Page: 1

IGCSE

They are evaluating

3 brain functions:

1.Understanding
1.Read every word.

2.See marks provided.

2.Memory 3.Solving
Classified P.P.
Page: 2

1.Biological
Molecules &
Biochemistry
IGCSE Biology AS Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

Page: 3 Dr. Paula Rouphail

Biological molecules

Large amounts

Carbohydrates Fats/Lipids/Oils Proteins

Water Nucleic Acids

(DNA/RNA) C H O N P
Page: 4 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Important Terms
Macromolecule: A molecule containing a very large number of atoms such as protein
or nucleic acid or fats.
Polymer: A large molecule made up of similar repeating subunits called monomers.
All polymers are macromolecules but not all macromolecules are polymers.
Monomer: A simple molecule which is a basic building unit for synthesis of a polymer.
Ex: amino acids, monosaccharides.

Condensation (dehydration) reaction: A reaction leads to formation of a large

molecule from smaller units by removal of water molecules to form a chemical bond.

Hydrolysis reaction: A reaction leads to breakdown of a large molecule into smaller

units by adding H & OH from water.

Hydrophilic (polar): love water

Hydrophobic (non polar): hate water
Hydrocarbon: carbon & hydrogen bonds….
where carbon surrounded by 4 bonds.

Note: 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3

Page: 5 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Carbohydrates CHO
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
(CH2O)n = (Cn H2n On) (C12H22O11) (C6H10O5)n
Sweet Sweet Not sweet
Triose 3 carbons Sucrose (cane) Starch (storage)
Pentose 5 carbons (ribose in Maltose (barley) Glycogen (storage)
RNA & deoxyribose in DNA) Lactose (milk) Cellulose (cell wall)
Hexose 6 carbons (glucose & Pectin (cell wall)
fructose) Chitin (exoskeleton)
Polymer of monosaccharides

Carbs are divided into:

Energy storing carbs Structural carbs

Sugars, starch & glycogen Cellulose, pectin & chitin.
Source of energy by respiration due
to breaking down of carbon-
hydrogen bonds.
Page: 6
Molecular mass = (6*12) + Monosaccharides Dr. Paula Rouphail
(12*1) + (6*16) = 180 Glucose C6H12O6
2 ring forms called isomers
Alpha glucose Beta glucose
OH below C1 OH above C1

1 1 5 2
1

Chemical bond to join saccharides: glycosidic bond –C-O-C–

-Glucose + fructose = sucrose
Glycosidic bond can be broken down by -Glucose + galactose = lactose
enzymes, dilute HCL & heat. -Glucose + glucose = maltose
Page: 7 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Formation of disaccharides β 1,4 glycosidic
1.Lactose:

Condensation

Hydrolysis

2.Maltose:

α Hydrolysis
α
3.Sucrose:
α 1,2 glycosidic

Condensation

Hydrolysis
Page: 8 Formation of polysaccharides Dr. Paula Rouphail
Compare & Contrast 1.Starch
= -Mixture of amylose & amylopectin
Similarities & Differences

-Long chain of alpha glucose. -Long chains of alpha glucose.

-Unbranched. α 1,4 glycosidic bond
-Branched. α 1,4 glycosidic bond
-Has 2 bonds Hydrogen bond
-Has 2 bonds α 1,6 glycosidic bond
-Form helix shape. -Branches are found at intervals of 24 -30
-Amylose can’t form cross links as –OH glucose molecules (hydrolysed more quickly
groups are directed inwards inside helix. to glucose).

2.Glycogen
-Similar structure to amylopectin but more branched (intervals 8-10 glucose).
Page: 9 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Why amylose, amylopectin & glycogen are good storing molecules?
-Large molecules can’t diffuse out of the cell. Liverpool CHampioN
-Insoluble so no osmotic effect.
-Compact molecules so more glucose can be stored in a small space.
-High energy content (rapid breakdown to release glucose).
-Not highly active.
Rotation 180 3.Cellulose β 1,4 glycosidic & H bonds
-Unbranched Polymer of beta glucose.

Adaptations to its function:

-Each beta glucose molecule is upside down with
adjacent one.
-so Hydrogen bonds formed between –OH
(hydroxyl) groups.
- no. of H bonds form microfibrils.
-Microfibrils bond with H bonds also to form
cellulose fibers with high tensile strength for
turgidity without being burst.
Page: 10 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Lipids CHO
Store energy double carbs. (less O than carbs., less OH groups
So less H bonds, so insoluble in water (hydrophobic)
but soluble in alcohol)
Not a polymer as composed of 2 different
building units:
Glycerol (type of alcohol) + Fatty acids

Hydrocarbon + carboxyl group (COOH)

Only single bond One or more double bonds

Lipids Importance: Straight chain causing kink or bend
More H atoms Mono or polyunsaturated
- energy due to more C-H bonds. (Safinaaaaaz)
-Heat insulator. -Fat is solid at room temp., contains saturated F.A. only
-Takes part in cell membrane. Oil is liquid at room temp., contains unsat. F.A.
-Cholesterol & steroid hormones. -Saturated (animal) fats cause CV diseases.
-Buoyancy for water animals -More double bonds (bent), so weaker forces causes
(whales). lower melting temp.
Page: 11 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Formation of Lipids (Triglycerides) 1 glycerol & 3 F.A.
Chemical bond to join F.A. & glycerol: ester bond by esterification (Dehydration).
Ester bond can be broken down by lipase No polymerization

long hydrocarbon skeleton make fats

hydrophobic.

Triglycerides are hydrophobic transported in blood as lipoproteins (LDL) formed into

vesicles or micelles.
Formation of Phospholipids Partially hydrophobic
2 Parts: 1 glycerol, 2 F.A. & 1 phosphate group
1.Hydrophilic (polar) head (phosphate group)
-Can form bonds with water
2.Hydrophobic (non polar) tail (2 F.A.)
-Can’t form bonds with water
-When phospholipids are added to water, they
self-assemble into clumps with the hydrophobic
tails pointing toward the center and the
hydrophilic heads on the outside.
Page: 12 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Personal Development Tips
How to make a SMART schedule for better Time
management:

1.Fill your fixed dates ( school, sports or music classes ).

2.Fill a reasonable sleeping time (7-8 hours).
3.Define the golden days of the week.
4.Switch off the Wi-Fi / Cellular data during studying time.
5.Put a clock in front of you.
6.Fix a free time during the week.
7.Put a studying time after any new class within 48 hours maximum.
8.To Do List is a must.
Page: 13
 Page: 14 Dr. Paula Rouphail
You may draw A.A. structure Proteins CHONS
sometimes
Polymer of small monomers called amino acids

If R has no charge, so no overall charge for a.a.

-Only 20 a.a. in natural proteins, but millions a.a. are synthetic.

R group or side chain determines:

1.Solubility of a.a. (hydrophilic 2.Difference between all a.a. 3.3D shape of protein as bonds formed
or hydrophobic, acidic or basic) between R groups as disulphide bond

Alanine is more soluble in non polar solvent than tryptophan

Page: 15 Formation of polypeptides Dr. Paula Rouphail
Chemical bond to join A.A.: Peptide (amide) bond by condensation (dehydration).
Peptide bond can be broken down by proteases Strong covalent bond between COOH & NH2 of central C.

Formula nr is used to determine how many polypeptides can be done:

n = no. of available a.a.
r = no. of a.a. in polypeptide
Levels of protein structure

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

structure (1˚) structure (2˚) structure (3˚) structure (4˚)
1 polypeptide with: -Same bonds but with 2
-Peptide bond -Peptide bond
-H bond -Peptide bond or more polypeptides.
-H bond
-Ionic bond
-Disulfide bond
-Hydrophobic interactions
Page: 16 Primary structure Dr. Paula Rouphail
The linear sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds only.

Imp. as diff. R groups determine positions & types of bonds which determine folding of
polypeptide (secondary or tertiary structures 3D shape).
Secondary structure
When polypeptide is folded or twisted with peptide & hydrogen bonds only.
α Helix shape: H bond formed between
oxygen of –CO of a.a. & hydrogen of –NH
of 4th a.a. in same polypeptide.

β Pleated sheet shape: H bond formed

between oxygen of –CO of a.a. &
hydrogen of –NH of another a.a in
different polypeptide.
Ex: Silk
Page: 17 Tertiary structure Dr. Paula Rouphail
When One polypeptide is folded extensively forming a compact 3D globular shape
maintained by hydrogen, ionic, disulfide bonds & hydrophobic interactions.
Strong covalent bond
Ex: Myoglobin between Cysteine a.a.
-Found in mammals muscles giving red color.
-Oxygen storing molecule.
-1 polypeptide α helix containing 1 haem group (iron ion).

Bonds hold

-Disulphide is the strongest bond.

-Globular shape of enzymes maintained by tertiary structure.
-pH affects ionic & H bond only….but ionic can withstand heat.
-Haem group is a prosthetic group not made of a.a.
Page: 18 Quaternary structure Dr. Paula Rouphail
When 2 or more polypeptides are folded extensively forming a compact 3D globular
shape maintained by hydrogen, ionic, disulfide bonds & hydrophobic interactions.

globular & fibrous proteins Secreted by

Ex: Haemoglobin Ex: Collagen )‫(الضفيرة‬ fibroblast cells

-In RBCs.
-3 polypeptides held by H bonds to form triplet helix.
-Oxygen carrying molecule.
-Each polypeptide is not α helix no H bonds in it.
-4 polypeptides 2 α globin & 2 β globin
-Many triplet helixes form covalent links between each
chains, each contains iron ion.
other.
-Many molecules make fibril forming fibre.
-Hydrophobic R groups directed inwards to
-Every 3rd a.a. is glycine (smallest a.a.) to form tight coil.
hold molecule by hydrophobic interactions
-Ends of molecules are not in the same level.
while hydrophilic R groups are outwards
-All of this gives Tensile Strength.
making molecule soluble in water.
 Globular & Fibrous proteins Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 19 -Ball shaped -Long polypeptide // to each others
-Soluble in water with limited folding.
-Less stable -Insoluble in water
-Functional protein (fibrinogen, haemoglobin & -Highly stable
myoglobin & albumin) -Structural protein (collagen)
O2 carrying Provide elasticity of blood vessels.
O2 storing
Formation of bones, teeth, skin & cartilages.
Help in scar tissue formation for wound healing.

Enzymes & some hormones Proteins Importance

Formation of:
Protein channels in cell membrane

Albumin which transport F.A. Antibodies Fibrinogen for clotting

Back to 1ry structure

Note: -Fatty acids & amino acids have –COOH group

which form COO- & H+ when ionized… pH

-Fatty acids, A.A., protein & glucose contain C=O

bonds but glycerol doesn’t.
-Denaturation by extremes pH can break all bonds
except peptide bond.
Glucose is more soluble in water than
Page:
NaCl as it20has more polar groups (OH), Water Dr. Paula Rouphail
so form more H bonds with water.
70% - 90% of cell mass & about 60% of body mass.
Dipolar molecule

Due to H bonds
Properties:
1.cohesion & adhesion (surface tension, capillary action & T P F).
2.good solvent
as it surrounds ions separating them as dissolving NaCl.
3.lower density as a solid (ice floats).
4.high specific heat (water stores heat).
5.high heat of evaporation (heats & cools slowly).
Page: 21 Dr. Paula Rouphail

Importance:
1.Enzymes & hormones are transported dissolved in water.
2.Mineral ions absorbed dissolved in water.
3.Hydrophobic lipids are repelled by water & group together so maintain membrane stability.
4.Water is neutral (no effect on pH).
5.Water is transparent (light for submerged plants).
6.Water is incompressible (keep plant cells turgid).
7.Water act as reactant (photosynthesis) & reagent (hydrolysis).
Page: 22 Tests & Safety Precautions Dr. Paula Rouphail

Carbohydrates Fats/Lipids/Oils Proteins

Sucrose is non reducing gives blue with Ex: enzymes
benedicts But boiled with HCL, neutralized
then boiled with benedicts gives orange. Emulsion Biuret

Starch Reducing Sugars Add ethanol

Benedicts
I2 Solution (Heat using Colorless
water Bath)
Water

B G Y O R

Turbid or milky or cloudy

Increasing Conc.

-If glucose is heated in test -Test for CO2 : Turns lime water cloudy.
tube…it may turn black
due to carbon in it….also -Test for water : Turns anhydrous cobalt chloride from blue
CO2 may be produced. to pink or anhydrous copper sulphate from white to blue.
Page: 23
Personal Development Tips Dr. Paula Rouphail
Comfort Zone:
Page: 24

2.Transport in
Mammals

IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

Page: 25 Transport system Dr. Paula Rouphail
To transport digested food, waste product, hormones, antibodies, O2 & CO2
Needed in multicellular organisms because they have: They need circulatory system to
1.Small S.A./V ratio, so diffusion isn’t enough. pump O2 to all parts.
& respiratory system with S.A.
2.Large distance between body surface & innermost cells.
3.High rate of metabolism so raw materials needed can’t enter enough through surface.

1.Circulatory system 2.Lymphatic system

Blood Heart Blood Lymph Nodes Lymphatic

vessels vessels

Formed in
Bone
Marrow
‫ابو على‬
 Function: Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 26
Erythrocytes
1.No mitochondria no A.R., But anaerobic resp. release energy for active transport.
2.In fetus produced in liver, then in bone marrow from stem cells.
3.When matures, its nucleus is squeezed out no cell division & protein synthesis.
While immature RBCs has nucleus & can make protein synthesis.
Atoms or
Adaptations: molecules?
1.Small with elastic walls: to pass in fine capillaries.
2.Produced in rate: to replace dead RBCs (short life span 120 days).
3.No nucleus, mitochondria & ER: to carry more haemoglobin to transport more O2.
4.Biconcave: S.A. for obtaining O2.
5.Carbonic anhydrase: for formation & breakdown of carbonic acid.

Smaller RBC have greater 98% as oxyHB &

S.A. so faster diffusion 2% dissolve in
plasma.

Note:
In high altitudes, less O2 reaches kidneys so they produce erythropoietin hormone which
stimulate production of RBCs to overcome conc. of O2.
 Haemoglobin dissociation curve Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 27
(S-shaped or sigmoid curve)
Partial pressure of O2 (O2 tension): pressure exerted by O2 in mixture & it is directly
proportional to O2 conc.
Percentage saturation of haemoglobin:
100% saturated means that each HB molecule carries 4 O2 molecules (8 atoms),
50% saturated means that each HB molecule carries 2 O2 molecules (4 atoms).

S shape as:
For the 1st O2 molecule to enter, it needs to distort
shape of HB molecule (4 chains) so more pressure
is needed to change 3D structure while the 2nd &
3rd molecules can enter easily & 4th one face little
difficulty. Physiological importance:

In lungs In respiring tissues as exercising muscles

( PP of O2 ) ( PP of O2 )
% saturation of HB % saturation of HB (20-25%)
(95-97%) to take O2 to release O2 to cells
Note:
-Usually deoxygenated blood has % saturation 20-80%
Ex: PP of O2 in pulmonary artery is 2-6 KPa
Page: 28 Bohr Effect Dr. Paula Rouphail
Effect of CO2 tension of blood on dissociation curve.

It states that increasing CO2 tension the affinity of haemoglobin to O2, so O2 is released
from oxyHB & vice versa.
It means that increasing CO2 conc. causes curve to shift to right side of normal curve.

How?
-Carbonic anhydrase enzyme in RBC causes formation of carbonic acid which is then
dissociates into hydrogen carbonate & hydrogen ions.
-Hydrogen carbonate leaves RBC to be the main form of CO2 transported in blood.
-Hydrogen ions combine with oxyHB forming haemoglobinic acid causing release of O2.
Page: 29 Physiological importance: Dr. Paula Rouphail
In lungs In respiring tissues as exercising muscles
( PP of CO2 ) ( PP of CO2 )
% saturation of HB % saturation of HB to
to take O2 release O2 to cells

carbamino HB HB + CO2 HB + CO2 carbamino HB

HB acid HB + H+

Transport of CO2

85% HCO3- 5% dissolved 10% combined with

in plasma in plasma terminal amino group of
Diffuse into HB forming carbamino HB
RBC
In lungs -HCO3- combines -CO2 to diffuse -CO2 of carbamino HB
( PP of CO2 ) Causes with H+ of HB acid into alveoli leave HB & diffuse out
forming CO2 + H2O
Note:
-HB acts as buffer, as it combine with hydrogen ions released from carbonic acid to avoid in pH.
-Deoxyg. blood (veins) contains oxyHB but HB acid & HCO3-
 Fetal HB & Myoglobin Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 30

-Diff. structure (2 α chains & 2 gamma chains). -O2 store as oxymyoglobin is very stable.
-Has higher affinity for O2. -It only release O2 when PP of O2 is very low.
-PP of O2 in fetal blood < placenta < -It delays anaerobic resp. in muscles.
atmospheric air, so fetus can obtain O2.
-% saturation of fetal HB is always > adult HB.

Carbon monoxide CO:

-Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels & smoking.
-HB combines irreversibly with CO 250 times > O2 (same binding site in haem group) forming
carboxyHB (more stable as CO form iron III in HB instead of iron II).
-0.1% of CO in air causes death by asphyxia.
-TTT of CO poisoning is done by giving mixture of O2 & CO2 (to stimulate breathing center in brain).

Person at High altitude has % HB saturation < person at sea level:

-P.P. of O2 in atmosphere is lower.
-So P.P. of O2 in alveoli is lower.
-So conc. gradient between alveoli & blood will be smaller.
-So diffusion rate of O2 into blood will be slower.
-So binding between HB & O2.
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 31 Function:

1.To avoid excessive Bleeding 2.To avoid entry of bacteria

Platelets release
Thromboplastin
Calcium ions

Inactive enzyme active enzyme Hydrophobic

Forming sticky
protein mesh trapping
RBCs & platelets

-Clotting factors are present in an inactive form in the blood so blood clots only when required.
-If 1 a.a. in prothrombin changes…. It change 1ry & 3ry (3D shape) structure, bonds between R groups,
solubility of prothrombin so it won’t bind with thromboplastin… so less clotting.
 Page: 32 Blood vessels Dr. Paula Rouphail
The exchange of materials between
Function: capillaries and tissue fluid 1. Pressure
2. Rapid flow
3. Elastic wall
Thin wall
Deoxygenated
Thick wall
Oxygenated

Semi lunar Narrow

valves lumen
Body cells
Wide lumen

CO2 & Glucose &

Urea Tissue fluid amino
acids

Adaptations:
Lymphatic
vessels then 1.Thin walls (one cell thick) diffusion
2.Large network S.A.
to blood
3.Pores in walls
4.Very narrow to slow down blood
 P.O.C. Artery Vein Capillary
Tunica intima -Endothelium (single layer of thin simple Same but no Internal elastic Endothelium surrounded
squamous epithelium cells). fibres. by continuous basement
-Some connective tissue. membrane.
-Internal elastic fibres.
Tunica media (Thick) (Thin) Absent
-Mostly elastic fibres. -Thin layer of smooth muscle.
-Circular smooth muscle. -Very few elastic fibres.
-Some collagen fibres.
Tunica externa -Mostly collagen fibres. -Very rich in collagen fibres.
(adventitia) -Some elastic fibres.
-Some connective tissue.
Lumen Narrow Wide Narrow 7 µm (as RBC)
Valves Absent semilunar valves Absent
BP High Lowest Low (decreasing)
Blood velocity Rapid Slow (but faster than capillaries) Slow
Pulsation Pulsates Doesn’t pulsate Doesn’t pulsate
Page: 34 Adaptations for arteries: Dr. Paula Rouphail

-Thick wall (many Collagen fibres & elastic fibres) make it withstand high pressure
preventing bursting & evens out blood flow from the heart.
-Pulse is result of a surge in blood causing expansion of artery wall.
-Semi lunar valves only at junctions between arteries (aorta) & heart.
-Arterioles help to or blood flow to tissues using their wall muscles.
-Intima is folded to allow lumen to increase during systole.
-Endothelium in intima is smooth to minimize friction during blood flow.

Note:
-Skeletal muscles in legs don’t squeeze blood upward in the veins during standing very
still, so pressure in feet veins. -Aortic valve closes.
-BP in aorta remains high even when ventricles relax due to -Its elastic fibres recoil.
-Its smooth muscles contract.
Note:
-Aorta (biggest artery) has large lumen to allow large
volumes of blood.
-It has elastic fibres (stretch & recoil).
-It has diff. branches to supply blood to diff. body parts.
S.A.
Velocity
Pressure

Note: Smooth muscles contract to diameter of blood vessel.

 Page: 35 Cardiovascular diseases Dr. Paula Rouphail
Diseases of heart & blood vessels such as narrowing of lumen, BP, thrombus & atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis
Fatty deposits (plaque) build up on arteries lining causing narrowing of lumen, thickening &
hardening of arterial walls.
How it occur:
1.Artery endothelial lining is damaged ( BP due to salts, obesity, smoking & stress).
2.Body inflammatory response occur ( more blood with WBCs arrive).
3.Accumulation of chemicals from blood as cholesterol.
4.Leading to atheroma (plaque) formation on endothelial lining.
5.Fibrous tissue & Ca salts surrounding atheroma making it harder plaque.
6.Leading to narrowed lumen & loss of artery elasticity (can’t stretch & recoil).

BP more damage of other areas endothelial lining more plaque risk of blood clots
(Thrombus)
O2 & glucose supply to heart muscle cells.
In heart, causes angina or myocardial infarction (CHD / heart attack).
(CV diseases)
Notes:
1.Aspirin & Heparin are drugs used to clotting in patients,
but it may cause excessive bleeding.
2.Blood clots may occur in large veins & move to lungs
blocking blood vessels so blood flow & gas exchange.
3.Location of atheroma determines position & size of region of
dead heart muscle due to blocked artery, cells of this region die
due to lack of O2 & glucose so respiration & energy.
-Normal
Page: 36 BP in arteries: 120/80 Dr. Paula Rouphail
-Heart is myogenic (initiated from
itself) so it can pump in warm All body organs
solution with O2 & nutrients.

Lungs Lungs

Bicuspid
valve
Pacemaker

RIT = TRI cuspid

Septum
Systolic BP (120): Maximum BP in arteries during contraction of ventricles. Systole = contraction
Diastolic BP (80): Min. BP in arteries during relaxation of ventricles. Diastole = relaxation
Page: 37 Cardiac cycle Dr. Paula Rouphail
Sequence of events which take place in one heart beat.

0.1 Second 0.3 Second 0.4 Second

70 to 100% 100 to 0% 0 to 70%

Volume of blood in Ventricles Left ventricle pump same volume of blood but with
higher pressure.
Adaptations of Heart:
1.Has thinner atria & thicker ventricles: to pump blood to longer distance.
2.Left ventricle with thicker wall: to pump blood to longer distance all body parts (not lungs only).
3.Has A.V. valves: to prevent backflow of blood….if it doesn't shut properly
4.Has pacemaker: responsible for initiation of heart beat.
Backflow of blood to atrium so BP so O2
5.Has septum: prevent mixing between oxy. & deoxy. Blood.
supply so energy.
Page: 38 Dr. Paula Rouphail
One beat

Atrial systole

Some babies are born with a hole in

the septum, this causes:
Mixing of oxyg. & deoxyg. blood.
More O2 flows to lungs.
So less steep O2 conc. gradient in alveoli.
So less diffusion of O2 to capillaries.
So less O2 to body cells.
Page: 39 2 Dr. Paula Rouphail
3

Elastic wall stretch & then recoils.

1
4
Atrial Ventricular Diastole
0sec systole 0.1sec 0.4sec 0.8sec
systole

1.Bicuspid valve closes as BP in left ventricle becomes > BP in left atrium, & this prevent
blood backflow to atrium.
2.Aortic valve opens as BP in left ventricle becomes > BP in aorta.
3.Aortic valve closes as BP in aorta becomes > BP in left ventricle (as it is relaxed now).
4.Bicuspid valve opens as BP in left ventricle becomes < BP in left atrium (as it is
contracted now).
Note:
-Total time during one cardiac cycle that AV valves & semilunar valves
are closed at same time is around 0.07. -Aortic valve closes.
-Pressure may reach 0 in ventricles but it never happens in arteries. -Its elastic fibres recoil.
-Its smooth muscles contract.
Page: 40 Dr. Paula Rouphail

Function of valves: prevent backflow of blood to allow one way direction.

Function of papillary muscle: contract pulling tendons to prevent valves from being turned over.
Cardiac output: is the volume of blood pumped/min……. (=stroke volume x heart rate).
Stroke volume: is the volume of blood pumped/beat.
 Page: 41 Dr. Paula Rouphail

Blood flows only in

blood vessels.
Lower pressure

1.
Vena Cava

Superior Inferior

2.

ADV. of double Cir.:

-Avoid mixing of Oxy. & Deoxy. Blood.
-Keep steep conc. gradient in lungs.
-More O2 carried to cells.
-Lower P to lungs (avoid capillaries damage) & higher P to body parts.
-Normal Pulse rate (HR): 60-80 bpm
Exercise, Caffeine, smoking & adrenaline HR while sleeping HR
-Athletes have stronger heart muscle (higher stroke volume) so less
resting HR (< 60)…… more fit. 15 seconds * 4
Page: 42 Dr. Paula Rouphail

Effect of temp. on Heart Rate:

-Increasing temp. leads to:
Enzyme activity
Kinetic energy.
Collisions between E & S.
ES complexes formed.
HR supplies more O2 & glucose.

-To obtain valid results:

1.Repeat on more Daphnia.
2.Same species, size & type of Daphnia.
3.Same volume of water.
-Why Daphnia are suitable?
1.Transparent (visible heart).
2.Simple org. don’t feel pain.
3.Cheap & easy to obtain.
Page: 43 Dr. Paula Rouphail

Drawing

D
Cm

Magnification
Actual X times

A
mm

M
x 10 x 1000 x 1000
‫الكبير يضرب‬
‫الصغير بس‬ Cm mm µm nm
‫الصغير ميضربش‬ / 10 / 1000 / 1000
‫الكبير‬
Page: 44 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Personal Development Tips

“Our thoughts and imaginations are the only real limits to our possibilities “

“ You have to speak from a place where all is possible,

when you speak from a place where there are limits you’ve already set
yourself up to fail “

1.Change your mindset & thoughts.

2.Work harder on the new goals.

Page: 45

3.Cardiovascular
Health & Risk

IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

 Page: 46 Diseases Dr. Paula Rouphail

Non infectious Infectious

Not caused by pathogens. Caused by pathogens & transferred
from one person to another.

Deficiency Inherited Heart diseases

diseases diseases or Cancer
(anemia) (S.C.A.)
Risk: The probability that an event will take place.
Relative risk: The probability that an event will take place in one group compared to another.
Probability: A measure of the chance that an event will take place (calculated by number).
Risk factors: Factors which affect the risk of an event happening.
Multifactorial disease: A disease which can result from the interactions of many different factors (not
only one cause). Types of Risks

Actual Perceived
Probability of an event occurring Perception of people of a certain risk.
at a certain time. Not always as the actual risk.
Ex: Motorcycles & car death risks Affected by: Approval, enjoyment &
familiarity.
1.Long time for symptoms to appear.
People underestimate 2.Risk is applied on groups not individual.
some risks because: 3.Experience contradicts with research (seeing people smoking & yet appearing well).
4.Mistakes when people evaluate risk (continue smoking to reduce appetite).
 Epidemiology Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 47
Study of the spread of disease (incidence, distribution & possible control) & factors affecting it.

Correlation Causation
-A strong tendency for two sets of data to change -A factor directly causes a specific effect.
together (indirect). -A change in 1 variable directly causes a
-A change in 1 variable is accompanied by a change in another variable.
change in another variable. -Proven by lab tests.
-Proven by statistics. Ex: blood cholesterol level causes an in risk
Ex: Mortality data from atherosclerosis in relation of CVD.
with smoking or lack of exercise.
-But still it doesn’t prove that one is the cause of
the other, so further research is always needed to
find causal link.
-Further research is done to prove causation that:
-Study proved correlation between Tobacco smoke contain substances that damage
smoking & death from heart disease. arteries endothelium, form plaque & atherosclerosis.
Page: 48
Studies (Trials) Dr. Paula Rouphail
Evaluate the design of studies to decide if data are of value…they
should be:

1.Based on 2.Investigating one variable effect 3.Carried over a long 4.Including safety
very big while keeping all other variables time (at least 1 year) precautions
sample size. same (very difficult with human) (healthy people)

Types of Studies

1.Cohort/Longitudinal 2.Case-control
-Start with a normal group.
-Expose some to risk factors. Group with disease Group without disease
-Some remain unexposed.
-Data is collected through questionnaires.
Scientific studies which follow the same
-Adv: easy, quick & large sample size.
group of individuals for many years.
-Disadv: some people forget or don’t say the truth.
Note: the controls are similar to the cases in
everything except they don’t have the disease.

Metadata analysis: when data from all the available studies in a particular area are analysed
to give more reliable evidence.
 Page: 49 Evaluating scientific studies Dr. Paula Rouphail

1.Validity 2.Reliabilty 4.Accuracy 6.Evaluate

-Proper methods. -Consistency of a measure -Measurement close -To judge quality of
-Instruments measure when repeating the to the true value. study &
exactly what you want. experiment. 3.Precision significance of
5.Non biased
-Measurements results.
-Check if scientists
with only slight are paid by
Evaluated by error bars: differences. someone.
 Risk factors for CVDs Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 50
A. Modifiable B. Non-modifiable

5.Lack of
1.Smoking
2.Stress exercise
3.Diet 4. BP 1.Age 2.Gender 3.Genetics
& -By time, arteries (inheritance)
weight lose part of elasticity
-Exercise lower & get narrower
- Adrenaline….
cholesterol in blood, -Below 50 years female
HR, BP & BR.
prevent obesity, BP has lower risk than male
release stress. due to estrogen.
BP -After menopause risk
almost equal.
Atherosclerosis &
CVD risk. -Tendency to get hypertension.
- Cholesterol in blood.
-Arteries easily damaged.
1.Smoking:

Nicotine CO Smoke particles

- Adrenaline…. -Bind to HB -Damage endothelium of
HR, BP & BR. irreversibly arteries, plaque formation,
(carboxyHB), O2 to narrowing of arteries Atherosclerosis &
BP
heart muscle cells. CVD risk.
Page: 51 3.Diet & Weight Dr. Paula Rouphail

A. Salts B. Lipids ( saturated fats) C. Vitamins in fruits & vegetables D. Alcohol &
-Triglycerides. (Antioxidants) caffeine
BP
-High Density Lipoproteins (HDL).
-Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL).

So it is better to have HDL/LDL ratio to risk of CVDs as HDL decrease cholesterol level in blood,
fatty plaque (atheroma) formation & atherosclerosis.
While if fats in diet obesity/diabetes/ BP HDL/LDL ratio cholesterol level in blood,
damaging arteries endothelium fatty plaque (atheroma) formation narrowing of lumen & lost
elasticity atherosclerosis risk of CVDs.

Correlation Causation
-Link between high saturated fats diet -High Sat. fats increase cholesterol in blood that damage
& high incidence of CVDs. arteries endothelium, form plaque & atherosclerosis.
 Page: 52 3.Diet & Weight Dr. Paula Rouphail
Check ratio between energy input (food intake) & energy output (exercise)
If Input > Output If Output > Input
(weight gain & obesity) Measure Healthy Weight (weight loss)

-Doesn’t recognize diff.

between muscles & fats. Body Mass Index Waist to Hip ratio Better as waist size
-Underestimate body fats gives good indication
in older people who have of fat amount in body.
lost a lot of muscle mass.

Men Women

Some people with high BMI don’t believe that they are at Obesity
risk of developing CVD because:
1.Lack of education & awareness that BMI is linked to CVD.
2.They don’t feel unwell (no apparent symptoms).
3.BMI isn’t reliable indicator of obesity in people with high
muscle mass (athletes).
Page: 53 C. Vitamins in fruits & vegetables (Antioxidants) Dr. Paula Rouphail
-Free radicals cause cell damage.
-Antioxidants free radicals & oxidation of molecules.
-Antioxidants plaque & atheroma formation
-Vitamin C is important in formation of connective tissue in bones, teeth, skin & endothelial lining of
blood vessels.
-So less Vit. C risk of damage endothelium, atherosclerosis & CVDs.
-Vit. C is detected by DCPIP (blue to colorless).
-Vit. C is destroyed upon storage.
4.High blood pressure Normal BP at rest:
BP: Force exerted by blood on blood vessels walls. 120/80
Hypertension: If BP >140/90 mmHg consistently.
Factors affecting BP: Age – Genes – Fitness – Stress - High salt & sat. fats – Obesity - Lack of exercise.

Change Lifestyle to reduce risk of atherosclerosis & CVDs

1.Stop smoking.
2.Exercise regularly.
3.Reduce sat. fats, salts in food.
4.More Vit. C & unsat. Fats.
5.Avoid stress.
6.Reduce alcohol & caffeine.
7.Increase HDL:LDL ratio.
Page: 54 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Treatments (Benefits & Risks)

1.Lifestyle 2.Drugs 3.Surgery

A. Stent or balloon
angioplasty.
A. Drugs B. Drugs C. Drugs B. Coronary bypass
controlling BP controlling blood preventing C. Heart Transplant
(Antihypertensives) cholesterol level. clotting

1.Diuretics 2.Beta blockers 3.ACE inhibitors

Mode of action: Mode of action: Mode of action:
-Removes excess salts & fluids in urine -Block receptors on -Inhibit enzyme that convert
by water reabsorption in kidney. surface of heart muscle, Ang. I to Ang. II which
so it response to constrict arteries ( BP).
Volume of blood. adrenaline. -These drugs prevent
BP.
Heart rate. constriction of arteries,
Chance of damaging
Contraction strength. So stay dilated
artery walls
BP. So BP, risk of
Side effects (risks): atherosclerosis & CVDs
-Hypotension, kidney problems,
dizziness & headache. Side effects (risks):
-Hypotension, nausea, dizziness,
swollen ankle & cough.
Page: 55 B. Drugs controlling blood cholesterol level. Dr. Paula Rouphail

1.Statins 2.Plant stanols & sterols

Mode of action: Mode of action:
-Inhibit synthesis of cholesterol -Naturally occurring in plants with
by blocking enzyme in liver. similar structure to cholesterol.
Blood cholesterol level. Cholesterol absorption
LDL. from S.I. to blood.
HDL. LDL.
HDL/LDL ratio.
Side effects (risks):
-Muscle pain & inflammation, liver damage,
kidney damage, nausea & headache.
-People stop following healthy diet.
C. Drugs preventing clotting

1.Anticoagulants 2.Platelets inhibitors

(Warfarin/Heparin/Aspirin) Mode of action:
Mode of action: -Prevent platelet coagulation.
-Prevent formation of clot by interfering
with enzymes forming prothrombin.
Side effects (risks):
Thrombin binding to fibrinogen.
-Internal bleeding, nausea, stomach
Fibrin formation.
ulcer, dizziness & headache.
Effectiveness of platelets.
Chance of artery blockage & heart attack.
Page: 56 Past Paper important hints Dr. Paula Rouphail

Placebo & their values:

-A substance similar to the drug in every aspect (shape, smell, taste) except with no active
ingredient.
-Given to the control group to eliminate psychological factors for more valid results..
Mortality & Morbidity:
-Morbidity: people getting the disease per 100000 of population.
-Mortality: people dead per 100000 of population.
Different countries have different mortality & morbidity rates due to:
-Better health care & awareness.
-New medications.
-Obedience & stick to safety regulations.
-Less frequent risk factors.
How can a correlation be further supported:
-Metadata analysis.
-Statistical tests.
-Increase in disease incidence is proved by increase in risk factor.
Why 3 clinical measurements needed for diagnosis?
-3 criteria increase diagnostic accuracy.
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 57
Personal Development Tips

Internal items External items

Page: 58

4.Cell Membrane
& Transport
IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page:Width:
59 7 nm (5-10 nm)
Electron microscope
Cell membrane
-Barrier that keeps the watery contents of the cell separated from the watery environment.
Liposomes (no
Phospholipid bilayer
proteins, no ATP,
no A.T. &
Endocytosis)

(intrinsic
protein)
(extrinsic
protein)
Page: 60 Fluid Mosaic Model Dr. Paula Rouphail
Fluid: as phospholipid molecules & protein molecules move around
within their layer, vibrate & can exchange position with each other
within their monolayer.
Mosaic: when viewed from above, it describes the pattern produced
by scattered protein molecules among phospholipid heads.

Chemical analysis.
Evidence: Protein channels proved by
polar molecules permeability.
Electron microscope (2 dense
lines with space in-between).

Membrane has:

1.Proteins 2.Carbohydrates 3.Cholesterol

Page: 61 Intrinsic Dr. Paula Rouphail
1.Membrane Proteins
Extrinsic
-A.A. with hydrophilic R groups directed outwards forming bonds with surrounding water.
-A.A. with hydrophobic R groups directed inwards forming hydrophobic interaction with
phospholipid tails.
Functions:

1.Channel protein 3.Enzymes (villi 4.Receptors & proteins 6.Cytoskeleton

for polar epithelial cells, for hormonal proteins
molecules. thylakoid & cristae) attachment.
2.Carrier protein 5.Cell recognition
for active transport. protein (antigen).

2.Membrane Carbohydrates
-Carbs + lipids = glycolipids
-Carbs + protein = glycoproteins
Functions:

1.Form H bonds with 2.Receptors for 3.Cell recognition

water to stabilize the hormonal attachment. protein (antigen).
membrane.
Page: 62 Only in animal cells 3.Membrane Cholesterol Dr. Paula Rouphail

Functions:

1.Regulate fluidity 2.Mechanical stability 3.Controls leakage

-Combines with fatty acid tails of membrane. of water & polar
holding them together to movement molecules.
of phospholipids.
-Stabilize membrane in temp.

Fluidity of membrane affected also by:

1.More unsat. Fatty acids, so 2.Shorter phospholipid tail… 3.Higher temp… More
more bent (kinks), so More fluid membrane. fluid membrane.
phospholipids more loose….
More fluid membrane.
Page: 63 Cell signaling Dr. Paula Rouphail
-Messaging from one place to another for cells to communicate & respond to environment.
Process

Stimulus

Types of signaling molecules

1.Hydrophobic go 2.Hydrophilic can’t go through

through phospholipid phospholipid bilayer, so bind with
bilayer. receptor contacting G protein which
triggers response.
Page: 64 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Transport of
molecules/ions/particles

Others
Water
Diffusion Active Transport Cytosis
(Bulk transport)

Osmosis
‫شاى تقيل‬ ‫شاى خفيف‬

Simple Facilitated Exocytosis Endocytosis

Diffusion Diffusion
Page: 65 Movement of molecules/ions/particles Dr. Paula Rouphail

Ex: O2 non polar gas passes

Water
Boiling damage P.P.M.
directly by simple diffusion Others
through phospholipids.
Osmosis (Passive)
Gases
Active
W.P. W.P. Diffusion
Transport/uptake
Down W.P.G.
(Passive)
through P.P.M.
Conc. Conc.
10 gm 10 gm Up / against
Conc. Conc.
conc. Gradient
Salt/sugar Down Conc. using energy
Water
(0 Conc.) Solution gradient by from ATP by
random ‫شيال‬ protein carrier
12 gm 8 gm movement ‫خصوصى‬ through P.P.M.

Diluted salt sol. Conc. salt sol.

Water 1.5% 5% No net osmosis

 Water potential Ψ Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 66
Highest w.p. is of pure distilled water = 0
So -100 kPa is higher w.p. than -500 kPa

Water Potential Ψ = Solute potential Ψs + Pressure potential Ψp.

-In isotonic solution, pressure potential = 0

so water potential = solute potential.
-pressure potential always positive, while solute potential always
negative.
-In pure water, solute potential = 0
Osmotic pressure: pressure applied by solution to prevent the inward flow of water through p.p.m.

The Visking Tubing idea:

-A tube made of artificial fibres or cellulose which is
partially permeable, that allows small molecules to pass
through it but prevents the large ones.
Page: 67 Conc. solution Dil. solution Dr. Paula Rouphail

Plasmolysis
Page: 68 Factors Affecting Diffusion Rate Dr. Paula Rouphail

Directly proportional Inversely proportional

1.Temperature ( K.E. /movement of 1.Size of Molecules

phospholipids / membrane permeability until 2.Diffusion Distance
around 50 C then proteins denatured)
2.Air Current
3.Stirring
4.S.A./Volume….it when size
5.Concentration Gradient
Note: Alcohol membrane permeability so diffusion rate.
Note: When pH is too or , proteins in membrane are denatured so membrane is damaged.

Factors Affecting Active Transport Rate

Directly proportional
1.Concentration of oxygen A.R. energy
Note: Supplying cells (RBCs) with
2.Number of protein carriers (cell S.A.) glucose is source of energy for A.T. of
3.Number of Mitochondria ions in or out of cells.
 Diffusion (Passive) Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 69

Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion

-Non polar molecules can pass freely -Polar molecules, ions & glucose (large) can’t
through hydrophobic tails. pass freely through hydrophobic tails.
-No need for protein channels. -Needs specific protein channel for each ion.
-Water molecules are polar but small
so can diffuse through phospholipids.

Cytosis (Active)
Pinocytosis (liquids)
‫تشرب‬ Endocytosis Exocytosis
Phagocytosis (cells or (IN) (OUT)
‫ تاكل‬macromolecules)
-Rare in plant cells (cell wall).
-Movement of molecules in or out using energy from
ATP to move membrane, microtubules & vesicles

Inward folding of Vesicles move towards

membrane to form membrane & fuse with it
vesicles. to release contents.
Page: 70 Personal Development Tips Dr. Paula Rouphail
Creativity

Characteristics of creative people:

• Always seek for alternative ways.

• Initiative and take risks.
• Positive and Optimistic.
• Believe in themselves.
Page: 71

Gas
Exchange
System
IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

 Gas Dr. Paula Rouphail
 
Nose: Page: 72
Hair & mucus Exchange
O2 In
Respiration Breathing
Blood capillaries Out
Larynx CO2

Oxygenated
Pharynx:
Common path
Epiglottis
Soft palate

Deoxygenated
Trachea & 1.Goblet cells  sticky mucus  trapping dust & bacteria
Cilia Bronchus 2.Ciliated epithelium  have cilia  sweeping to throat
Alveoli (F: gas exchange) (‫)العنب‬
Rate affected by: S.A./diffusion distance/conc.
Adaptations: Gradient/permeability/Temp.

Thin wall Moist wall Large No. Large

(thin squamous (surfactant) network
folded
epithelium cells) Surface tension of capillaries with

Shorter diff. distance in lungs thin wall to maintain
 S.A. conc. gradient.
 S.A.
Page: 73 In Unicellular & small organisms:
1.Large S.A./V ratio, so diffusion is enough.
2.Small distance between body surface & innermost cells.
3.Low rate of metabolism so raw materials needed can enter enough through surface.

In lungs conc. gradient is maintained through gas exchange surfaces by:

1.Ventilation is taking place for continuous supply of O2.
2.Continuous removal of CO2.
3.Continuous Blood flow in large network of capillaries bringing CO2 to alveoli & taking O2 from
them.
Fick’s Law of Diffusion:

Note: As body mass O2 demand S.A. of alveoli

Page: 74

C/incomplete
Plates/irregular

Very few

Not all
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 75

Squamous Columnar
Alveoli Bronchi / Trachea
Alveolar epithelial cell

Blood capillary wall

Lumen of alveolus

Macrophage

-Minimum no. of cell membranes (bilayer) for O2 to pass from air in alveolus to HB in RBC is 5, While
CO2 to air is 4 or 5 (from plasma or in RBC)…..(10 layers of phospholipids).

-O2 dissolve in surfactant fluid, then diffuses across alveoli epithelium & capillaries endothelium.

-Flow of blood through lungs & air with O2 going into alveoli maintain steep diffusion gradient.
Page: 76 Ventilation mechanism Dr. Paula Rouphail
Pleural membranes encloses a pleural fluid to decrease friction between lungs, ribs and heart.

Inspiration (Inhalation) Expiration (Exhalation)

-Ext. I.C. Muscles contract -Int. I.C. Muscles contract
outward inward
-Ribs move -Ribs move
upward downward
-Diaphragm contracts & flattens -Diaphragm relaxes & become domed
- So  Volume of ribcage -So  Volume of ribcage
 Pressure of air inside  Pressure of air inside
-So air moves into lungs -So air moves out of lungs
Page: 77 Personal Development Tips Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 78

5.Enzymes

IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

Page: 79 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Metabolism
All biochemical reactions occurring in an organism
Anabolism (building Catabolism (breaking
up large molecules) down large molecules)
Ex: Photosynthesis Ex: Respiration

Glands
Exocrine Endocrine
with duct
without duct
Release Enzymes Release
Hormones
Intracellular Extracellular
function function
inside cells outside cells
 Page: 80 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Usually soluble as hydrophilic R All enzymes are catalysts
groups of their a.a. are directed
outwards to form bonds with water.
Enzymes but not all catalysts are
enzymes.

Globular proteins (tertiary structure) act as biological catalyst which

speeds up the rate of the reaction without being changed.
20 a.a.
Some enzymes can reach quaternary structure.
Enzymes Proteins Amino acids

How to measure rate of metabolic

reaction:

1.Amount of substrate 3.Slope a tangent to

disappeared/time the curve

lipase 2.Amount of product

Fats fatty acids & glycerol
formed/time

Enzymes
Substrates Products
Page: 81 Enzymes action description Dr. Paula Rouphail
1.Key & Lock Hypothesis:
Key

Complementary
fitting
H bonds
Lock

2.Induced fit Hypothesis: ( T-shirt ‫) بقيس‬

-when a substrate becomes in contact with specific enzymes, this induces changes in enzyme
shape to form enzyme-substrate complex.

Active site:
-A depression or cleft in the enzyme molecule ( 3-12 amino acids ).
Activation energy:
-Amount of energy needed for substrates to react.
Page: 82 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Enzyme speeds Reaction rate by Activation Energy by:

1.Holding substrate slightly out of shape to react easily by formation or breaking

down of bonds (interaction between enzyme R groups & substrate atoms).

2.Providing alternative reaction pathway in which less energy is needed.

G = Total change in
energy
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 83 Enzymes (Initial Rate of Reaction) 3.Enzyme conc.
Why we measure initial: as by
time substrate used up &
are affected by 4.Substrate conc.
5.Competitors.
becomes limiting factor.

1.Temp. Don’t say kill enzyme

2.pH
HCL
Rate of
reaction Denaturing
K.E.
of the
enzyme Amylase 7-7.5
Collisions (carbohydrase) &
lipase

Describe (awsef b arkam w units) & Explain (ashra7 el mozakra)

 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 84 Enzymes are affected by

1.Temp. 2.pH

pH Conc. Of H+
Interact with R groups of amino acids.

Affects charges of amino acids.

Change ionic & H bonds between amino acids.

Change globular shape of enzyme active site.

-Denaturing is irreversible as enzyme -Some enzymes may be denatured

lost its globular tertiary structure at extreme pH
returning into primary structure.
 3.Enzyme
Page: 85 Conc. Substrate conc. is L.F. 4.Substrate Conc. Dr. Paula Rouphail

Enzyme conc. is L.F.

5.Inhibitors
A. Non Competitive (allosteric site) B. Competitive (active site)
-Non similar shape to substrate. -Similar (not exactly) shape to substrate.
-It binds to allosteric site disrupting H bonds & -Complementary to enzyme A.S.
hydrophobic interactions so changes 3D shape of -Its effect is reversible by substrate conc.
enzyme (A.S.). -It can reach maximum rate but slowly.
-Its effect is irreversible.
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 86 Vmax & Km
Vmax : The level at which all the enzyme molecules are bound to substrate molecules (means
that all enzymes are saturated with substrate molecules).
-As substrate conc. the reaction rate to reach Vmax .
Asymptotic curve which practically
can never be flattened.
Reaction
Rate

Same Vmax & different Km

Same Km & different Vmax

Km = Michaelis–Menten Constant: It is the substrate conc. at which the reaction rate is half Vmax .
-This constant is used to compare each enzyme’s affinity to its substrate.
-Higher affinity = lower substrate conc. needed = lower Km = quicker reaction.
Ex: Km 5x10-6 < 3x10-4
Note: Temp., pH, inhibitors & activators may affect Km .
Page: 87 Practical questions Dr. Paula Rouphail

Investigation/Experiment (CORMS):
C  Change
- When you are asked to find the effect of changing (PH, conc., temp., light
intensity, etc ...). Change it during experiment... [Independent variable].
O  Organism / Object
- Used for investigation.
R  Repeat
- The experiment several times – take more readings to get closer result – take
average to reduce errors & anomalous results  for reliability.
M  Measure
- What will you measure? [dependent variable].
- How will you measure? [tool used].
- Plot a graph.
S  Same (Samsama)
- Keep all other factors constant (Same) to get a fair comparison.
- For organisms (Same: age – species – size – gender – number of leaves).
- For objects (Same: volume – surface area) and same measuring tools.
 Page: 88 Control experiment: Dr. Paula Rouphail
-It is used to be sure that result is due to the factor studied.
-It is done by repeating the same procedure in everything without the living organism
(use glass beads instead) or the active liquid (use distilled water instead).

-Accurate: to get measurements close to the true value.

-Reliable: obtain repeated results similar to each other to give confidence.

To increase accuracy:
 Use sensitive balance to measure accurate mass.
 Use gas syringe to collect gas volume instead of counting bubbles.
 Use a thermostat (or a water bath) to maintain constant temperature.
 Use graduated cylinder to measure volume of liquids.
 Use digital thermometer instead of mercuric thermometer.

To increase reliability:
 Repeat experiment several times (replicas).
 Get average to reduce errors after excluding anomalous results.
 Increase number of seeds, plants, students, etc...
 Use wider range of temperatures, concentrations, etc...
 Repeat on different plants, animals, seeds, etc...
Page: 89 Personal Development Tips Dr. Paula Rouphail

Self Awareness
Johari Window:

Which is better? & How we can reach it?

Page: 90

6.Nucleic Acids
& Protein
Synthesis
IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

Page: 91 Nucleic Acids Dr. Paula Rouphail

1.DNA 2.RNA
Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid Ribo Nucleic Acid
They are polymers (polynucleotides) of smaller units called nucleotides.

Nucleotide

1.Pentose 2.Phosphate group 3.Nitrogen containing Bases

Sugar (5C)
Ys....‫صغير بس اسم طويل‬
Deoxyribose Ribose
DNA RNA

Double ring Single ring

larger Smaller
Adenine = Thymine (DNA) or Uracil (RNA)
Carbon no. 2 Guanine Cytosine
Go Climb A Tree Pairing by H bonds
 1.DNA Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 92
Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid
Double helix
Two strands (polynucleotide chains) complementary to each other (base pairing by hydrogen bonds).

-Nucleotides are joined together by

condensation (dehydration
/polymerization) reaction forming
phosphodiester bond (phosphate
group to C no. 3).

-Ratio in DNA: A : T=1 C : G=1 purine : pyrimidine=1

If A represent 20% of bases in DNA, so T is 20%, C is 30% & G is 30%

-This ratio is important, not to leave unpaired bases (stability) & keep constant distance between 2
sugar phosphate backbones (purine + pyrimidine).
DNA stability
Imp. of base pairing: Allows DNA replication
Allows transcription & translation
Page: 93 Evidence that DNA not the protein in the Dr. Paula Rouphail
chromosome is the genetic material
-Bacteriophage is a virus (protein coat & DNA) that attack bacteria.
-Using labelled radioactive P to group & radioactive S to another group.

Shows radioactivity

Shows No radioactivity

Note: ATP is an activated or phosphorylated nucleotide, as adenosine (adenine+ribose) is

nucleoside & 3 P groups.
 Before
Page: 94 Nuclear Division at DNA Replication Dr. Paula Rouphail
Interphase (S phase): (Semi Conservative Method)
‫المكسراتى‬
1.DNA unwinds, unzips by helicase enzyme (break H bonds). Imp: to produce genetically identical
cells with same structure & function.
2.Separation of the two DNA strands of original DNA & each one of them is used as a template to form
a new strand by complementary base pairing of nucleotides (H bonds).

3.Free nucleotides are activated by adding extra 2 P groups from ATP (energy for binding).

4.Activated nucleotides are added to each DNA strand.

5.Formation of new strands is done using enzyme called DNA polymerase which catalyzes joining
nucleotides of new strands (phosphodiester bonds) & extra P groups are released.

6.Each new DNA molecule composed of one original strand & one new complementary strand (S. C. M.).
 Meselson & Stahl Evidence for Replication Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 95 (Semi Conservative Method)
Medium contains ammonium chloride with
nitrogen heavy isotope 15N

Medium contains ammonium chloride with

nitrogen light isotope 14N

Medium contains ammonium chloride with

nitrogen light isotope 14N

CsCl = caesium chloride

Template:
A molecule used in synthesis of new molecule in
a complementary way. Ex: DNA replication
DNA is a good genetic material as:
1.High stability (temp.).
2.DNA replication so identical genetic info pass to
daughter cells.
3.Controls cell activities (protein synthesis).
 2.RNA Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 96
Ribo Nucleic Acid
Types
‫الحمام الزاجل‬ ‫الشيال‬

1.Messenger RNA 2.Ribosomal RNA 3.Transfer RNA

(mRNA) (rRNA) (tRNA)

-Single straight strand with unpaired (no H

bonds) nucleotides. -Single folded strand has paired (H
-each 3 unpaired nucleotides is called bonds) & unpaired portions.
Codon which codes for 1 a.a. only. -3 unpaired nucleotides is called
-Size of mRNA is variable depends on gene. anticodon & has a.a. binding site.
-Single strand has paired & -Size of tRNA is constant.
-Many codons may code for same a.a. unpaired portions.
-Total possible codons = 4 = 64.
3
-Minimum no. of tRNA types is 20,
-Start codon AUG codes for methionine to as they are specific.
start translation.
-Stop codons UAA, UAG & UGA to stop Only 61 codes for a.a.
translation (no more a.a. added to chain).
Page: 97 In DNA Dr. Paula Rouphail
Gene: a sequence of bases/nucleotides on length of DNA codes for formation of a
certain protein (polypeptide).
-Each 3 bases in DNA is called code.
-Each gene starts with a promoter region & ends with a stop region.
-Genetic info is coded on only one strand of DNA called sense strand, coding
strand or reference strand…. While the other strand is called antisense strand.
Genetic Code: Triplet: (3 nucleotides ex: GCA) in sense strand of DNA codes for one a.a.
Degenerate: Some a.a. have more than 1 genetic code which means there are more codons
than no. of a.a (it minimizes effect of mutations).
Non-overlapping: as no base of a given triplet enter to be a part of the adjacent triplet.
Universal: The same triplet genetic code codes for the same a.a. in all living organisms.

-Single strand. -Double strand.

-Ribose -Deoxyribose. DNA Code: C T C
-Uracil not Thymine -Thymine not Uracil
Page: 98 Protein Synthesis Dr. Paula Rouphail

Nucleus 1.Transcription 2.Translation

DNA codes
Copy of the mRNA codons
desired gene Cytoplasm
Transcription Ribosomes
a.a. in order
Translation
Every 3 nucleotides one a.a. Protein

In Ribosomes a.a. a.a. Protein

mRNA C–G–G–A–C–U
Enzymes Hormones Antibodies

Gene
from DNA
G–C–C–T–G–A
 1.Transcription Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 99
-Copy of gene in coding DNA strand mRNA.
Steps: -In nucleus.
1.Needed gene (part of DNA) double helix unwinds & unzips so the two strands separate
(H bonds break) exposing the bases along the template (coding) strand of DNA.

2.This coding strand is used to form mRNA molecule by joining activated RNA
nucleotides together by RNA polymerase (phosphodiester bonds).

3.After transcription, DNA helix winds & zips up again then the mRNA molecule leaves
DNA & passes out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

4.Now codes of DNA gene is converted into codons of mRNA.

Note: Transcription begins when RNA

polymerase binds to a control region
called promoter till it reaches
terminator sequence.
 2.Translation Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 100
-mRNA codons a.a/polypeptide (protein).
-In ribosome (polyribosomes).
Steps:
1.mRNA binds to ribosome small subunit & 6 nucleotides (2 codons) exposed to large
subunit.
2.Ribosome moves along mRNA & starts translation when it reaches start codon AUG
which codes for first amino acid Methionine by the help of tRNA (a.a. carrier) which has
anticodon UAC complementary (H bonds) to codon of mRNA.

3.A second tRNA molecule with an anticodon complementary to the next codon reaches &
pairs with its codon.
4.The 2 a.a. carried by the two tRNA are joined by peptide bond catalyzed by peptidyl
transferase enzyme (found in small subunit).
5.Last step is repeated until all amino acids join together to form the desired protein
where ribosome stop translation when it reaches any of stop codons UAG, UGA, UAA.
A B C
Page: 101 Dr. Paula Rouphail

DNA polymerase

RNA polymerase

Peptidyl transferase
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 102
Personal Development Tips
Problem Solving
Page: 103

7.Gene
expression
& Genetics
IGCSE AS Biology Edexcel

Dr. Paula Rouphail

 Important Definitions Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 104

Gene: a sequence of nucleotides forming a length of DNA codes for formation of a certain
protein (polypeptide).
Allele: an alternative form of a gene.

Genotype: Genetic make up of an organism (2 alleles for certain gene).

Phenotype: Characteristics (appearance) of an organism determined by interaction
between genotype & environment.

Dominant Allele: Form of gene which is always expressed in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele: Form of gene which is only expressed in the homozygous condition
where there is no dominant allele.

Gene mutation: Change in base sequence of DNA.

Recessive genetic disorder: Disorder results from a defect in genes where both alleles
need to be homozygous recessive (not expressed in presence of dominant allele).
Page: 105
Inheritance: Dr. Paula Rouphail
Gene for any characteristic
Genetic info from one
generation (parent) to next has different forms (alleles)
generation (offspring).
Dominant allele Recessive allele
3 ‫قوي‬ ‫هفأ‬
flowers: Purple white
PP Pp pp
Genotyp
e Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous
Dominant Dominant Recessive
Purple Purple white

Phenotype
Phenoty : Pheno ely shypheno ( visible )
Genotype
pe : genes inside cells ( non visible )

All body cells in an organism contain the

same genes, but in each cell only the genes
needed by the cell are expressed.
 46 Chromosomes (23 Pairs) Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 106

44 2
Autosomes Sex chromosomes
XX Girl
XY Boy

Parent phenotype Male Female

Parent Genotype XY XX
Genetics is studying the
Gametes (Haploid) X Y X X mechanisms of
inheritance.
Family Pedigree:
Offspring genotype XX XX XY XY
Offspring Phenotype G G B B
Ratio 2G : 2B
1 : 1
50% : 50%
Probability of Boy 1 in 2 = 1 in 1
Page: 107 Simple cross showing Dr. Paula Rouphail
No hetero
Monohybrid crossing 1.Complete Dominance All homo
Flower Color: Pure Breeding
Red Dominant RR Rr
White Recessive rr

P.Ph. Heterozygous Red x Heterozygous Red

P.G. Rr Rr

Gametes R r R r Test Cross

R r
RR Rr
O.Ph. R red red
O.G. Rr rr
r red white

Ratio 3 red : 1 white

75% 25%
Probability of white: 1 in 4
 All Cases of Complete dominance
Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 108
RR x Rr 100% D.
RR x rr 100% D.
Rr x Rr 75% D.
Rr x rr 50% D.
2.Codominance
It is the existence of two alleles for a characteristic where
neither is dominant over the other but both are equally
dominant and influence of both alleles is shown in the
phenotype.

Red White
RR x WW

R R W W

RW
Pink
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 109 Blood groups
‫االنانى‬ ‫الكريم‬

Phenotype
Genotype
A B AB O
IA I A IA IO IB IB I B IO IA IB IO IO
3 alleles I A / IB / IO
Dominant Dominant Recessive
Codominance
A B
IA IO X IB IO

IA IO IB IO
If a patient receives wrong transfusion his RBCs agglutinate &
clump together inside blood vessels blocking them & he may die.
Children with 4 different groups
 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 110 3.Sex Linkage
 It is the inheritance of genes carried on the sex
chromosomes.
 The sex linked alleles are carried on X chromosome but not
on the Y chromosome because X is longer than Y therefore
it can carry more alleles.

1.Haemophilia ( recessive ) 2.Color Blindness (recessive)

Male Female Male Female

XHY normal XHXH normal XCY normal XCXC normal

XhY disease XHXh carrier XcY disease XCXc carrier

XhXh disease XcXc disease

 Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 111
 Mutation Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 112 Caused X rays
Errors during DNA replication by mutagens Gamma rays
Tobacco

Gene Chromosome
Sudden change in base sequence Sudden change in chromosome number
in DNA codes. or structure.
Types Ex: Down’s syndrome (47 chromosomes)

Base substitution Base insertion Base deletion

Point mutation
Base added to sequence Base deleted from sequence
Base changed in sequence
If gives diff. a.a. non functioning protein.
If gives same a.a. Silent mutation. They change every set of 3 bases following the
If stop codon shorter protein. change (frame shift) in DNA translated to different
Ex: Sickle Cell Anemia a.a. producing non functioning protein.

Note:
-Some mutations cause cancer or genetic disorders.
-Mutation result in diff. a.a. causes different bonding & folding changing shape of protein.
 Cystic Fibrosis Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 113
(autosomal recessive chromosome 7)
-NN & Nn is normal, nn is diseased.
-Mutation in gene coding for CFTR channel protein on autosome affecting production of
mucus.
-Normal CFTR gene gives normal CFTR channel protein.
-Cl- ions leave cells into mucus.
-Na+ channels inhibited so they remain outside cells in mucus also.
-NaCl make mucus hypertonic so water move out by osmosis.
-Producing watery thinner mucus so cilia can beat mucus easily.
BUT
-Mutated CFTR gene gives abnormal (non functioning) CFTR channel protein.

-Cl- ions build up in cells so sticky thick mucus is produced & accumulated in airways
(bronchi) which decrease peak flow of air to alveoli (ventilation) & diffusion of gas.
-Thick mucus traps more bacteria which can live & reproduce in these conditions causing
more lung infections.
 -If diseased, more sticky mucus produced blocking:Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 114

Sperm ducts & oviducts Pancreatic duct (affecting Respiratory airways

(infertility) digestion of food by (coughing, wheezing & repeated
Women enzymes… so less S.A. for infections)
-Thick sticky mucus block cervix. absorption)
-So sperm can’t reach the egg.
-Mucus may block oviducts also.
-Decreasing fertilization chances.
-Impaired implantation.
Men
-Thick sticky mucus block sperm
ducts (vas deference).
-So less sperms leaving testis.
TTT: Gene therapy using vector (virus/liposome) to insert healthy (normal) allele
of CFTR gene into target cells to produce the normal protein.

Somatic Germ line

-Target is cells in the affected -Target cell is a stem cell
tissue. (embryonic).
-Needs to be repeated. -Needs to be carried out once.
 Genetic screening Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 115
When people are tested for genetic disease to identify carriers.
-If 1 family member is born with genetic disease such as cystic fibrosis…. So other members should
make genetic testing.
-Diploid somatic cells are used & analyzed (not gametes/half DNA).
-All possible CFTR mutations are tested as it’s a large gene.

-If 1 partner in a couple is a carrier, the other partner is advised to be tested…. Because if 2 carriers
have a baby there is 25% risk of having the genetic disease.
Importance:
-More cost efficient (screening much cheaper than caring for diseased children for life).
-Then carriers decide either to: -Take risk of 25% of disease.
-Not to have a child at all.
-Get pregnant & make prenatal screening to decide.

-Not offered to all pregnant women as it is expensive, has risk on fetus & condition is rare.
Genetic Testing

A. Prenatal Screening B. Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis

(PGD)

1. Amniocentesis 2. Chorionic villus sampling

 A. Prenatal Screening Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 116 B. Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
(PGD)
1. Amniocentesis 2. Chorionic villus sampling -Couple undergo IVF.
-Amniotic fluid collected. -Sample taken from placenta. -A cell is removed from each embryo.
-Between 14 & 20 weeks of -Between 8 & 12 weeks of -Genetic make up is checked & only
pregnancy. pregnancy. healthy embryos are implanted in
-Cells are cultured. -Cells are cultured. uterus.
-DNA or genes are analysed. -DNA or genes are analysed. Disadv.:
Adv.: -IVF is expensive.
Adv.: -Faster results. -Females take high doses of hormones.
-Less miscarriage risk. -Larger sample so wide testing.
Disadv.: -Less difficult to terminate
-Expensive & difficult to pregnancy (8 weeks).
terminate pregnancy (16 weeks). Disadv.:
-More miscarriage risk.
-Sex linkage charac. can’t be
detected (X chromo. inactivated in
fetal placental cells)
 Problems with genetic testing Dr. Paula Rouphail
Page: 117

1. Ethical 2. Social
-Risk of false positive or negative -Social stigma of having disabled child.
(inaccurate). -Cost implications to health service.
-Healthy fetus may be aborted if false -Social pressure to parents.
positive result. -Religion issues.
-May cause miscarriage.
-Ethical concerns as it’s a potential life.
-Who has the right to decide terminating
fetus life (killing is unethical).
-Spare embryos from IVF are destroyed.
Page: 118 Personal Development Tips Dr. Paula Rouphail
Power of Habits