Electric Potential

and Electric Field

pt. 1: Equipotentials
 Learning outcomes

• Understand the concept of lines

Electric Potential of constant potential and their
relation to the electric field
and Electric Field vector.
Motivate why the electric field
pt. 1: Equipotentials •
does no work along
equipotentials.
• Draw equipotential lines or
surfaces for the electric field of
a charge distribution.
 Lines of constant potential
• Let’s look at the electric potential of a
positive point charge:
kq
V
r
• V is large close to the charge and
gets smaller as we move away from it.
 Lines of constant potential
• Let’s look at the electric potential of a
positive point charge:
kq
V
r
• V is large close to the charge and
gets smaller as we move away from it.

• Lines of constant potential are known

as equipotentials.
No work is done by the electric field
along an equipotential
• Since U = qV, the potential energy U of a charge is the same
anywhere on an equipotential (because ∆𝑉 = 0).

• Since the potential energy U is constant on an equipotential, no

work is done in moving a charge on an equipotential (because 𝑊 =
− ∆𝑈).

• On an equipotential, 𝐸 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0. In other words, the electric field is

always perpendicular to the equipotentials.
 Equipotentials: take-aways
• Equipotentials are like contour lines on
a map.
• Equipotentials can not intersect.
• The field points “downhill,”
perpendicular to the equipotentials.
• The magnitude of the electric field is
proportional to the “steepness” of the
potential:
• contour lines close together = rapid
change in potential = large field
• contour lines spread out = weak
field.
Visualizing equipotentials: in 2 or 3 D
Visualizing equipotentials

• The electric field lines and the equipotentials

are always perpendicular.

• We can use this fact to help visualize the field

and equipotentials of charge distributions.
Example 1: Homework

• Sketch the equipotential

surfaces for the charges shown.
Assume the rod is an insulator.
Electric Potential and
Electric Field pt. 2:
Potential Difference
 Learning outcomes

Electric Potential and • Understand potential

difference as the path integral
Electric Field pt. 2: •
of the electric field.
Calculate the potential
Potential Difference difference from the electric
field and distance, or vice
versa.
Potential difference in an electric field
• We know that the difference in potential
energies of a charge q between two points in
an electric field is

𝑈 − 𝑈 = ∆𝑈 = − 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = −𝑞 𝐸 𝑑𝑠⃗
• Since 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸, and ∆𝑈 = 𝑞∆𝑉, then

𝑉 − 𝑉 = ∆𝑉 = − 𝐸 𝑑𝑠⃗
• The potential difference between two points is
obtained by integrating the electric field along
a path between the two points.
• Because the electric force is conservative, the
choice of path does not matter.
Potential difference in an electric field
example: parallel plates
• Let’s look at the potential between two infinite
parallel conducting plates separated by a
distance ℓ.

• By symmetry, the electric field of an infinite

plate points perpendicularly out from the plate
(if it is positively charged) or into it (if it is
negatively charged).

• We saw before that the field of an infinite

plane of charge was constant.
Potential difference in an electric field
example: parallel plates
The potential difference right
 
between the plates can be
calculated from
V   
left
E  ds

where 𝑑𝑠⃗ points along a path from the left plate to

the right plate.

We choose a straight path perpendicular to the

plates. Then the field 𝐸 is always parallel to the
path 𝑑𝑠⃗ and right
 
right

V   
left
E  ds  E 
left
ds  El
Potential difference in an electric field
example: parallel plates
The potential difference between the two
plates is
V  El

Turning this around, the electric field strength is

E  V / l

and the field points from the high potential

plate to the low potential plate.
Example 1
a) Two large parallel metal plates have a
potential difference of ∆𝑉 = 200 V and the
electric field between them has a magnitude
of E = 7×103 V/m. What is the distance ℓ
between the plates?
b) Two points in the region between the plates
are ∆𝑥 = 1.5 mm apart along a line
perpendicular to the plates. What is the
potential difference between the two points?
Doing the inverse problem: finding
the electric field from the potential
• We saw that to find the potential difference between two points we
integrate the electric field along a path between the two points.
 
B

VB  VA   E  ds
 A

• How do we go the other way? Suppose we know the potential and

want to find the field. What do we do?
• Since integration is the opposite of differentiation, we have to
differentiate the potential. But we need an answer that is a vector!
Electric Potential and
Electric Field, pt. 3:
Potential Gradient
 Learning outcomes

Electric Potential and • Understand the electric field

vector as the spatial derivative
Electric Field, pt. 3: (“gradient”) of the electric
potential.
Potential Gradient • Apply the gradient operator ∇
(i.e., partial derivatives) to
determine the electric field
from the electric potential.
Finding the electric field from
the potential
• We know that
∆𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠⃗
• Consider the potential difference dV between two points on the x
axis that are very close together (distance dx apart):
dV
• So, dV   E x dx and Ex  
dx
• We can do the same for separations in the y and z directions.
 Finding the electric field from
the potential
• Without going into all
the mathematical   dV dV dV   dV ˆ dV ˆ dV 
E   , ,   i j ˆ
k
details, we can 
 dx dy dz   dx dy dz 
calculate the electric
field as follows:

• That is, the Ex component of the electric field is given by the negative
derivative of the potential V with respect to x, (so, 𝐸 = − ) and so on.
 Finding the electric field from
the potential
• We should really use partial derivatives, since V is a function of x, y and z.

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸=− 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• The result is a vector 𝑬 that is perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

• We can write this concisely in terms of the gradient operator ∇:

𝐸 = −∇𝑉
 The gradient operator 𝜵
• Produces a vector that is perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
• Indicates the direction of the steepest decline:
• it is the “fall line” in skiing or mountain biking

• In Cartesian (x, y, z) coordinates, it is written as:

∇≡ 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘

• In spherical (r, θ, 𝜑) coordinates:

∇≡ 𝑟̂ + 𝜃+ 𝜑
 Finding the electric field from
the potential: summary
1. Have: 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 or 𝑉 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑 : for Cartesian / spherical coordinates, respectively
2. Need: 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝚤̂ + 𝐸 𝚥̂ + 𝐸 𝑘 or 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑟̂ + 𝐸 𝜃 + 𝐸 𝜑
3. Use 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑽, and calculate the partial derivatives along the unit vectors
• in Cartesian coordinates:

𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 = 𝐸 𝚤̂ + 𝐸 𝚥̂ + 𝐸 𝑘
• in spherical coordinates:
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝑟̂ + 𝜃+ 𝜑 = 𝐸 𝑟̂ + 𝐸 𝜃 + 𝐸 𝜑
From electric field to electric
potential and vice versa: summary
• We get the electric potential from the 𝑉 =− 𝐸 𝑑𝑠⃗
electric field by integration:

• We get the electric field from the   V V V 

E   , ,
potential by differentiation:  x y z 
• (shown here for Cartesian coordinates)
Example derivation:
potential of a charged rod
• Consider a charged rod sitting with a charge Q on the x-axis.
Earlier we calculated the electric field at point P on the x-axis. Now
let’s calculate the electric potential V.
Potential of a charged rod: derivation
• We divide the rod into
infinitely small segments dx.

• We treat each small segment

as a point charge dq and
calculate the electric potential
dV at P due to each segment.

• To get the total potential V

we integrate over all these
small contributions.
Potential of a charged rod: derivation
• Let 𝜆 = 𝑄/𝑙 be the charge per unit
length along the rod. Then
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥

• The electric potential at point P

due to the small segment dx is

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘 = 𝑘𝜆
𝑥 𝑥

• where x is the distance from P to

the segment dx.
Potential of a charged rod: derivation
• We obtain the potential V by
integrating dV over the length of
the rod

𝑑𝑥
𝑉= 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑘𝜆
𝑥
la
dx

la
Note that:  ln x a
a
x
• So,  ln(l  a)  ln a
𝒍 𝒂 𝒌𝑸 𝒍 𝒂
𝑽 = 𝒌𝝀 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧  l  a
 ln 
 a 
𝒂 𝒍 𝒂
 How to get the electric field from the
potential?
• 𝐸 = −∇𝑉 = − 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
• Given the symmetry of the problem,
we know that 𝐸 has a component only
along the x axis. • So,
• So, we need only 𝐸 = − .
• The distance between the end of the 𝐸 = = ln
rod and point P is 𝑎. The electric
potential and field at P depend on
that distance, and 𝜕𝑥 = −𝜕𝑎.
Electric field from potential:
derivation

• In general = , so

𝐸 = ln = ln 𝑙 + 𝑎 − ln 𝑎 =
= − = =−
( )
• So,
𝒌𝑸
𝑬=− ̂, as we had already derived.
𝒂 𝒍 𝒂
 Follow-up numerical example
• The potential a distance 𝑎 = 3 cm
from the end of a uniformly charged
rod of length 𝑙 = 10 cm is 𝑉 = 5V.
a) How much charge is on the rod?
b) Where is the potential equal to zero?
Electric Potential and
Electric Field pt. 3:
Potential Gradient
Examples 1 – 4
 Calculate the electric field due
Example 1 to an electric potential given by
𝑉 𝑟⃗ = − 𝑥 + 𝑦 volts
Example 2
• The potential in a region of space is given by V  3x  4 y 2  2 xz
• Calculate the electric field in this region.
Example 3

• The potential at point P due to a

uniformly charged ring as shown
is given by
kQ
V
R2  x2
where Q is the charge on the
ring and R is its radius.

Calculate the electric field at P.

 Example 4
• The potential due to a point charge is 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑞/𝑟 .
Differentiate this and show that the electric field
due to the point charge has the expected form.
For next class

Practice problems:

• Y&F, Chapter 23, problems 23.27, 23.37, 23.43, 23.59.