materials are processed, treated, or stored.
Vortex—the cone formed by a swirling liquid or gas.
Vortex breaker—a metal plate, or similar device, placed inside a cylindrical, cone-shaped, or other type
operating unit, which prevents a vortex from being created as liquid is drawn out of the vessel.
Weir—a flat or notched dam or barrier to liquid flow that is normally used either for the measurement of fluid
flows or to maintain a given depth of fluid as on a tray of a distillation column, in a separator, or other vessel.