CHEMISTRY

MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chapter Topics

- Balancing (MCQs)
Chapter 1: Chemical Reactions and - Type of Reaction and Example (Special focus on Decomposition)
Equations - Color Change Activities
- Redox Reactions

- Indicators + pH Scale
Chapter 2: Acids, Bases, and Salts - Chlor-Alkali Process
- POP, Washing Soda, Baking Soda (Special focus on Baking Soda)

- Chemical Properties of Metals

- Reactivity Series (Give Reasons Type Questions)
- Exceptional Cases (HNO₃ Reaction with Metals)
Chapter 3: Metals and Non-Metals
- Metallurgy
- Calcination & Roasting
- Electrolytic Refining

- IUPAC Naming
- Electron Dot Structure (Ethanol, Amine)
Chapter 4: Carbon and its
- Homologous Series (MCQs)
Compounds
- Important Reactions: Esterification, Saponification, Dehydration of Ethanol
- Working of Soap (Diagram-based Question)
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CHEMICAL
REACTIONS AND
EQUATIONS
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CHANGE
A change is a process in which the final state of a substance differs from its initial or original state.

PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE

Shape/Size/Physical state change e.g. melting of Composition change along with a change in
chocolate, or Ice. shape/size/state e.g., Rusting of Iron or burning of wood.

The transformation of chemical substance into another chemical. substance. e.g. Rusting of iron, the
Chemical Reaction:
setting of milk into curd.
Chemical Equation: Representation of chemical reaction using symbols and formulae of the substances

Make equations more informative:

A+B→C+D
Physical states - solid (s), liquid(l), gas(g), aqueous solution (aq).
Concentration of acid - Concentrated (conc.) Dilute (dil.)
Reactant Product Heat changes - Reactant(s) -> Product(s) + Heat
Reactant(s) + Heat -> Product(s)
Conditions to yield products -
Mg + O2→ MgO
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Characteristics of Chemical Reaction:

i. Change in Colour

ii. Change in temperature (heat is generated)

iii. Change in State: (i.e. from gas to liquid)

iv. Evolution of Gas:

v. Formation of Precipitate

vi. Endothermic reaction (photosynthesis also)

(digestion and respiration also)

vi. Exothermic reaction

NAME AND SYMBOLS OF SOME IONS

Lead (II) Pb²⁺ , Barium Ba²⁺
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1. Burning of Magnesium Ribbon
🔹 Aim: To observe the burning of magnesium.
🔹 Observation: Burns with a bright white flame, forms white ash (MgO).
🔹 Conclusion: Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
🔹 Reaction: 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

2. Formation of Yellow Precipitate

🔹 Aim: To observe the reaction between lead nitrate and potassium iodide.
🔹 Observation: Yellow precipitate of lead iodide (PbI₂) forms.
🔹 Conclusion: Double displacement reaction occurs, forming PbI₂.
🔹 Reaction: Pb(NO₃)₂ + 2KI → PbI₂ + 2KNO₃

3. Reaction of Zinc with Acids

🔹 Aim: To compare zinc’s reaction with HCl & H₂SO₄.
🔹 Observation: Hydrogen gas bubbles form, reaction is exothermic.
🔹 Conclusion: Zinc reacts with acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
🔹 Reactions:
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
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Precipitate: is the insoluble solid which settles down after the completion of the chemical reaction.
Exothermic reactions: The chemical reactions that release heat energy.
Endothermic reactions: The chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed.
Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction, or lowers the temperature or pressure needed to start
one, without itself being consumed during the reaction. e.g. Formation of ammonia (Haber’s Process) - Fe (+ve catalyst)

Balanced Chemical Equation:

number of atoms of each element in reactants = number of atoms of each element in products
Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of reactants = Mass of products
“ Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. ”

Balance these:
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Q. Balance the following chemical equations:

(a) CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
(b) Zn + HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
(c) Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ + NaCl
(d) FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃
(e) Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
(f) Al + CuCl₂ → AlCl₃ + Cu
(g) NaOH + Al₂O₃ → NaAlO₂ + H₂O

(a) CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ (Already balanced)

(b) Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
(c) Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ ↓ + 2 NaCl
(d) 2 FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃
(e) 3Fe + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4H₂
(f) 2Al + 3CuCl₂ → 2AlCl₃ + 3Cu
(g) 2NaOH + Al₂O₃ → 2NaAlO₂ + H₂O
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Q.(a) Balance the following equations:

(a) __KNO₃ + __H₂CO₃ → __K₂CO₃ + __HNO₃
(b) HNO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ → Ca(NO₃)₂ + H₂O
(c) NaCl + AgNO₃ → AgCl + NaNO₃
(d) BaCl₂ + H₂SO₄ → BaSO₄ + HCl

(b) In the equation, a Al + b H₂SO₄ → c Al₂(SO₄)₃ + d H₂, the values of a, b, c, d are:

(A) 2, 3, 1, 1
(B) 2, 3, 1, 3
(C) 2, 3, 2, 3
(D) 2, 2, 3, 3

(a) Balanced chemical equations:

(a) 2 KNO₃ + H₂CO₃ → K₂CO₃ + 2 HNO₃
(b) 2 HNO₃ + Ca(OH)₂ → Ca(NO₃)₂ + 2 H₂O
(c) NaCl + AgNO₃ → AgCl ↓ + NaNO₃
(d) BaCl₂ + H₂SO₄ → BaSO₄ ↓ + 2 HCl

(b) Correct answer: (B) 2, 3, 1, 3

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Types of Chemical Reactions:
1.Combination Reaction: Two or more reactants combine to form single products.

A + B → AB
Carbon dioxide The most effective way to test for CO₂ is to bubble the gas through lime water, which is a diluted solution of
Test calcium hydroxide.

Burning of coal: C + O₂ → CO₂

Formation of water: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

🔹 Exothermic Reactions: Reactions that release heat energy.

Burning of natural gas: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + Heat
Respiration: Glucose reacts with oxygen to release energy. Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

Reaction: Calcium oxide (Quick lime) reacts with water to form slaked lime, releasing heat.
Equation: CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + Heat
Type: Combination reaction (Two reactants form a single product).
Uses: Slaked lime is used for whitewashing walls.
It reacts with CO₂ from air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), giving a shiny finish.
Equation: Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O
Fun Fact: Marble (CaCO₃) has the same chemical composition as the layer formed during whitewashing.
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Q. A compound ‘A’ is used in the manufacture of cement. When dissolved in water, it evolves a large amount of heat and forms
compound ‘B’.
(i) Identify A and B.
(ii) Write chemical equation for the reaction of A with water.
(iii) List two types of reaction in which this reaction may be classified

Answer. (i) Compound A: Quick lime (CaO)

Compound B: Slaked lime (Ca(OH)₂)
(ii) Chemical equation:
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + Heat
(iii) Types of reactions:
1. Combination reaction – Two reactants (CaO and H₂O) combine to form a single product (Ca(OH)₂).
2. Exothermic reaction – The reaction releases a large amount of heat.
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Q. Which of the following is a combination reaction? (CBSE 2023)

(A) CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂
(B) 2KClO₃ → 2KCl + 3O₂
(C) 2FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃
(D) CuSO₄ + Zn → ZnSO₄ + Cu
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2.Decomposition Reaction: A single reactant decomposes to form two or more products.

AB → A + B

Thermal Decomposition (initiated by thermal energy) (by absorbing energy from photons) Photolytic Decomposition

Electrolytic Decomposition

black and white photography

(initiated by electrical energy)

Hydrogen gas is collected at the cathode.

Oxygen gas is collected at the anode.
The volume of hydrogen gas collected is twice that of oxygen gas.

Hydrogen (cathode) will produce a popping sound when

Hydrogen a burning candle is brought close.
Test Oxygen (anode) will make the flame of the candle burn
brighter.
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Decomposition of Ferrous Sulphate
🔹 Aim: To observe the thermal decomposition of ferrous sulphate.
🔹 Observation:
Green FeSO₄ crystals lose water and turn white on heating.
Further heating forms a reddish-brown residue (Fe₂O₃) with SO₂ & SO₃ gas release.
🔹 Conclusion:
FeSO₄ decomposes into ferric oxide, SO₂, and SO₃.
This is a thermal decomposition reaction.
🔹 Reactions:
1. FeSO₄·7H₂O → FeSO₄ + 7H₂O
2. 2FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃

Decomposition of Silver Chloride

🔹 Aim: To observe the photodecomposition of silver chloride.
🔹 Observation:
AgCl is white.
In sunlight, it turns grey due to silver metal formation.
Chlorine gas (yellowish-green) is released.
🔹 Conclusion:
AgCl decomposes into Ag and Cl₂ in sunlight.
This is a photolysis reaction (light-induced decomposition).
🔹 Reaction:
2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl₂ (in sunlight)
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Q. The diagram below shows the setup for the electrolysis of water.
(a) Identify the type of reaction taking place.
(b) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
(c) Why is this reaction considered a decomposition reaction?
(d) What volume ratio of hydrogen to oxygen gas is collected?

Answer: (a) Type of reaction: Decomposition reaction.

(b) Balanced chemical equation: 2H2O(l) (electric current) 2H2(g)+O2(g)
(c) Reason: In decomposition reactions, a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
(d) Volume ratio: The volume of hydrogen to oxygen gas is 2:1.
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Q. In an experiment, Rahul placed a small amount of silver bromide in a petri dish and kept it under sunlight.
(a) What change will he observe after some time?
(b) Why does this change occur?
(c) Mention one application of this reaction.

(a) Observation: After some time, Rahul will observe that the silver bromide (AgBr) turns from pale yellow to grey.
(b) Reason: This change occurs because silver bromide undergoes photolytic decomposition when exposed to sunlight. The reaction
causes silver bromide to decompose into silver (Ag), which is grey in color, and bromine (Br₂), which is released as a gas.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
2AgBr(s) → 2Ag(s) + Br₂(g) (In presence of sunlight)
(c) Application: This reaction is used in black-and-white photography, where light-sensitive silver halides like silver bromide are used
to capture images.
3.Displacement Reaction: chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from its compound.

Single Displacement Double Displacement

A + BC → AC + B AB + CD → AD + CB

Displacement of Copper by Iron

🔹 Aim: To observe the displacement of copper from CuSO₄ by iron.
🔹 Observation: Iron nail develops a brownish coating of copper.
Blue CuSO₄ solution turns light green (FeSO₄ formation).
Control test tube remains unchanged.
🔹 Conclusion: Iron displaces copper from CuSO₄, forming FeSO₄. This is a displacement reaction.
🔹 Reaction: Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu

Reaction Between Sodium Sulphate and Barium Chloride

🔹 Aim: To observe the reaction between Na₂SO₄ and BaCl₂.
🔹 Observation: White precipitate of BaSO₄ forms. The precipitate is insoluble in water and settles at the bottom.
🔹 Conclusion: Double displacement reaction occurs. BaSO₄ formation confirms the presence of sulphate ions.
🔹 Reaction: Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ ↓ + 2NaCl
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Q. A blue-colored solution of compound 'A' reacts with iron to form a green-colored solution and a brown deposit of
compound 'B'.
(i) Identify A and B.
(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
(iii) Which type of reaction is this?

Answer: (i) A = Copper(II) sulphate (CuSO₄), B = Copper (Cu)

(ii) Balanced Chemical Equation:
Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu
(iii) Type of Reaction:
This is a displacement reaction, as iron (a more reactive metal) displaces copper from its compound.
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Q. Which of the following reactions is an example of a double displacement reaction?

(A) Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ + 2NaCl
(B) Zn + HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
(C) C + O₂ → CO₂
(D) MgO + H₂O → Mg(OH)₂
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Q. A student conducts an experiment by dipping a metal strip into a salt solution. After some time, they observe a change in
the color of the solution and a solid deposit forming on the metal strip.
1. What type of reaction is taking place in this experiment?
2. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
3. What do you think will happen if the student uses a less reactive metal instead of the current metal strip?

Answer. (a) Reaction Type: Displacement Reaction.

(b) Balanced Chemical Equation:
Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu
(c) If a less reactive metal than copper is used (e.g., silver or gold), no reaction
will occur because a less reactive metal cannot displace a more reactive metal
from its salt solution. The color of the solution and the metal strip will remain
unchanged.
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4. Redox Reactions: Oxidation + Reduction Oxidation: + oxygen or - hydrogen
Reduction: - oxygen or + hydrogen

Oxidizing agent: An oxidizing agent is a substance that causes oxidation by accepting electrons; therefore, it gets reduced.
Reducing agent: A reducing agent is a substance that causes reduction by losing electrons; therefore it gets oxidized.

Reaction of Copper Powder with Oxygen

🔹 Aim: To observe the oxidation of copper when heated.
🔹 Observation: Copper powder (reddish-brown) turns black on heating. Black layer of CuO (copper
oxide) forms.
🔹 Conclusion: Copper undergoes oxidation, forming CuO. This is an exothermic reaction (heat is
released).
🔹 Reaction: 2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO
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Q. (a) Identify the oxidized and reduced substances in the following reactions
(i) CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O
(ii) Fe₂O₃ + 2Al → Al₂O₃ + 2Fe

(b) Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in the following reactions:
(i) Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
(iI) H₂S + Cl₂ → 2HCl + S

(a) (i) CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O

Oxidized substance: H₂ → H₂O (Hydrogen combines with oxygen, meaning it is oxidized)
Reduced substance: CuO → Cu (Copper(II) Oxide loses oxygen, meaning it is reduced)
(ii) Fe₂O₃ + 2Al → Al₂O₃ + 2Fe
Oxidized substance: Al (Aluminum) → Al₂O₃ (Aluminum combines with oxygen, meaning it is oxidized)
Reduced substance: Fe₂O₃ (Iron(III) Oxide) → Fe (Iron(III) Oxide loses oxygen, meaning it is reduced)

(b) i) Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂

Oxidizing Agent: H₂SO₄ (Sulfuric acid) → It provides oxygen for the reaction.
Reducing Agent: Zn (Zinc) → It removes oxygen from H₂SO₄.
(ii) H₂S + Cl₂ → 2HCl + S
Oxidizing Agent: Cl₂ (Chlorine) → It helps in the removal of hydrogen from H₂S.
Reducing Agent: H₂S (Hydrogen Sulfide) → It donates hydrogen to form HCl.
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Reaction Observation

Mg + O₂ → MgO Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame and forms a white powder (magnesium oxide).

Pb(NO₃)₂ + 2KI → PbI₂ + 2KNO₃ A yellow precipitate of lead iodide forms, and the solution changes color from colorless to yellow.

Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂ Bubbles of hydrogen gas form around zinc metal, releasing heat along with the gas.

CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), releasing a large amount of heat.

2FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃ Initially, the color is green, which changes to white and then brown (ferric oxide) with a smell of burning sulfur.

Brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas are released. Yellow lead monoxide solid appears reddish-brown when hot and
2Pb(NO₃)₂ → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O₂
yellow when cold.

2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl₂ White silver chloride turns grey in sunlight.

Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu Deep blue color of the solution fades to light green, and the iron nail gets covered with a red-brown layer of copper.

Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ + 2NaCl A white precipitate forms.

2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO A black substance (CuO) forms. Passing hydrogen gas over CuO can reverse the reaction.
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Q. When lead nitrate is heated, it decomposes.

(a) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
(b) Name the type of reaction.
(c) What are the products formed?
(d) What is the color of the residue left after decomposition?
(e) How does this reaction help in identifying the presence of nitrogen compounds?

Answer. (a) Balanced Chemical Equation:

2Pb(NO₃)₂ → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O₂
(b) Type of Reaction:
Thermal decomposition reaction
(c) Products Formed:
Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) gas
Oxygen (O₂) gas
(d) Color of Residue:
The residue (PbO) is yellow when hot and turns white on cooling.
(e) Identification of Nitrogen Compounds:
The reddish-brown fumes of NO₂ confirm the presence of nitrogen compounds.
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Q. (a) State the type of chemical reactions and chemical equations that take place in the following:
(i) Magnesium wire is burnt in air.
(ii) Electric current is passed through water.
(iii) Ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases’are mixed.

(b) When aqueous solutions of Pb(NO₃)₂ and KI are mixed, does a precipitate form? Write a balanced chemical equation for the
reaction.

(a) (i) Magnesium wire is burnt in air.

Type of Reaction: Combination Reaction
Equation: 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
(ii) Electric current is passed through water.
Type of Reaction: Decomposition Reaction (Electrolysis)
Equation: 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂
(iii) Ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases are mixed.
Type of Reaction: Combination Reaction
Equation: NH₃ + HCl → NH₄Cl

(b) Reaction between Pb(NO₃)₂ and KI: A precipitate forms. Balanced Equation: Pb(NO₃)₂ (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI₂ (s) + 2KNO₃ (aq)
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ACIDS, BASES &

SALTS
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Acid (pH < 7) Base (pH > 7)

Usually sour in taste. Bitter in taste and soapy to touch.

Turns blue litmus paper red. Turns red litmus paper blue.

Gives hydrogen ions in solution Gives hydroxyl ions in solution

e.g. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH): e.g. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂)

ANT
ORT
IMP
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INDICATORS: A chemical compound that changes its colour in presence of an acid or a base.

NATURAL (found in nature) SYNTHETIC (from chemical proesses) OLFACTORY

Neutral Reaction Reaction Reaction Reaction

Indicator Indicator substances whose odour changes
solution with Acid with Base with Acid with Base
in acidic or basic medium are
called Olfactory indicators.
Pale Phenolpht
Litmus purple Red Blue halein
Colourless Pink eg- Vanilla, Onion. clove oil.
(Mauve) base (no smell), acid (smell
remains)
Methyl
Red Yellow
Hydrange Orange
Blue Blue Pink
a flowers

Turmeric Yellow Yellow Red

Litmus solution is a purple dye from

lichen, used as an indicator
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Q. The acids present in tomato and ant sting are:

(a) Oxalic acid, Formic acid
(b) Acetic acid, Lactic acid
(c) Citric acid, Hydrochloric acid
(d) Tartaric acid, Sulfuric acid

Q. An aqueous solution 'A' turns phenolphthalein solution pink. When another aqueous solution 'B' is added to the pink
solution, the pink color disappears. Now, when a few drops of solution 'A' are added to this reaction, the mixture appears
pink again. The respective changes in the nature of the solution are from
(a) acidic → basic → basic
(b) basic → acidic → acidic
(c) acidic → basic → acidic
(d) basic → acidic → basic
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Aim: To observe the reaction between zinc and acids, and test the evolved gas.
Procedure: Add dilute sulphuric acid to zinc granules in a test tube.
Pass the evolved gas through a soap solution.
Bring a burning candle near the bubbles.
Repeat with HCl, HNO₃, and CH₃COOH.
Observation: Effervescence indicates gas release. Soap bubbles form. Gas burns with a pop
sound (indicating hydrogen gas).
Conclusion: Zinc reacts with acids to produce hydrogen gas. The reaction rate depends on the
strength of the acid.
Reactions:
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Zn + 2HNO₃ → Zn(NO₃)₂ + H₂
Zn + 2CH₃COOH → (CH₃COO)₂Zn + H₂
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Acid with Reaction Example Key Observations

H₂SO₄, HCl, HNO₃, and CH₃COOH

Hydrogen gas evolved; bubbles in
Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt + Hydrogen soap solution ignite with a
Metal Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Gas popping sound when a burning
candle is brought near.

Metal Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO₂ + Carbon dioxide turns lime water
Metal Carbonate
Dioxide + Water H₂O milky, indicating its presence.

Metal Metal Hydrogencarbonate + Acid → Salt NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + CO₂ + Carbon dioxide turns lime water
Hydrogencarbonate + Carbon Dioxide + Water H₂O milky, indicating its presence.

The solution turns blue-green,

Metallic Oxide Metallic Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water CuO + 2HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂O indicating the formation of
basic in nature copper(II) chloride.
Neutralization reaction

excess CO₂

*Both acids and bases are good conductors of electricity.*

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Reaction Type Reaction Example Key Observations

Hydrogen gas evolved; indicates a

Base with Metal Metal + Base → Salt + Hydrogen Gas Zn + 2NaOH → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂
reaction with the base.

Neutralization reaction; forms salt

Base with Non-
Non-Metallic Oxide + Base → Salt + Water CO₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O and water, indicating acidic nature
Metal Oxide
acidic in nature of non-metal oxide.

Neutralization Reaction: when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt and involves the combination of H+
ions and OH- ions to generate water
Base + Acid → Salt + Water NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O
Both acids and bases are good
conductors of electricity.

Dilution occurs when an acid or base is mixed with water, reducing the
concentration of H₃O⁺ or OH⁻ ions per unit volume, making the acid or
base less concentrated. acid is slowly added to water:
adding water to a concentrated
diluted acid - small amount of acid (solute) Concentrated acid - large amount of acid acid releases a huge amount of
dissolved in a large amount of water (solvent) dissolved in a small amount of water. heat, which can cause an
explosion and acid burns
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Q. What is the Correct Way to Mix Acid and Water? Why Should Acid Be Added Slowly?

Ans. The proper method of mixing acid and water is to always add acid slowly to water while stirring continuously. This
helps in controlling the release of heat and prevents accidents.

When water is added to a concentrated acid, a large amount of heat is released rapidly due to the exothermic reaction.
This sudden heat can cause the water to boil instantly, leading to splattering, explosions, or severe burns. However,
when acid is added slowly to water, the heat is gradually dispersed, making the process safe and controlled.
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Q.When a metal X reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, it produces a gas Y that burns with a 'pop' sound. Identify X and Y,
and write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

Answer.
X: Zinc (Zn)
Y: Hydrogen gas (H₂)
Balanced Chemical Equation:
Zn (s)+2HCl (aq)→ZnCl2 (aq)+H2 (g)
Explanation:
Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. The evolution of hydrogen gas, which
burns with a characteristic 'pop' sound, is a common observation in such reactions.

Q.What happens when zinc granules are added to dilute hydrochloric acid? Write the balanced chemical equation for the
reaction.

Answer: When zinc granules react with dilute hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is released, and zinc chloride is formed.
The balanced chemical equation is: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Observation: Effervescence is observed due to the evolution of hydrogen gas.
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Q.A student added dilute hydrochloric acid to a test tube containing sodium carbonate. What observations are expected,
and how can the evolved gas be tested?
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Strength of Acids and bases: Strong acids release more
H⁺ ions, while weak acids
Strength of Acid and Base can be estimated using universal indicator. release fewer H⁺ ions. The
It shows different colours at different concentrations of H+ ions in the solution. same applies to bases.

P(potenz)H: pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.

{power of hydrogen}

pH<7 { Acidic }
ph = 7 { neutral }
pH>7 { Basic }

Importance of pH in daily life:

Digestion: The stomach uses hydrochloric acid with a pH of 1 to 3 to break down food.
Soil: Plants thrive in soil with a pH of 6.3 to 7.3. If soil is too acidic, adding lime helps; if too basic, gypsum is
added.
Tooth Decay: Bacteria in the mouth make it acidic, leading to tooth decay. Toothpaste, being basic, balances
the mouth's pH.
Blood: Blood functions best with a pH between 7.0 to 7.8.
Plants and Animals: They prefer specific pH levels, with most plants growing best in soil around pH 7.
Bee Stings: Baking soda neutralizes the acidity caused by bee stings.
Acid Rain: Pollution can cause rain to become acidic, harming fish and other animals.
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Q.What are strong and weak acids? In the following list of acids, separate strong acids from weak acids. Hydrochloric acid,
citric acid, acetic acid, nitric acid, formic acid, sulphuric acid.

Answer:
Acids that get completely ionised in an aqueous solution are called strong acids, whereas acids that do not get utterly
ionised in an aqueous solution are called weak acids.
Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulphuric acid are examples of strong acids, while citric acid, acetic acid, and formic acid
are examples of weak acids.

Q. A farmer finds that the pH of his soil is very low, which is affecting the growth of his crops.
(a) Name any two substances he can use to neutralize the acidic soil.
(b) Write the chemical equation for the reaction of one of these substances with an acid in the soil.
(c) Why is it important to maintain the pH of the soil between 6 and 8?

Ans. (a) The farmer can use quicklime (CaO) or slaked lime (Ca(OH)₂) to neutralize the acidic soil.
(b) Reaction:
Ca(OH)₂ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + 2H₂O
(c) Maintaining the pH between 6 and 8 is important because most crops grow well within this pH range, as it ensures the
availability of essential nutrients in the soil.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. You are given two solutions, A and B. The pH of solution A is 6, and the pH of solution B is 8.
(i) Which solution is acidic and which is basic?
(ii) Which solution has a higher concentration of H⁺ ions?
(iii) Why is hydrochloric acid (HCl) considered a stronger acid than acetic acid (CH₃COOH)?

Answer:
(i) Solution A is acidic (pH 6), and Solution B is basic (pH 8). (ii) Solution A has a higher concentration of H⁺ ions. (iii) HCl is a
strong acid because it completely dissociates into H⁺ and Cl⁻ ions in solution, whereas acetic acid is a weak acid and only
partially dissociates.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Salts Salts are ionic compounds composed of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged
ions (anions), These ions are held together by ionic bond.
pH: strong acid + strong base are neutral (pH 7).
strong acid + weak base are acidic (pH < 7),
strong base + weak acid are basic (pH > 7).

1. Common Salt (NaCl):

Neutralization Reaction:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Common salt: Made of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
Sources: Sea water, salt mines.
Uses: Cooking, food preservation (pickling), de-icing roads, raw material for NaOH, baking soda, washing soda.

2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) – Caustic Soda:

Production: Chlor-alkali process (Electrolysis of NaCl solution).

By-products: Chlorine (Cl₂) and Hydrogen (H₂).

Sodium hydroxide: Soap, paper, textiles.
Chlorine: Bleaching powder, disinfectants.
Hydrogen: Hydrogenation of oils.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
3. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl₂):
Production: Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O (Reaction of chlorine with slaked lime).
Uses:
Disinfectant: Purifies water, sewage treatment.
Bleaching Agent: Textile, paper industry.
Water Purification: Kills germs.

4. Baking Soda (NaHCO₃) – Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

Uses: Baking Powder: Mixture of baking soda + tartaric acid.
Baking: Leavening agent, releases CO₂.
Antacid: Neutralizes stomach acid.
Cleaning Agent: Mild abrasive, deodorizer.
Fire Extinguisher: Releases CO₂ in fire.

5. Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) – Sodium Carbonate

Production: Heating baking soda → Recrystallization of sodium carbonate.
Uses: Uses: Cleaning, water softening, glass & detergent manufacturing.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Aim: To study the effect of heat on hydrated copper sulphate (CuSO₄·5H₂O) and observe the role of water
of crystallisation.
Procedure:
Heat CuSO₄·5H₂O crystals in a dry boiling tube.
Observe colour change and water droplets.
Add 2-3 drops of water to the heated sample and note any changes.
Observation:
Before heating: Blue crystals.
After heating: Turns white, water droplets form.
On adding water: Blue colour restored.
Conclusion: Water of crystallisation gives CuSO₄·5H₂O its blue colour. Heating removes it (white), while
rehydration restores the colour.
Reactions: CuSO₄·5H₂O → CuSO₄ (white) + 5H₂O (On heating)
CuSO₄ (white) + 5H₂O → CuSO₄·5H₂O (blue) (On adding water)

6. Water of Crystallization
Definition: Fixed number of water molecules in salt.
Examples: CuSO₄·5H₂O (Blue vitriol) – Turns white on heating, regains color with water.
Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) – Used in making plaster of Paris.

7. Plaster of Paris (POP) – CaSO₄·½H₂O

Production: Heating gypsum at 373K removes water.
Property: Adding water restores hardness.
Uses: Construction (ceilings, walls, molds).
Medical casts for broken bones.
Art, craft, and dental molds.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Describe the chlor-alkali process and list its products along with their uses.

Answer: The Chlor-Alkali process involves the electrolysis of brine (NaCl solution), producing sodium hydroxide (NaOH), chlorine
(Cl₂), and hydrogen (H₂).
Reaction:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl₂(g) + H₂(g)
Products and Their Uses:
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Used in the manufacture of soaps and detergents.
Chlorine (Cl₂): Used as a disinfectant for drinking water and swimming pools.
Hydrogen (H₂): Used in ammonia production for fertilizers.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) How is baking soda (NaHCO₃) prepared? Write the chemical equation.
(b) How is washing soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) obtained from baking soda? Write the reaction.
(c) Mention one use of each.

Answer. (a) Preparation of Baking Soda (NaHCO₃):

Baking soda is prepared by reacting sodium chloride (NaCl) with ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water (H₂O) in the
Solvay process.
Chemical Equation:
NaCl + NH₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl
(b) Conversion of Baking Soda to Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O):
When baking soda is heated, it decomposes to form sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), which then crystallizes with water to form
washing soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O).
Step 1: Heating of Baking Soda
2NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
Step 2: Formation of Washing Soda
Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Na₂CO₃·10H₂O
(c) Uses:
Baking Soda: Used in baking as a leavening agent.
Washing Soda: Used in detergents and water softening.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How is plaster of Paris prepared? What reaction takes place when it sets to a hard mass?

Answer: (a) Plaster of Paris (POP): Plaster of Paris is a quick-setting material obtained by heating gypsum. Its chemical formula
is CaSO₄·½H₂O (Calcium sulfate hemihydrate).
(b) Preparation of Plaster of Paris: Plaster of Paris is prepared by heating gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) at 373 K. Reaction: CaSO₄·2H₂O
→ CaSO₄·½H₂O + 1½H₂O
(c) Uses of Plaster of Paris:
Medical Field: It is used for making molds for setting fractured bones.
Construction: It is used for making decorative designs on ceilings and walls.
(d) Reaction with Water: When water is added to plaster of Paris, it gets converted back into gypsum, forming a hard solid
mass. Reaction: CaSO₄·½H₂O + 1½H₂O → CaSO₄·2H₂O
(e) Reason for Storing in Airtight Containers: Plaster of Paris is stored in airtight containers to prevent it from absorbing
moisture from the air, as it can react with water and harden, making it unusable.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A white powder is added while baking cakes to make them soft and spongy. Name its main ingredients. Explain the function
of each ingredient. Also, write its chemical formula, preparation method, and the chemical reaction taking place when the
powder is heated.

Answer: The white powder added while baking cakes is baking powder. Its main ingredients are:
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (Baking soda) - NaHCO₃
A mild edible acid (such as tartaric acid or citric acid)
Function of Each Ingredient:
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO₃): It decomposes upon heating to release carbon dioxide (CO₂), which causes the cake
to rise, making it soft and spongy.
Tartaric acid or citric acid: It neutralizes the sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) formed during heating, preventing a bitter taste in
the cake.
Preparation of Baking Soda (NaHCO₃):
It is prepared by reacting sodium chloride (NaCl) with water (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and ammonia (NH₃):
NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ + NH₃ → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl
Reaction When Baking Powder is Heated:
2NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
The released CO₂ gas makes the cake rise, resulting in a fluffy texture.
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

METALS AND
NON METALS
 PRASHANT KIRAD
e.g. Boron (B), Silicon (Si), e.g. Helium (He), Neon (Ne),
Elements Metalloids
Germanium (Ge), Antimony (Sb)
Noble Gas
Argon (Ar)

Property Metals Non-Metals

Solid at room temperature (except Mercury - Can exist in all three states: solids (e.g., Sulfur, Phosphorus),
State
liquid) liquid (Bromine - only liquid), gases (e.g., Oxygen, Nitrogen)

Lustre Shiny (metallic lustre) Dull (except Iodine - lustrous)

Generally soft (Diamond - exception, hardest natural

Hardness Generally hard (except Sodium, Potassium - soft)
substance)

Malleability Can be beaten into sheets Brittle, cannot be beaten into sheets

Ductility Can be drawn into wires Non-ductile, cannot be drawn into wires

Conductivity (Heat & Good conductors (except Lead, Mercury - poor Poor conductors (except Graphite - conducts electricity but
Electricity) conductors of heat) not heat efficiently)

Generally high (except Gallium, Caesium - low Generally low (Diamond - exception, extremely high melting
Melting & Boiling Point
melting points) point)

Sonority Produces sound when struck Does not produce sound

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.Which of the following metals is the most reactive?

(a) Gold
(b) Copper
(c) Sodium
(d) Silver

Q.Which of the following metals is malleable but a poor conductor of electricity?

(a) Copper
(b) Aluminium
(c) Lead
(d) Silver

Q. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) All metals are ductile.
(b) All non-metals are not ductile.
(c) Generally, metals are ductile.
(d) Some non-metals are ductile.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Reactions of Metals and Non Metals

Reaction with Metals Non Metals

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide (Basic)

Example: 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
Amphoteric Metals: Beryllium (Be), Zinc (Zn), Tin (Sn), Lead (Pb),
Non-Metal + Oxygen → Non-
Aluminium (Al), (Antimony (Sb)
Metal Oxide (Acidic/Neutral)
Oxygen Aluminium with Oxygen: 4Al(s) + 3O₂(g) → 2Al₂O₃(s)
Example: C + O₂ → CO₂
Zinc with Oxygen: 2Zn(s) + O₂(g) → 2ZnO(s)
S + O₂ → SO₂
Aluminium Oxide Reactions:
1. Al₂O₃(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl₃(aq) + 3H₂O(l)
2. Al₂O₃(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

Potassium, Sodium: React vigorously and catch fire when exposed to air. Stored in kerosene for safety.
Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum, Lead: Develop a protective oxide layer, preventing further oxidation.
Iron: Burns vigorously, forming iron(III) oxide.
4Fe + 3O₂ → 2Fe₂O₃
Silver, Gold: Do not react with oxygen, even at high temperatures.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Reaction with Metals Non Metals

Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + H₂

Na₂O, K₂O, CaO, and MgO dissolve in water to form metal hydroxides
Non metals don’t react with water
Example: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
Non-Metal Oxide + Water → Acid
K, Na react violently with water; Ca reacts mildly;
SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃
Water Ca+2H2​O→Ca(OH)2​+H2​
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
Mg reacts with hot water. Al, Fe, Zn react with steam;
CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃
2Al+3H2​O (steam)→Al2​O3​+3H2​
NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ + HNO₂
3Fe+4H2​O (steam)→Fe3​O4​+4H2
Pb, Cu, Ag, Au do not react with water.

Metal + dil. Acid → Salt + H₂

Example: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Hydrogen gas isn't produced when metals react with HNO₃ because it oxidizes H₂ to water
and reduces to nitrogen oxides. Only Mg and Mn with very dilute HNO₃ release H₂ gas.
Metal (Mg and Mn) + Dilute nitric acid → Salt + Hydrogen gas
Acids 2Mg + 4HNO₃ → 2Mg(NO₃)₂ + H₂ No Reaction
Mn + 2HNO₃ → Mn(NO₃)₂ + H₂
Other Metals + Dilute nitric acid → Salt + Water + NO₂/N₂O/NO
Aqua regia is a mix of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids in a 3:1 ratio. It’s highly
corrosive and can dissolve gold and platinum.

More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their salt solutions (displacement
reaction).
Metal Salts No Reaction
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
Example: Pb + CuCl₂ → PbCl₂ + Cu
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples and write their reactions with acids and bases.

Answer. Amphoteric oxides are oxides that can react with both acids and bases to form salts and water. Examples: Al₂O₃
(Aluminium oxide) and ZnO (Zinc oxide).
Reactions of Aluminium Oxide (Al₂O₃):
With Acid (HCl): Al₂O₃ + 6HCl → 2AlCl₃ + 3H₂O

With Base (NaOH): Al₂O₃ + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO₂ + H₂O

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Compare in tabular form the reactivities of the following metals with cold and hot water: (a) Sodium (b)
Calcium (c) Magnesium (3 MARKS)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Explain why calcium metal after reacting with water starts floating on its surface. Write the chemical
equation for the reaction.

(b) What happens when copper powder is heated in the presence of oxygen? Write the balanced chemical
equation for the reaction.

(c) Explain why sodium is kept immersed in kerosene oil.

Answer: (a) Calcium reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The bubbles of
hydrogen gas stick to the surface of the calcium metal, causing it to float.
Ca(s) + 2H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq) + H₂(g)

(b) When copper powder is heated in the presence of oxygen, it gets oxidized to form copper(II) oxide,
which is black in color.
2Cu(s) + O₂(g) → 2CuO(s)

Sodium is highly reactive and reacts vigorously with oxygen and moisture in the air. To prevent accidental
fires and explosions, it is stored under kerosene oil, which acts as a barrier, preventing it from coming into
contact with air and moisture.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A metal 'X' reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce a gas 'Y'. The gas 'Y' when passed through a
soap solution forms bubbles that explode with a pop sound. Identify 'X' and 'Y'. Write the chemical equation
for the reaction.

Answer: Metal 'X' is zinc (Zn), and gas 'Y' is hydrogen (H₂).
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)

Q. A metal X reacts violently with cold water, producing a gas that catches fire. Another metal Y floats
when placed in water. A third metal Z does not react with cold or hot water but reacts with steam. The
fourth metal W does not react with water at all. Identify X, Y, Z, and W.

Answer:
X (Metal A) → Sodium (Na): Reacts violently with cold water, producing hydrogen gas that catches
fire.
Y (Metal B) → Calcium (Ca): Reacts with water and forms hydrogen gas, causing it to float.
Z (Metal C) → Iron (Fe): Does not react with cold or hot water but reacts with steam.
W (Metal D) → Gold (Au) or Copper (Cu): Does not react with water at all.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Reactions of Metals + Non Metals

When metals react with non-metals, electrons transfer from metals to non-metals, forming ions. The
compound formed is ionic.
Metal + Non-metal → Ionic compound

Sodium loses 1 electron, forming Na+ cation.

Chlorine gains that electron, forming Cl-

anion.

Opposite charges attract. Strong

electrostatic forces hold them together.

Ionic bond forms due to electrostatic LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

attraction between the ions.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Property Description

Properties Physical nature Solid, hard, brittle due to strong ionic bonds.

of Ionic Melting & Boiling points High, due to strong inter-ionic attractions requiring more energy to break.

Compounds Solubility Soluble in water, insoluble in organic solvents like kerosene and petrol.

Electrical conductivity Conducts in molten and aqueous states, not in solid due to immobile ions.

Metallurgy: Science & tech of metals' properties, production, purification

Minerals: Naturally occurring elements/compounds in Earth's crust

Ores: Minerals from which metals can be extracted economically and conveniently

Gangue Particles: Impurities in ores (sand, oil, etc.)

Enrichment of Ore/Concentration: Process of removing gangue particles from ores

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain why ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity in the molten
state.

Answer: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged ions, which require a significant amount of energy to overcome.
In the molten state, these ions are free to move, allowing ionic compounds to conduct electricity.

Q. Discuss the four properties of ionic compounds with examples.

Answer:
1. High Melting & Boiling Points – Due to strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions (e.g.,
NaCl).
2. Soluble in Water – Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents like water but are insoluble in organic
solvents like benzene.
3. Conduct Electricity in Molten & Aqueous State – Free ions in liquid or dissolved form allow electricity to
pass through.
4. Form Crystalline Solids – Due to strong lattice structures (e.g., NaCl has a cubic crystal structure).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How are NaCl and MgCl₂ formed? Explain their formation with ionic equations.

Answer. Both NaCl and MgCl₂ form through ionic bonding, where metals donate electrons to chlorine,
forming oppositely charged ions that attract each other.
Formation of NaCl:
Na (2,8,1) loses 1 electron, forming Na⁺.
Cl (2,8,7) gains 1 electron, forming Cl⁻.
Equation:
Na → Na⁺ + e⁻
Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻
Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl
Formation of MgCl₂:
Mg (2,8,2) loses 2 electrons, forming Mg²⁺.
2 Cl atoms gain 1 electron each, forming 2 Cl⁻ ions.
Equation:
Mg → Mg²⁺ + 2e⁻
2Cl + 2e⁻ → 2Cl⁻
Mg²⁺ + 2Cl⁻ → MgCl₂
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Minerals Ores
ORES
Elements or compounds occurring Minerals with a high percentage of metal,
naturally in Earth's crust. profitable for extraction. Zinc (Zn) - Zinc Blende (Sphalerite) : ZnS
- Calamine : ZnCO₃
May or may not contain metals. Definitely contain metals. Mercury (Hg) - Cinnabar : HgS
Copper (Cu) - Copper Glance : Cu₂S
All minerals are not ores. All ores are minerals. Aluminium (Al)- Bauxite : Al₂O₃·xH₂O

Example: Salt, Clay, Marble Example: Bauxite, Hematite, Rock Salt

K (Potassium)
Na (Sodium)
Highly reactive metals (K, Na, Ca, Mg,
Ca (Calcium) Electrolysis
Mg (Magnesium) Al) are extracted using electrolysis.
Al (Aluminum)

Zn (Zinc) Moderately reactive metals (Zn, Fe,

Fe (Iron) Reduction using carbon Pb) are usually extracted through
Pb (Lead)
carbon reduction.
Cu (Copper)
Metals like gold and silver are
Ag (Silver) Found in native state
Au (Gold) found in a free state due to low
reactivity.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Reactivity Metals Process Key Reactions Electrolytic Reduction

1. HgS + O₂ → HgO + SO₂

Mercury (Hg), Copper 2. HgO → Hg + O₂
Low Reactivity Reduction by heating
(Cu) 3. Cu₂S + O₂ → CuO + SO₂
Cu₂O + Cu₂S → Cu + SO₂

Roasting (for 1. ZnS + O₂ → ZnO + SO₂

Medium Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Lead
sulphides), Calcination 2. ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂
Reactivity (Pb)
(for carbonates) 3. ZnO + C → Zn + CO

MnO₂ + Al → Mn + Al₂O₃
Reduction using carbon
or displacement
Fe₂O₃ + Al → Fe + Al₂O₃ Cathode : Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na
(Thermit reaction- highly exothermic)
Anode : 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻
Sodium (Na), Magnesium 1. Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na
High Reactivity (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Electrolytic reduction 2. 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻
Aluminium (Al) 3. Al₂O₃ (electrolysis) → Al

impure metal is the anode

Electrolytic refining is widely used for

purification.
Metals like copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, Electrolyte
gold are refined using this method.
pure metal is the cathode Insoluble impurities form
anode mud, while soluble
ones stay in the solution.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain the thermite reaction with the help of a balanced chemical equation. Identify metal X in the
highly exothermic reaction between metal X and Fe₂O₃. Also, mention one use of this reaction.

Answer: The thermite reaction is a highly exothermic reaction between aluminium (Al) and iron(III) oxide
(Fe₂O₃), producing molten iron and aluminium oxide. This reaction releases a large amount of heat, making
it useful for welding.
Balanced Chemical Equation: 2Al + Fe₂O₃ → 2Fe + Al₂O₃ + Heat
Identification of Metal X: aluminium (Al).
Use: The thermite reaction is used for joining railway tracks and repairing metal structures.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Two ores, X and Y, were taken and heated. It was observed that:
(a) Ore X gives CO₂ gas.
(b) Ore Y gives SO₂ gas.
Write the steps to convert these ores into metals, along with the chemical equations for the reactions
involved.
Answer: Identification of Ores:
Ore X is a carbonate ore (e.g., ZnCO₃ – Zinc carbonate).
Ore Y is a sulphide ore (e.g., ZnS – Zinc sulphide).
Steps to Convert Ores into Metals:
Step 1: Conversion to Metal Oxide
1. For Carbonate Ore (X) – Calcination Process:
Carbonate ores are heated in the absence of air to remove CO₂.
Reaction:
ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂↑
2. For Sulphide Ore (Y) – Roasting Process:
Sulphide ores are heated in the presence of excess air to convert them into oxides, releasing SO₂ gas.
Reaction:
2ZnS + 3O₂ → 2ZnO + 2SO₂↑
Step 2: Reduction of Metal Oxide to Metal
Zinc oxide obtained from both processes is reduced using carbon (C) to extract pure metal.
Reaction:
ZnO + C → Zn + CO↑
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Describe the method of electrolytic refining of copper with the help of a labeled diagram.
Answer: In electrolytic refining of copper:
Anode: Impure copper
Cathode: Pure copper
Electrolyte: Acidified copper sulfate solution
On passing electric current, pure copper from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte, and an equivalent
amount of pure copper from the electrolyte is deposited on the cathode. Impurities settle as anode mud.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How is mercury extracted from its ore cinnabar (HgS)? Write the chemical reactions involved.

Answer: Mercury is extracted from its ore cinnabar (HgS) by roasting in the presence of oxygen.
Step 1: Roasting of cinnabar
Cinnabar is heated in the presence of oxygen, where it first converts to mercuric oxide (HgO) and sulfur
dioxide (SO₂) gas is released.
2HgS + 3O₂ → 2HgO + 2SO₂

Step 2: Reduction of mercuric oxide

The mercuric oxide (HgO) formed then decomposes on further heating to produce mercury (Hg) in liquid
form and oxygen gas (O₂).
2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How is zinc extracted from zinc carbonate? Write the balanced chemical equations.

Answer. Zinc is extracted from zinc carbonate (ZnCO₃) through two major steps:
Step 1: Calcination (Heating in Absence of Air)
ZnCO₃ → Δ ZnO + CO₂
Step 2: Reduction with Carbon (Coke)
ZnO + C → Δ Zn + CO
Here, zinc oxide (ZnO) is reduced to zinc (Zn) using carbon as a reducing agent.
Q. Differentiate between roasting and calcination processes. PRASHANT KIRAD
Roasting Calcination

Heating of a metal ore in the presence of excess air or oxygen. Heating of a metal ore in the presence of limited air or oxygen.

Requires an excess amount of air or oxygen. Done with limited air or oxygen.

Mainly done for sulphide ores. Done for carbonate ores.

Releases toxic gases and substances (e.g., SO₂). Releases volatile compounds, often less toxic than in roasting.

Corrosion is the process in which metals react

What is corrosion? How can it be prevented? Corrosion with moisture, air, or other environmental
factors, leading to their gradual destruction.

Metal Reaction/Result Prevention Methods Chemical Reaction

Turns black when exposed to air due to the Painting, oiling, greasing, galvanizing, chrome
Silver 4Ag + 2H₂S + O₂ → 2Ag₂S + 2H₂O
formation of silver sulphide. plating, anodizing, alloying

Gains a green coat (copper carbonate) Galvanization (coating with zinc), Alloying (e.g., Cu + H₂O + O₂ + CO₂ →
Copper
when reacting with moist carbon dioxide. stainless steel) CuCO₃·Cu(OH)₂ (green)

Forms a brown flaky substance (rust) when Galvanization, alloying, painting, oiling,
Iron Fe + O₂ + H₂O → Fe₂O₃·xH₂O (rust)
exposed to moist air. greasing
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Alloying
An alloy is a mixture of metals or a metal with a non-metal, altering properties like conductivity and melting point.
Examples :
Brass (Copper + Zinc) and Bronze (Copper + Tin) are poor conductors, unlike Copper, which powers electrical circuits.
Solder (Lead + Tin) melts easily, making it perfect for welding electrical wires.
Pure gold is soft, so it is alloyed with silver or copper to make jewelry, typically in 22 carat form in India.
The Iron Pillar near Qutub Minar in Delhi, over 1600 years old, resists rust due to ancient Indian metallurgy techniques

Q. What is an alloy? Why are alloys prepared? Give two examples.

Answer: An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal. Alloys are
prepared to enhance properties such as strength, hardness, and resistance to corrosion.
Examples:
Brass: Alloy of copper and zinc
Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Which of the following alloys contains a non-metal as one of its constituents?
(a) Brass
(b) Bronze
(c) Steel
(d) Solder
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Give reasons:
(a) Platinum, gold, and silver are used to make jewelry.
(b) Sodium, potassium, and lithium are stored under oil.
(c) Aluminum is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to make utensils for cooking.
(d) Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the process of extraction.

Ans. (a) Platinum, gold, and silver are used to make jewelry due to their low reactivity. These metals are placed at the
bottom of the activity series and are known as noble metals. They do not corrode when exposed to air, water, or
chemicals. As a result, they retain their shine and bright luster, making them ideal for jewelry. Additionally, these
metals are highly malleable and ductile, allowing them to be shaped and designed as required.
(b) Sodium, potassium, and lithium are highly reactive metals. They react vigorously with both air and water, often
leading to combustion. To prevent this, they are kept immersed in oil to avoid contact with air and moisture.
(c) Aluminium, despite being a highly reactive metal, is commonly used for making cooking utensils due to a unique
advantage. When aluminium corrodes, it forms a protective layer of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) on its surface. This oxide
layer prevents further corrosion from water, air, acids, alkalis, or even heat. Additionally, aluminium is a good
conductor of heat, aiding in efficient cooking. It is also easily available, malleable, and ductile, making it suitable for
cookware.
(d) Carbonate and sulphide ores are usually converted into oxides during the extraction process because it is easier to
extract metals from their oxide form rather than directly from carbonates or sulphides. This process is also
economically feasible and profitable in metal extraction.
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

CARBON AND
IT’S COMPOUNDS
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Electric configuration: 2, 4

Atomic mass of C : 12u. Valency of C : 4 Atomic number : 6 (6 protons and 6 electrons)

no. of protons = no. of neutrons = 6 .
Carbon is a non-metallic element with the symbol (C).
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
UNIQUENESS IN CARBON:
Carbon can form huge number of compounds.
Number of carbon compounds are greater than all non-carbon compounds.
Carbon based organic chemistry is studied as a separate branch of chemistry.

VERSATILITY OF CARBON:
Catenation: The property of carbon to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, creating long chains,
branched structures, or rings.
Polymerisation: The process where small molecules (monomers) combine to form large molecules (polymers).
Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures are called isomers, and this
property is known as isomerism.
Tetravalency of Carbon: Carbon has four valence electrons and forms four covalent bonds instead of gaining or
losing electrons because: Covalent bond is a chemical bond
Gaining 4 electrons (C⁴⁻) makes it unstable due to excess electrons. formed by the sharing of electrons
between two atoms to achieve stability.
Losing 4 electrons (C⁴⁺) requires high energy and leaves it highly unstable.
Thus, carbon forms covalent bonds, allowing it to create a vast variety of organic compounds.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What are the properties of carbon which lead to huge number of carbon compounds we see around us?

Answer. The two properties of carbon that lead to the vast number of carbon compounds are:

Catenation: The ability of carbon to form long chains by bonding with other carbon atoms.

Tetravalence: Carbon's valency of four allows it to form stable covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen, etc., by sharing electrons.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Three types of covalent bonding

Single Covalent Bond Double Covalent Bond Triple Covalent Bond

Properties of Covalent Compounds:

- Low melting/boiling points due to weaker intermolecular forces compared to ionic compounds.
- Physical state can be solid, liquid, or gas.
- Poor conductors of electricity as they lack charged particles.
- Generally soluble in organic solvents, insoluble in water (exception: sugar in water).
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Allotropes: the various physical forms in which an element can exist.
Property Diamond Graphite Fullerene

3D network, each carbon bonds with four Layers of hexagonal carbon atoms; weak Hollow, cage-like with 60 carbons; soccer ball
Structure
others; very hard. interlayer forces. shape.

Four strong covalent bonds per carbon; highly Three covalent bonds per carbon, with Strong covalent bonds in hexagons and
Bonding
stable. delocalized electrons. pentagons.

Hard, transparent, high refractive index; Unique electronic properties; used in nanotech,
Properties Soft, used in pencils and lubricants.
jewelry, abrasives. drugs.

HYDROCARBON Compounds made up of H & C

Aliphatic Aromatic hydrocarbons

Saturated Unsaturated Double or Triple bond

Single bond
ALKANES
ALKENE ALKYNES
(C–C) Single Bonds

General formula (C≡C Triple Bond)

(C=C Double Bond)
General formula General formula
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Graphite and diamond are both allotropes of carbon. However, graphite conducts electricity, whereas diamond does not.

Explain why.

Answer:

Answer. Graphite: Conducts electricity because each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to only three other carbon atoms,

leaving one free electron per carbon atom. These free electrons are delocalized and can move freely throughout the

structure, allowing electrical conductivity.

Diamond: Does not conduct electricity because each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a strong

tetrahedral structure, leaving no free electrons to conduct electricity.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain the structure of diamond and graphite. Why do they have different properties?

Diamond:

Each carbon (C) atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral structure.

Forms a rigid 3D network, making it hard and non-conductive.

Graphite:

Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in hexagonal layers.

Layers slide over each other, making it soft and a good conductor of electricity due to free electrons.

Reason for Different Properties:

Diamond: Hard, non-conductive due to strong covalent bonds.

Graphite: Soft, conductive due to delocalized electrons.

 PRASHANT KIRAD
Intro to saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

SATURATED UNSATURATED

ALKANES
ALKENE ALKYNES

Cyclohexane
Benzene

THREE TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS

Straight chain Branched chain Cyclic Hydrocarbon

Each carbon atom is bonded to Each carbon atom is bonded to one, Carbon atoms form a closed ring structure.
either one or two other carbon atoms. two, or more than two other carbon e.g. Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂), Benzene (C₆H₆).
atoms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The image represents the structure of a few hydrocarbon compounds. Which of these compounds can be classified as

alkynes?

(a) Only (A)

(b) Only (B)

(c) Both (A) and (D)

(d) Both (B) and (C) 2023

 PRASHANT KIRAD
Three types of Hydrocarbons

Straight chain Branched chain Cyclic Hydrocarbon

Each carbon atom is bonded to Each carbon atom is bonded to one,
either one or two other carbon atoms. two, or more than two other carbon atoms. Saturated cyclic unsaturated
hydrocarbon cyclic chain
hydrocarbon
Cycloalkanes (CnH2n)

Cycloalkenes (CnH2n-2) Cycloalkynes (CnH2n-4)

Common They are named after their sources of isolation. Formic acid derives from
Nomenclature "Formectus," meaning red ant, and acetic acid from "Acetum," meaning vinegar.

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), founded in 1919, establishes standardized
naming rules in chemistry
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Identify the Longest Chain: Find the longest continuous

carbon chain and use it as the base name.
Example: 5 carbons = Pentane.

Functional Groups: Prioritize functional groups based on

precedence and modify the suffix or prefix accordingly
(e.g., -ol for alcohol, -one for ketone).

If a functional group suffix starts with a vowel, the final 'e' of the
carbon chain is dropped.
For example, propane + ketone becomes propanone

If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‘ane’ in the

name of the carbon chain is substituted by ene or yne.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Write the IUPAC names of:

(i) CH₃CH₂OH

(ii) CH₃COCH₃

(iii) CH₃CH=CH₂

(iv) HCOOH

(v) CH₃CH₂COOH

(vi) CH₃-CHO

(vii) CH₃COOH

(viii) CH₃-CH₂-CHO

(ix) CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-Br

(x) CH₃-C≡CH

(xi) CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-OH

(xii) CH₂=CH-CH₂Cl
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Identify the functional groups present in the following compounds:

(i) CH₃OH

(ii) CH₃COOH

(iii) CH₃-CHO

(iv) CH₃-CO-CH₃

(i) CH₃OH → Hydroxyl (-OH) (Alcohol group)

(ii) CH₃COOH → Carboxyl (-COOH) (Carboxylic acid group)

(iii) CH₃-CHO → Aldehyde (-CHO) (Aldehyde group)

(iv) CH₃-CO-CH₃ → Carbonyl (-CO-) (Ketone group)

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw the structural formula of the following compounds:

(a) Methane (CH₄)

(b) Ethene (C₂H₄)

(c) Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

(d) Propanone (C₃H₆O)

(e) Butanoic acid (C₄H₈O₂)

 PRASHANT KIRAD
In hydrocarbons, hydrogen atoms can be replaced by heteroatoms (e.g., Cl, S, N, O),
Functional groups: forming functional groups that determine the compound’s reactivity and properties.

Rules for Naming Compounds with Functional Groups:

If a secondary suffix starts with "a," "i," "o," "u," or "y," omit the 6. Alkyl Suffixe - yl
Group
"e" in the primary suffix.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
a collection of compounds with the same general formula that differ only in the
Homologous series: carbon chain length.

- Homologues share the same general formula.

- Differ by a –CH₂ group; molecular mass difference is 14 µ.
- Similar chemical properties.
- Gradual change in physical properties.
- Functional group influences properties.

Compounds with identical molecular formula but different

Isomerism structures.
Q. Draw two structural isomers of

C₄H₁₀ C₅H₁₂
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Consider the following statements about the homologous series of carbon compounds:

(a) All succeeding members differ by a -CH₂ unit.

(b) The melting point and boiling point increase with decreasing molecular mass.

(c) The difference in molecular masses between two successive members is 14 u.

(d) C₂H₂ and C₃H₃ are NOT successive members of the alkyne series. The correct statements are –

(A) (a) and (b)

(B) (b) and (c)

(C) (a) and (c)

(D) (a) and (d)

Q. Which of the following belongs to a homologous series of alkynes?

(a) C₆H₆

(b) C₂H₆

(c) C₂H₄

(d) C₃H₄
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Consider the following organic compounds:

(a) Name the functional group present in these compounds.

(b) Write the general formula for the compounds of this functional group.

(c) State the relationship between these compounds and draw the structure of any other compound having a similar

functional group.

Ans: (a) The functional group present in these compounds is Aldehyde (-CHO) group.

(b) The general formula for aldehydes is CₙH₂ₙO.

(c) Compound (i) is propanal, and compound (ii) is ethanal. They

belong to the same homologous series, where each successive compound

differs from the previous one by a -CH₂- unit.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Formation of Hydrogen molecule Formation of Oxygen molecule Formation of Oxygen molecule

Formation of Nitrogen molecule Formation of Methane Formation of Ethane

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Write the molecular formula of the following compounds and draw their electron-dot structures:

(i) Ethane (ii) Ethene (iii) Ethyne.

(i) Ethane (C₂H₆) (ii) Ethene (C₂H₄) (iii) Ethyne (C₂H₂.)

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical properties of Carbon Compounds

1. Combustion: Carbon burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and light.
C + O₂ → CO₂ + Heat and Light
CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + Heat and Light
CH₃CH₂OH + 3O₂ → 2CO₂ + 3H₂O + Heat and Light

(i) Complete Combustion

Occurs in an unlimited supply of air, oxygen in particular. Here the hydrocarbon will burn out completely with
the oxygen and leave only two byproducts, water, and carbon dioxide. E.g., burning of a candle.

(ii) Incomplete Combustion

Takes place when the air is inlimited supply. Due to lack of oxygen, the fuel will not react completely. This, in
turn, produces carbon monoxide and soot instead of carbon dioxide. E.g., burning of paper.

Combustion and Flame:

Flame Formation: A flame is produced only when gaseous substances burn.
Coal and Charcoal: Burn without a flame, emitting red glow and heat, as they lack volatile substances.
Yellow Candle Flame: Caused by incomplete combustion, leading to carbon (soot) particles glowing.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
2. Oxidation: Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion.

KMnO₄ (alkaline) or K₂Cr₂O₇ (acidified)

oxidize alcohols to acids.

3. Addition Reaction: The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to get a saturated

hydrocarbon in presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst is called hydrogenation.

Vegetable oil Vegetable Ghee

4. Substitution Reaction: In the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast
reaction. Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
ETHANOL
Physical Properties of Ethanol:
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
It is soluble in water in all proportions.
Commonly known as alcohol, it is the active ingredient in alcoholic drinks.
It is a good solvent, used in medicines like tincture iodine, cough syrups, and tonics.
Reactions of Ethanol:
Reaction with Sodium:
Ethanol reacts with sodium, producing hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide.
Equation: 2Na + 2C₂H₅OH → 2C₂H₅O⁻Na⁺ + H₂
Dehydration of Ethanol to Ethene:
Ethanol is heated with excess concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K, leading to the removal of water (dehydration)
and formation of ethene.
Equation: C₂H₅OH → CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O (In presence of hot conc. H₂SO₄)
Sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent.

Denatured alcohol is ethanol mixed with chemicals to make it unfit for drinking. It is used in industries for cleaning,
fuel, and as a solvent. The added substances, like methanol, make it poisonous and undrinkable to avoid misuse.
Denatured alcohol is cheaper than pure ethanol due to tax exemptions.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
ETHANOIC ACID:
Commonly known as acetic acid, belongs to the carboxylic acid group.
5-8% solution in water is called vinegar, used as a preservative in pickles.
Melting point: 290 K; freezes in winter, hence called glacial acetic acid.
Weak acid compared to mineral acids like HCl (does not fully ionize in water).
Reactions of Ethanoic Acid:
1. Esterification Reaction: Reacts with ethanol in the presence of concentrated H₂SO₄ to
form ester (sweet-smelling, used in perfumes & flavoring agents).

2. Saponification reaction: Process of converting esters into salts of carboxylic acids

and ethanol by treating them with a base.

3. Reaction with Bases: Reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate (sodium acetate) and water.
CH₃COOH + NaOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O
4. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates: Reacts with Na₂CO₃ or NaHCO₃, producing carbon dioxide,
water, and sodium acetate.
2CH₃COOH + Na₂CO₃ → 2CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂
CH₃COOH + NaHCO₃ → CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A compound ‘X’ has the molecular formula C₂H₄. It reacts with hydrogen gas in the presence of a nickel

catalyst to form compound ‘Y’.

(a) Identify X and Y.

(b) Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.

(c) Name the type of reaction and its industrial importance.

Answer:

(a) X = Ethene (C₂H₄), Y = Ethane (C₂H₆)

(b) C₂H₄ + H₂ → C₂H₆ (Ni catalyst)

(c) Addition reaction; used in hydrogenation of vegetable oils to make ghee.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What happens when ethanol reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid at 170°C? Also, what happens when

ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid? Write the chemical

equations for both reactions.

Answer. Ethanol with Concentrated Sulfuric Acid at 170°C (Dehydration reaction):

When ethanol is heated with concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) at 170°C, it undergoes a dehydration reaction

to form ethene (C₂H₄). The concentrated sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst and a dehydrating agent by

removing a water molecule from ethanol.

Chemical equation:

Ethanol with Ethanoic Acid in the Presence of Conc. H₂SO₄ (Esterification reaction):

When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid, an ester

called ethyl acetate is formed. This reaction is called esterification, and the concentrated sulfuric acid acts

as a catalyst to facilitate the reaction.

Chemical equation:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Compare ethanol and ethanoic acid based on:

(a) Reaction with sodium bicarbonate

(b) Esterification reaction

(c) Nature of solution

(a) Ethanoic acid reacts with NaHCO₃ to release CO₂. Ethanol does not.

CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2

(b) Esterification:
Conc. H2SO4
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O

(c) Ethanol: Neutral; Ethanoic acid: Acidic.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction? Name the oxidising agent

used in this conversion

Answer. The conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid is an oxidation reaction because oxygen is added,

and hydrogen is removed.

Oxidising agent: Alkaline KMnO₄ or Acidified K₂Cr₂O₇

Chemical equation: C₂H₅OH + [O] ⟶ CH₃COOH + H₂O

 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Why is ethyne (C₂H₂) used for welding purposes instead of other hydrocarbons? Why is a mixture of
ethyne and oxygen used in welding instead of ethyne and air?

Answer. Ethyne (C₂H₂) undergoes combustion in the presence of pure oxygen (O₂), producing a very
high-temperature flame (~3,500°C) suitable for welding. The reaction is:
2C₂H₂ + 5O₂ → 4CO₂ + 2H₂O + Heat
When ethyne burns in air, the presence of nitrogen (N₂) and other gases lowers the flame temperature,
making it less effective for welding.
Burning ethyne in pure oxygen ensures complete combustion, producing a hot, blue flame with a higher
temperature than when burned in air.
Other hydrocarbons like methane (CH₄) do not generate such a high temperature, making them
unsuitable for welding.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. An organic compound 'X' with the molecular formula C₂H₄O₂ is commonly used as a preservative in
pickles. This compound reacts with ethanol in the presence of concentrated H₂SO₄ to form a sweet-
smelling compound 'Y'.
(i) Identify compounds 'X' and 'Y'.
(ii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between 'X' and ethanol.
(iii) Name the process involved in this reaction.
(iv) What is the role of concentrated sulfuric acid in this reaction?

Answer: (i) 'X' is ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH), and 'Y' is ethyl ethanoate (CH₃COOC₂H₅).
(ii) CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O
(iii) The process is called esterification.
(iv) Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst and a dehydrating agent, facilitating the esterification
process by removing water formed during the reaction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Cleansing action of Soap/Detergent

1. Structure & Function of Soaps

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
Soap molecules have two ends:
Hydrophilic (water-attracting) ionic end – dissolves in water.
Hydrophobic (water-repelling) tail – dissolves in oil/grease.

2.Formation of Micelles:
In water, soap molecules arrange themselves to form micelles.
Micelle Structure:
Hydrophobic tails face inward, trapping oil/dirt.
Hydrophilic heads face outward, interacting with water.
Micelles help emulsify and remove dirt, allowing easy washing.

3. Cleaning Action of Soap

Most dirt is oily/greasy and does not dissolve in water.
Soap forms micelles around the dirt, breaking it into smaller particles.
The dirt is suspended in water and easily rinsed away.
Soap micelles scatter light, making soap solutions appear cloudy
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Soap Detergents

Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with chloride or bromide
Molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
ions.

Not so effective in hard water. Effective even in hard water.

Relatively weak cleansing action. Strong cleansing action.

Soaps are biodegradable. Most of them are non-biodegradable.

Hard Water Soft Water

Contains high mineral content, mainly calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions. Contains low mineral content, mainly sodium (Na⁺) or potassium (K⁺) ions.

Does not lather easily with soap. Lathers easily with soap.

Forms scum and scale in pipes, boilers, and appliances. Does not form scum or scale.

Can cause roughness in hair and skin. Feels smooth on skin and hair.

Example: Groundwater, well water. Example: Rainwater, distilled water.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Why do soaps not work well in hard water and how detergents are better?

Hard water contains calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions. These ions react with soap to form insoluble

precipitates called scum. This scum sticks to clothes and surfaces, reducing the efficiency of the soap.

Detergents do not form scum in hard water because they are made from salts of sulfonic acids, which do

not react with Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ ions.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain the mechanism of the cleansing action of soap.

Answer. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids, such as sodium stearate

(C₁₇H₃₅COONa).

The soap molecule has two ends:

Hydrophilic end (water-attracting): The ionic part (-COO⁻Na⁺).

Hydrophobic end (water-repelling): The long hydrocarbon chain

Steps in Cleansing Action: When soap is dissolved in water, the hydrophilic end

attaches to water molecules, and the hydrophobic end attaches to grease or oil on

dirty surfaces.

Soap molecules form clusters called micelles, where the hydrophobic ends are

buried inside, trapping grease or oil, and the hydrophilic ends face outward,

interacting with water.

On rinsing with water, the micelles are washed away, carrying the dirt and grease

with them.
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Milte h kal 6 Baje!!!

 PHYSICS
MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Chapter Topics

Numerical
Mirror Formula
Lens Formula
Chapter 9: Light
Power of Lens
All Ray Diagrams
Snell’s Law

Human Eye (Diagram)

Chapter 10: Human Eye Defects (Myopia and Hypermetropia)
Prism (Diagram + Concept)

Numerical
Series and Parallel Resistance
R =ρ (l/A)
Chapter 11: Electricity
Power/ Heating effect
Ohm’s Law Graph
Calculating cost of Electricity of Appliance

Fleming’s left hand rule (Numerical)

Solenoid (Diagram)
Chapter 12: Magnetic Effects
Properties of Magnetic field lines
Live wire, Neutral and earth wire.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

ELECTRICITY
 PRASHANT KIRAD
ELECTRICITY
Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Have electrical conductivity between conductors and

Allow electric current to flow easily. Do not allow electric current to flow easily.
insulators.

Conductivity can be altered by adding impurities or

Contain free electrons. Lack free electrons.
changing temperature.

Examples: Copper, aluminum. Examples: Silicon, germanium. Examples: Rubber, plastic.

ELECTRIC It is the property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electric field. SI unit of charge = Coulomb (C).
CHARGE: Electrons have negative charge (-e), and protons have positive charge (+e) e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C).

Properties:
1. Additivity of Charge :Total charge = sum of all charges on the body.
2. Charge is Conserved : Charge cannot be created or destroyed.
3. Charge is Invariant : Charge value remains the same, regardless of speed. Q = net charge
4. Quantization of Charge : Charge is a multiple of electron charge: n = no of electrons
e = charge on an electrons
QUANTISATION OF CHARGE: Q = ne. e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.
According to charge quantization, any charged particle can have a charge equal to some integral number of e, i.e.,
Q = n e , where n=1, 2, 3,…
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How many electrons are there in 1 coulomb of charge?

ANSWER. Charge of one electron = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Number of electrons (n) in 1 coulomb of charge:
n = 1 ÷ (1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹)
n = 6.25 × 10¹⁸ electrons
So, 1 coulomb of charge contains approximately 6.25 × 10¹⁸ electrons.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
ELECTRIC CURRENT (I) Flow of electric charge through a conductor. Unit: Ampere (A) → 1 A = 1 C/s.

One Ampere: When 1C of charge flows in 1 second then current is said to be 1A.
Q I = current,
Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of a battery.
I= Q = charge,
T t = time. Conventional current flows in the opposite direction, from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal.

The work done to move a unit positive charge W

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE between two points. V=
Q
Unit: Volt (V) → 1 V = 1 J/C. One Volt: 1 Joule of work done to move 1 unit positive charge between two points.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 C across two points having a potential difference of 12 V?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A current of 10 A flows through a conductor for two minutes.

(i) Calculate the amount of charge passed through any area of cross-section of the conductor.
(ii) If the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C, then calculate the total number of electrons flowing.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A current of 10 A flows through a conductor for two minutes.

(i) Calculate the amount of charge passed through any area of cross-section of the conductor.
(ii) If the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C, then calculate the total number of electrons flowing.

Answer. (i) Calculation of charge : 𝑄 = 𝐼 × 𝑡

Given: I = 10 A, t = 2 minutes = 120 seconds
Q = 10×120 = 1200 C

(ii) Calculation of number of electrons : Q=n×e

Where: Q = 1200 C
e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C,
n = Q/e = 7.5 × 10²¹
 PRASHANT KIRAD
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

A continuous path for current flow, consisting of a power source, conductor, and load.

Components:
Electric devices.
Source of electricity.
Connecting wires and a switch to control the
flow of current.
A schematic diagram of an electric circuit comprising – cell,
electric bulb, ammeter and plug key
 PRASHANT KIRAD
AMMETER & VOLTMETER

Feature Ammeter Voltmeter

Measures potential difference (voltage)

Function Measures electric current in a circuit.
between two points.

Symbol Represented by A in a circuit diagram. Represented by V in a circuit diagram.

Connection Connected in series with the circuit. Connected in parallel across the component.

Resistance Has low resistance to allow current flow. Has high resistance to prevent current flow.

Reading Unit Measured in amperes (A). Measured in volts (V).

 PRASHANT KIRAD
OHM’S LAW

Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its
ends, at a constant temperature

When potential difference is 1 V

V∝I
and current through the circuit is 1

A, then resistance is 1 ohm.

V = IR
(i) Write the relation between resistance R and electrical resistivity ρ of the material of a conductor in the
shape of a cylinder of length l and cross-sectional area A. Hence, derive the SI unit of electrical resistivity.

Resistance: Property of a conductor that resists the flow of charges. Unit: Ohm (Ω).

Factors Affecting Resistance:

(i) Directly proportional to the length of conductor: R ∝ L
(ii) Inversely proportional to the area of cross-section: R ∝ 1/A
(iii) Directly proportional to the temperature: R ∝ Temperature
(iv) Depends on nature of material: (⍴)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. When a 4 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor there is a current of 100 mA in the circuit.
The value of the resistance of the resistor is:
a. 4 Ω
b. 40 Ω
c. 400 Ω
d. 0.4 Ω
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. When a 4 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor there is a current of 100 mA in the circuit.
The value of the resistance of the resistor is:
a. 4 Ω
b. 40 Ω
c. 400 Ω
d. 0.4 Ω

Answer. Voltage (V) = 4 V

Current (I) = 100 mA = 0.1 A
Using Ohm’s Law:
R=V/I
R = 4 V / 0.1 A
R = 40 Ω
Correct answer: (b) 40 Ω
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. State and explain Ohm’s law. Define resistance and give its SI unit. What is meant by 1 ohm
resistance? Draw V-I graph for an ohmic conductor and list its two important features

Ans. It states that the potential difference V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains the
same. Mathematically, V ∝ I
V = IR ; where R is resistance of the conductor.
Resistance : It is the property of a conductor to resist the How of charges through it.
Its SI unit is ohm (Ω). If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 ohm (1 Ω).
1 ohm = 1volt/1ampere
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A student plots V-I graphs for three samples of nichrome wire with resistances R₁, R₂, and R₃. Choose
the correct statement from the following options:

(a) R₁ = R₂ = R₃
(b) R₁ > R₂ > R₃
(c) R₃ > R₂ > R₁
(d) R₂ > R₁ > R₃
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Resistivity is a material's intrinsic property that measures its opposition to the flow of
electric current. It is denoted by ρ.
Resistivity does not change with change in length or area of cross-section but it changes with change in
temperature.

⍴ = (R)A/L
Resistance Resistivity

Opposition to the flow of electric current in a substance. Resistance of a material with unit length and unit cross-sectional area.

Extrinsic property. Intrinsic property.

Depends on length and size of the conductor. Independent of length or size of the conductor.

Unit: ohm (Ω). Unit: ohm-meter (Ω·m).

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A wire of resistance 10 Ω is drawn out so that its length is thrice its original length. Find the resistance
of the new wire.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A wire of resistance 10 Ω is drawn out so that its length is thrice its original length. Find the resistance
of the new wire.

Answer. Initial resistance, R₁ = 10 Ω

New length, L₂ = 3L₁
Since resistance R is proportional to the square of the length when volume remains constant:
R₂ = (new length / original length)² × R₁
R₂ = (3L₁ / L₁)² × 10 Ω
R₂ = 9 × 10 Ω
R₂ = 90 Ω
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A wire has a resistance R and resistivity ρ. Answer the following:

(a) What happens to the resistance if the length of the wire is doubled, keeping the cross-sectional area
the same?
(b) What happens to the resistance if the cross-sectional area is halved, keeping the length the same?
(c) What happens to the resistivity if the material of the wire is changed?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A wire has a resistance R and resistivity ρ. Answer the following:

(a) What happens to the resistance if the length of the wire is doubled, keeping the cross-sectional area
the same?
(b) What happens to the resistance if the cross-sectional area is halved, keeping the length the same?
(c) What happens to the resistivity if the material of the wire is changed?

Answer. (a) If the length is doubled:

Since resistance is given by R = ρ (L/A), if L → 2L, then
New resistance, R' = 2R (Resistance doubles).

(b) If the cross-sectional area is halved:

Since R = ρ (L/A), if A → A/2, then
New resistance, R' = 2R (Resistance doubles).

(c) If the material is changed: Resistivity ρ depends only on the material of the wire, not its dimensions.
So, if the material is changed, ρ will also change accordingly.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Two wires A and B of the same material, having the same lengths and diameters 0.2 mm and 0.3 mm
respectively, are connected one by one in a circuit. Which one of these two wires will offer more
resistance to the flow of current in the circuit? Justify your answer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Two wires A and B of the same material, having the same lengths and diameters 0.2 mm and 0.3 mm
respectively, are connected one by one in a circuit. Which one of these two wires will offer more
resistance to the flow of current in the circuit? Justify your answer.

Ans. Wire A will offer more resistance.

Justification: Resistance R∝l/A, where l is the length and A is the cross-sectional area. A thinner wire has
a smaller cross-sectional area, leading to higher resistance. Wire A (0.2 mm diameter) has a smaller
cross-sectional area compared to Wire B (0.3 mm diameter), so it offers higher resistance to the flow of
current.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In case of four wires of same material, the resistance will be minimum if the diameter and length of
the wire respectively are
(a) D/2 and L/4
(b) D/4 and 4L
(c) 2D and L
(d) 4D and 2L
 PRASHANT KIRAD

When two or more resistors are connected end to end,

the arrangement is called series combination.

When resistors are connected in series, the total potential difference

across the combination is the sum of the potential differences
across each resistor.
From the circuit: V = V₁ + V₂ + V₃ ------------- (1)
Using Ohm's law, the potential difference across each resistor is
given as:
V₁ = IR₁, V₂ = IR₂, V₃ = IR₃ -----------------------(2)
Substitute these into Eq. (1):
V = IR₁ + IR₂ + IR₃
Current remains the same through
Factor out I:
V = I(R₁ + R₂ + R₃) -------------------------------(3) all resistors.
For the equivalent single resistor Rₛ, using Ohm’s law:
Voltage divides across resistors
V = IRₛ --------------------------------------------(4)
Comparing Eq. (3) and Eq. (4): based on resistance.
Rₛ = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ Rₛ = R₁ + R₂ + R₃
 PRASHANT KIRAD

When two or more resistors are connected across

multiple branches.
When resistors are connected in parallel:
The total current (I) is the sum of currents through each
resistor:
I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃

Using Ohm's law for the parallel combination:

I = V / Rₚ

Current remains the same through

For each resistor:
I₁ = V / R₁, I₂ = V / R₂, I₃ = V / R₃ all resistors.
Voltage divides across resistors
Substituting, we get: based on resistance.
1 / Rₚ = 1 / R₁ + 1 / R₂ + 1 / R₃
1 / Rₚ = 1 / R₁ + 1 / R₂ + 1 / R₃
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The combinations having equivalent resistance 1 is/are:

(a) I and IV
(b) Only IV
(c) I and II
(d) I, II, and III
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What is the maximum resistance which can be made using five resistors each of 1/5 Ω?
(a) 1/5 Ω
(b) 10 Ω
(c) 5 Ω
(d) 1 Ω
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In the given circuit diagram calculate

(i) the total effective resistance of the circuit.
(ii) the current through each resistor.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In the given circuit diagram calculate

(i) the total effective resistance of the circuit.
(ii) the current through each resistor.

(i) Total Effective Resistance (Rₑq)

Since all resistances are connected in parallel, the total
resistance is given by:
1/Rₑq = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃
= 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/6 = (4+3+2)/12 = 9/12
So, Rₑq = 12/9 Ω = 4/3 Ω = 1.33 Ω
(ii) Current through each resistor using Ohm’s Law
Since the potential difference across each resistor connected in parallel is the same, we have:
V₁ = V₂ = V₃ = 6V
Applying Ohm’s law: V = IR
For R₁: I₁ = V₁/R₁ = 6/3 = 2A
For R₂: I₂ = V₂/R₂ = 6/4 = 1.5A
For R₃: I₃ = V₃/R₃ = 6/6 = 1A
Thus, the individual currents are: I₁ = 2A, I₂ = 1.5A, I₃ = 1A.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Three 2 Ω resistors A, B and C are connected in such a way that the total resistance of the combination is
3 Ω. Show the arrangement of the three resistors and justify your answer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Three 2 Ω resistors A, B and C are connected in such a way that the total resistance of the combination is
3 Ω. Show the arrangement of the three resistors and justify your answer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. On the basis of this circuit, answer the following questions:

(a) Find the total resistance between points A and B.
(b) Find the resistance between points B and C.
(c) (i) Calculate the current drawn from the battery when the key is closed.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. On the basis of this circuit, answer the following questions:

(a) Find the total resistance between points A and B.
(b) Find the resistance between points B and C.
(c) (i) Calculate the current drawn from the battery when the key is closed.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Independent Functioning: Each device works independently. If one fails, others continue to work.
Same Voltage: All components receive the same voltage as the source.
Reduced Resistance: Adding more devices decreases the total resistance, allowing efficient current
flow.
Easy to Add Devices: New devices can be added without affecting others.

Q. State Joule's law of heating. Derive the expression for the heat produced in a resistor.

Joules Law of Heating ; Heat is proportional to the square of

the current, resistance, and time.
It states that the heat produced in a resistor is :
(i) directly proportional to square of the current (I)
(ii) directly proportional to resistance (R) for given current
(iii) directly proportional to time (t) for which current flow
through resistor.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Electric Fuse: In any electrical instrument, due to sudden rise of current, the instrument gets burnt down
which sometimes results in fire. A conducting wire with low melting point is connected in series with the
circuit to avoid this type of accident. When the current rises, the wire melts due to excessive heating,
thus breaking the electrical circuit.
Electric Bulb: Electric bulb contains a thick metallic wire made up of tungsten metal. The metal is kept in
an inert environment with a neutral gas or vacuum. When current flows through the tungsten wire, it
becomes heated and emits light. Most of the electric power drawn in the circuit from the electrical
source is dissipated in the form of heat and the rest is emitted in the form of light energy.
Electric Heater/ Heating element: In an electric heater, high resistance nichrome wire is used as a coil.
The coil is wound on grooves made up in ceramic material or china clay. When the current flows in the
coil, it becomes heated, which is then used to heat cooking vessels.

Elements used :
Filament of the bulb - Tungsten
Connecting wires - Copper
Heating Elements - Nichrome
Fuse wire - Sn - Pb alloy
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.(a) Why is tungsten used for making bulb filaments of incandescent lamps?
(b) Name any two electric devices based on heating effect of electric current.
(c) Why is an electric fuse used in household circuits? What is its principle?

Answer: (a) (i) Tungsten is a strong metal and has high melting point (3380°C). (ii) It emits light at high
temperatures (about 2500°C).
(b) Electric laundry iron and electric heater are based on heating effect of electric current.
(c) An electric fuse is used in household circuits because it protects electrical appliances from damage due to
excessive current flow.
Principle: It works on the heating effect of electric current—when excessive current flows through the fuse,
the thin wire inside melts, breaking the circuit and preventing damage.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The rate at which electric energy is consumed or dissipated in an electric circuit.

Its S.I. unit is Watt (W) or J/s.

It is denoted by P.

W ΔE
P= =
t t
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Energy used by a circuit to allow current flow. It is the product of power and time, measured
in watt-hours (Wh).

Commercial Unit of Energy:

One watt-hour is the energy used when 1 watt of power is consumed for 1 hour. The commercial unit
of electric energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), also called a "unit."

E=Pxt
Joule = Watt x Second
J = Ws
E = Kilowatt hour
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A coil in the heater consumes power P on passing current. If it is cut into halves and joined in parallel, it will
consume power
(a) P
(b) P/2
(c) 2 P
(d) 4 P

Answer. (d) 4P
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A coil in the heater consumes power P on passing current. If it is cut into halves and joined in parallel, it will
consume power
(a) P
(b) P/2
(c) 2 P
(d) 4 P
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.Two bulbs of 100W and 40W are connected in series.The current through the 100W bulb is 1A.The current
through the 40W bulb will be:
(a) 0.4 A
(b) 0.6 A
(c) 0.8 A
(d) 1 A
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) An electric bulb is rated at 200 V, 100W. What is its resistance?

(b) Calculate the energy consumed by 3 such bulbs if they glow continuously
for 10 hours for complete month of november.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) An electric bulb is rated at 200 V, 100W. What is its resistance?

(b) Calculate the energy consumed by 3 such bulbs if they glow continuously
for 10 hours for complete month of november.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A household uses the following appliances:

1 fan of 100 W for 10 hours/day
2 tube lights of 40 W each for 5 hours/day
1 refrigerator of 150 W running 24 hours/day
Find the total energy consumption in kWh per month (30 days) and the cost if the rate is ₹6 per unit.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A household uses the following appliances:

1 fan of 100 W for 10 hours/day
2 tube lights of 40 W each for 5 hours/day
1 refrigerator of 150 W running 24 hours/day
Find the total energy consumption in kWh per month (30 days) and the cost if the rate is ₹6 per unit.

Answer. Energy used per day:

Fan: (100 W × 10 h) ÷ 1000 = 1 kWh
Tube lights: (2 × 40 W × 5 h) ÷ 1000 = 0.4 kWh
Refrigerator: (150 W × 24 h) ÷ 1000 = 3.6 kWh
Total per day = 1 + 0.4 + 3.6 = 5 kWh
Total for 30 days = 5 × 30 = 150 kWh (units)
Total cost = 150 × ₹6 = ₹900
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.Two identical resistors, each of resistance 15 Ω, are connected in

(i) series, and
(ii) parallel,
in turn to a battery of 6 V. Calculate the ratio of the power consumed in the combination of resistors in each
case.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.Two identical resistors, each of resistance 15 Ω, are connected in

(i) series, and
(ii) parallel,
in turn to a battery of 6 V. Calculate the ratio of the power consumed in the combination of resistors in each
case.

Answer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. B₁, B₂, and B₃ are three identical bulbs connected in a circuit as shown in Figure 12.8. When all three bulbs are
glowing, the ammeter A records a current of 3A.
Answer the following:
1. What happens to the glow of the other two bulbs if bulb B₁ gets fused?
2. What happens to the readings of ammeters A₁, A₂, A₃, and A if bulb B₂ gets fused?
3. Calculate the total power dissipated in the circuit when all three bulbs glow together.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. B₁, B₂, and B₃ are three identical bulbs connected in a circuit as shown. When all three bulbs are glowing, the
ammeter A records a current of 3A.
Answer the following:
1. What happens to the glow of the other two bulbs if bulb B₁ gets fused?
2. What happens to the readings of ammeters A₁, A₂, A₃, and A if bulb B₂ gets fused?
3. Calculate the total power dissipated in the circuit when all three bulbs glow together.

Step 1 Since all three bulbs are in parallel:

Since R₁ = R₂ = R₃ = R:

Using Ohm’s Law:

Since Rₙₑₜ₁ = R/3,

R=4.5Ω
Step 3: Finding Current in Individual Branches
Step 2: Finding Net Resistance and Current when B₂ Fuses
Since B₂ is fused, no current flows through it:
Now only B₁ and B₃ remain in parallel:
A2=0AA_2 = 0AA2​=0A
Total current in circuit:
Total 2A divides equally between B₁ and B₃, since both have
I=V/Rnet2 = 4.5/2.25 = 2A
the same resistance:
Ammeter A = 2A.
A1=A3=2/2=1A
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In a domestic circuit five LED bulbs are arranged as shown. The source voltage is 220 V and the power rating
of each bulb is marked in the circuit diagram. Based on the following circuit diagram, answer the following
questions:

1. State what happens when (i) key K1 is closed. (ii) key K2 is closed.
2. Find the current drawn by the bulb B when it glows.
3. Calculate (i) the resistance of bulb B, and (ii) total resistance of the combination of four bulbs B, C, D, and E.
OR
(c) What would happen to the glow of all the bulbs in the circuit when keys K1 and K2 both are closed and the
bulb C suddenly gets fused? Give a reason to justify your
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

MAGNETIC EFFECTS
OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Hans Christian Oersted (1820): Discovered that electric current deflects a compass needle, proving the link
between electricity and magnetism.

Magnet: is any substance that attracts iron or iron like substances.

Properties of Bar Magnet:

A freely suspended bar magnet aligns in the Earth's north-south direction.
Attractive and Repulsive Forces: Like poles repel, opposite poles attract.
Dipole Nature: Always has two poles (north and south); cutting the magnet creates smaller magnets, each with two poles.
Creates a magnetic field around it where its effect can be felt.
It retains its magnetic properties over time.

Magnetic Field: is the area around a magnet in which the effect of magnetism is felt.

Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines that show the strength and direction of a magnetic field.
Horseshoe Bar magnet
shaped
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Properties of Magnetic Filed Lines: Q. List the properties of magnetic field line
Magnetic field lines start at the north pole and end at the south pole.
Closer lines mean a stronger magnetic field (near poles).
Field lines never cross each other.
They form closed continuous curves.
They show the direction of magnetic force.
Q. State the right-hand thumb rule to find the direction of
the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.

The rule states that if a straight conductor carrying current is held in the right hand such that
the thumb is pointed in the direction of the current, then the direction in which your fingers
encircle the wire gives the direction of the magnetic lines of force around the wire

Thumb = upwards, curled fingers = magnetic field (clockwise), the field direction = anticlockwise.
Thumb = downwards, curled fingers = magnetic field (anticlockwise), the field direction = clockwise.

concentric circles with their

centers on the conductor
 PRASHANT KIRAD

circular pattern
around the arms

straight at the center of the loop

electromagnet.

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely

in the shape of a cylinder.
Outside the solenoid: North to South
Inside the solenoid: South to North
Factors: number of turns in the coil, amount of current flowing through
it, radius of coil, Material of core of the solenoid.
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. State Fleming's left-hand rule. Explain its
application in understanding the direction of force on
a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the conductor

experiences a force which is mutually perpendicular to both the Magnetic field and to the
direction of the current flow.
Stretch the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of your left hand perpendicular to
each other.
Forefinger = Magnetic field direction, Middle finger = Current direction, Thumb = Force/motion direction.
1/100 second in India, i.e. the
frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz. Potential Difference in India: 220V
at 50Hz.

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

AC can travel safely over long distances, even between cities. DC cannot travel long distances; it loses power.

Frequency is 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the country. DC has zero frequency.

Current direction reverses periodically. Current flows steadily in one direction.

Cheaper then DC generation Expensive then AC generation

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Imagine that you are sitting inside a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron beam which moving
horizontally from the back wall towards the front wall, seems to be deflected by a strong magnetic field to your
right side. What will be the direction of the magnetic field?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Imagine that you are sitting inside a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron beam which moving
horizontally from the back wall towards the front wall, seems to be deflected by a strong magnetic field to your
right side. What will be the direction of the magnetic field?

Answer:Fleming’s Left Hand Rule can be used to calculate the magnetic field’s direction. The magnetic field will
have a direction that is either upward or downward and perpendicular to the current and deflection axes.
Because negatively charged electrons go from the back wall to the front wall, thus the direction of the current is
from the front to the back wall. Rightward is where the magnetic force is directed. Therefore, it can be deduced
using Fleming’s left-hand rule that the magnetic field inside the chamber is pointing downward.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines of a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid. List two
distinguishing features between the two fields of a bar magnet and a solenoid.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines of a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid. List two distinguishing features
between the two fields of a bar magnet and a solenoid.
Answer.

Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet. Magnetic field lines around a current carrying solenoid.

Following are the distinguishing features between the two fields.

(a) A bar magnet is a permanent magnet whereas solenoid is an electromagnet, therefore field produced by solenoid is
temporary and stay till current flows through it.
(b) Magnetic field produced by solenoid is more stronger than magnetic field of a bar magnet.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) State the purpose of the soft iron core used in making an electromagnet
(b) List two ways of increasing the strength of an electromagnet if the material of the electromagnet is fixed.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) State the purpose of the soft iron core used in making an electromagnet
(b) List two ways of increasing the strength of an electromagnet if the material of the electromagnet is fixed.

Answer. (a)Electric bells and buzzers, loudspeakers, headphones, and other

electrical devices all use electromagnets.
The soft iron core that is inserted into an electromagnet makes the magnetic
field produced stronger. Thus increasing the electromagnet’s strength in the process.
(b) The strength of the electromagnet in use can be increased by
(i) Increasing the current flowing through the coil.
(ii) the number of turns in the coil may also be increased.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Give reason for the following

(i) There is either a convergence or a divergence of magnetic field lines near the ends of a current carrying
straight solenoid.
(ii) The current carrying solenoid when suspended freely rests along a particular direction
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Give reason for the following

(i) There is either a convergence or a divergence of magnetic field lines near the ends of a current carrying
straight solenoid.
(ii) The current carrying solenoid when suspended freely rests along a particular direction.

Answer:(i) There is either a convergence or a divergence of magnetic field lines near the ends of a current
carrying straight solenoid because it behaves similar to that of a bar magnet and has a magnetic field line
pattern similar to that of a bar magnet. Thus the ends of the straight solenoid behaves like poles of the magnet,
where the converging end is the south pole and the diverging end is the north pole.
(ii) The current carrying solenoid behaves similar to that of a bar magnet and when freely suspended aligns
itself in the north-south direction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Power sockets (15A): For high-power

appliances (geyser, fridge, AC).

Normal sockets (5A): For low-power

appliances (TV, bulbs, fans).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Short Circuit : occurs when a live wire and a neutral wire come into direct
contact, causing a sudden and large amount of current to flow in the circuit.
Reasons: damage of insulation in power lines, fault in an electrical appliance.

Overloading: If the total current drawn through a wire by the appliances

connected to it exceeds the safety limit for that wire, it gets overheated.

Electrical fuse: is a low melting point copper or other metal wire that breaks
due to heat caused by overvoltage or high load to avoid short circuit or
failure to the device.

Q. (a) Why is it dangerous to touch the live wire rather than the neutral wire?
(b) Why is a fuse important in household circuits?

Answer. (a) Live wire is at 220V and neutral wire is at zero volt since the electric current flows from higher
potential to lower potential, we can get an electric shock by touching live wire but that is not the case with
neutral wire. (b)Fuse is an important safety device. It is used in series with any electrical appliance and protects
it from short-circuiting and overloading.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

LIGHT
 PRASHANT KIRAD
The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 10⁸ m/s.
LIGHT Rectilinear Propagation of Light – Light travels in a straight line. A ray of light is the straight line
along which light travels, and a bundle of light rays is called a beam of light.
Q. State the laws of reflection and draw a labeled diagram to illustrate these laws.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT The process of sending back light rays which falls on the surface of an object

Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light that strikes the surface is called the incident ray.
Reflected Ray: The ray that bounces off the surface is called the reflected ray.
Normal: The imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called
the normal.
The Angle of incidence (∠i) = The angle of reflection (∠r)
LAWS OF REFLECTION The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the mirror
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

Lateral Inversion – A phenomenon where an image appears reversed from left to right.
This effect is commonly seen in mirrors, where your right hand appears as the left hand in the mirror image.
Plane mirror: A smooth and polished surface that reflects light uniformly.
The image obtained is virtual.
The image is laterally inverted.
The image is erect.
The size of the image is the same as the size of the object.
The distance between the image obtained from the mirror is the
same as the distance between the object from the mirror.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Terms Definition

Pole (P) The center point of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror.

The center of the sphere of which the mirror's reflecting surface

Centre of Curvature (C)
forms a part.

The radius of the sphere of which the mirror's reflecting surface

Radius of Curvature (R)
forms a part. R = 2f
CONCAVE MIRROR
The straight line passing through the pole and the center of
Principal Axis
curvature of the mirror.

The point where parallel rays of light either converge or appear

Principal Focus (F)
to diverge after reflecting from the mirror.

Focal Length (f) The distance between the pole and the principal focus.

Aperture The diameter of the reflecting surface of the spherical mirror.

CONVEX MIRROR
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Ray Diagrams

(i) A ray parallel to principal axis will pass (iii) A ray passing through center of curvature will
through focus after reflection. follow the same path back after reflection.

(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus will (iv) Ray incident at pole is reflected back making
become parallel to principal axis after reflection same angle with principal axis.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

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Q. The image shows the path of incident rays to a concave mirror.

Where would the reflected rays meet for the image formation to take place?
(a) Behind the mirror
(b) Between F and O
(c) Between C and F
(d) Beyond C
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw ray diagrams for the following cases :

(i) passing through centre of curvature of a concave mirror is incident on it.
(ii) an object is placed between infinity and the pole of a convex mirror.
(iii) object is placed between focus and pole of concave mirror
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Concave Mirror
Uses of Concave Mirrors:
Torches, Search-lights, and Vehicle
Headlights:
Shaving Mirrors
Dentist's Mirrors
Solar Furnaces

Uses of Convex Mirrors:

Convex Mirror Rear-View Mirrors in Vehicles:
Preferred in vehicles as they provide
erect but diminished images.
Have a wider field of view due to their
outward curve.
Allow drivers to see a larger area
compared to plane mirrors.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Name the type of mirrors used in the design of solar furnaces. Explain how high temperatures are
achieved by this device.
(b) State the types of mirrors used for:
(i) Headlights of vehicles
(ii) Rear-view mirrors of motorcycles. Justify your answer in each case.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Define the following terms in the context of spherical mirror:

(i) Pole
(ii) Centre of curvature
(iii) Principal axis
(iv) Principal focus
(b) Consider the following diagram in which M is a mirror and P is an object and Q is its magnified image formed
by the mirror. State the type of the mirror M and one characteristic property of the image Q.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Define the following terms in the context of spherical mirror:

(i) Pole
(ii) Centre of curvature
(iii) Principal axis
(iv) Principal focus
(b) Consider the following diagram in which M is a mirror and P is an object and Q is its magnified image formed
by the mirror. State the type of the mirror M and one characteristic property of the image Q.

Answer. (i) Pole: The middle point of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is called pole. The letter P
represents pole,
(ii) Centre of curvature: It is the centre of the sphere of glass of which the mirror is a part. The letter C
represents the centre of curvature.
(ii) Principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line joining the centre of curvature and
pole of the mirroг. (iv)Principal focus: The mid-point of CP is called focus (F). It is the point on the principal axis
of spherical mirror where all incident rays parallel to the principal axis meet or appear to diverge after
reflection.
(b) The mirror used in the given diagram is a concave spherical mirror. Image formed (Q) is virtual and
magnified,
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Sign convention
(i) The object is placed to the left of the mirror.

(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured

from the pole of the mirror.

(iii) All distances measured in the direction of incident ray

(along + X-axis) are taken as positive and those measured
against the direction of incident ray (along – X-axis) are taken
as negative.

(iv) Distance measured perpendicular to and above the

principal axis are taken as positive.
Object distance = always positive
(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the
Focal length of concave mirror = Negative
principal axis are taken as negative.
Focal length of convex mirror = Positive
 PRASHANT KIRAD

MIRROR FORMULA
The mirror formula relates the object distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length (f) of a
spherical mirror.

MAGNIFICATION

It gives us information about the image in terms of how large or small is the image formed.

h’ = positive (virtual images)

h’ = negative (real images)
m = negative (real)
m = positive (virtual)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A student wants to obtain an erect image of an object using a concave mirror of 10 cm focal length.
What will be the distance of the object from the mirror?
(a) Less than 10 cm
(b) 10 cm
(c) Between 10 cm and 20 cm
(d) More than 20 cm
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Find the
position of the image formed by the mirror.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror is +3. Analyse this value and state the
(i) type of mirror and
(ii) position of the object with respect to the pole of the mirror.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 30 cm from a mirror is formed on a screen
placed in front of the mirror at a distance of 60 cm from it pole. What is the nature of the mirror? Find
its focal length. If the height of the flame is 2.4 cm, find the height of its image. State whether the
image formed is erect or inverted.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 30 cm from a mirror is formed on a screen
placed in front of the mirror at a distance of 60 cm from it pole. What is the nature of the mirror? Find
its focal length. If the height of the flame is 2.4 cm, find the height of its image. State whether the
image formed is erect or inverted.

Answer. u = -30 cm, v = -60 cm, h = 2.4 cm

Mirror Type:
Since the image is real & on screen, the mirror is concave.
Focal Length Calculation:
Using 1/f = 1/v - 1/u:
1/f = -1/60 + 1/30 = 1/60
f = 60 cm
Image Height:
Using m = -v/u:
m = 60/30 = 2
h' = 2 × 2.4 = 4.8 cm
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. An object 4 cm in height, is placed at 15 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. At what
distance from the mirror should a screen be placed to obtain a sharp image of the object. Calculate the
height of the image.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. An object 4 cm in height, is placed at 15 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. At what
distance from the mirror should a screen be placed to obtain a sharp image of the object. Calculate the
height of the image.
Answer. Given : object distance, u = -15 cm,
object height, h = 4 cm, focal length f = -10 cm;
Image distance, v = ?
Using the mirror formula:
1/v + 1/u = 1/f
Substituting the given values:
1/v + 1/(-15) = 1/(-10)
1/v = 1/15 - 1/10
v = -30
In order to obtain a sharp image of the object on the screen, screen should be placed at a distance of
30 cm in front of the mirror.
m=h/h′​=−v​/u
Substitute values:
m= −(−30)/−15=2
h′=m×h=2×4= +8cm
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Study the data given below showing the focal length of three concave mirrors A, B, and C and the respective
distances of objects placed in front of the mirrors:

Case Mirror Focal Length (cm) Object Distance (cm)

1 A 20 45

2 B 15 30

3 C 30 20

(i) In which one of the above cases will the mirror form a diminished image of the object? Justify your answer.
(ii) List two properties of the image formed in Case 2.
(iii) (A) What is the nature and size of the image formed by mirror C? Draw a ray diagram to justify your answer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
The phenomenon of bending of ray of light when it enters from one medium to another.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT The bending of a light ray during refraction occurs because of a change in the speed of
light as it passes from one medium to another with a different refractive index.
Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light in the first medium is called the incident ray.
Reflected Ray: The ray that bends as it enters the second medium is called the refracted ray.
Normal: The imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called the
normal.

CAUSES OF REFRACTION:
When the light goes from air into water, it bends towards normal because there is a reduction in its
speed.
When the light goes from water to air, it bends away from normal because there is an increase in
the speed of light.
Rarer to denser medium (bends towards normal)
Denser to rarer medium (bends away from normal)
LAWS OF REFRACTION:

The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the
point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction

Snell’s law of refraction.

 PRASHANT KIRAD
REFRACTIVE INDEX Measure of how much light is bent or refracted when it enters a new
medium. It is denoted by the symbol "n."

velocity of light in medium 1

n=
velocity of light in medium 2

Speed of light in medium 1 Refractive index of medium 2

n 21 = with respect to medium 1
Speed of light in medium 2

Speed of light in air =c If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the

n m= refractive index of medium m is considered
Speed of light in medium v with respect to vacuum. This is called the
absolute refractive index of the medium.

REFRACTION THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

When an incident ray enters a glass slab from air, it bends towards the normal as it moves from a
rarer to a denser medium. After passing through the slab, the refracted ray bends away from the
normal as it exits back into air, forming an angle of emergence (e). The emergent ray remains
parallel to the incident ray, with the perpendicular distance between them called lateral
displacement. Light undergoes two refractions in a glass slab, causing this displacement.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A light ray passes from air into a glass slab. The angle of incidence is 30°, and the refractive index
of glass with respect to air is 1.5. What is the angle of refraction?
(A) 19.47°
(B) 30°
(C) 45°
(D) 60°
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The refractive index of glass is 1.5. The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 10⁸ m/s. What is the speed of
light in glass?
A) 1 × 10⁸ m/s
B) 2 × 10⁸ m/s
C) 3 × 10⁸ m/s
D) 4.5 × 10⁸ m/s
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Water has refractive index 1.33 and alcohol has refractive index 1.36. Which of the two medium
is optically denser? Give reason for your answer.
(b) Draw a ray diagram to show the path of a ray of light passing obliquely from water to alcohol.
(c) State the relationship between angle of incidence and angle of refraction in the above case
(d) In which medium will light travel faster? Explain with reason.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Water has refractive index 1.33 and alcohol has refractive index 1.36. Which of the two medium
is optically denser? Give reason for your answer.
(b) Draw a ray diagram to show the path of a ray of light passing obliquely from water to alcohol.
(c) State the relationship between angle of incidence and angle of refraction in the above case
(d) In which medium will light travel faster? Explain with reason.

Answer:(a) Here, alcohol is optically denser medium as its

refractive index is higher than that of water. When we
compare the two media, the one with larger refractive index
is called the optically denser medium than the other as the
speed of light is lower in this medium.

(b) Since light is travelling from water (rarer medium) to

alcohol (denser medium), it slows down and bends towards
the normal.

(d) Light travels faster in water because it has a lower

refractive index.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A ray of light is incident as shown. If A, B and C are three different transparent media, then which
among the following options is true for the given diagram?

(a) ∠1 > ∠4
(b) ∠1 < ∠2
(c) ∠3 = ∠2
(d) ∠3 > ∠4
 PRASHANT KIRAD
LENSES
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both
surfaces are spherical.
Types of lenses:
Convex (thicker in the middle, converging light rays)
Concave (thinner in the middle, diverging light rays).

Term Meaning

Convex Lens A lens with two spherical surfaces bulging outwards, thicker in the middle than at the edges. (Converging Lens)

Concave Lens A lens with two spherical surfaces curved inwards, thicker at the edges than at the middle. (Diverging Lens)

Centre of Curvature (C, C1, C2) The center of the sphere from which the lens surface is a part.

Principal Axis An imaginary straight line passing through the two centers of curvature of a lens.

Optical Centre (O) The central point of a lens where a ray of light passes without deviation.

Aperture The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens.

Principal Focus (F, F1, F2) The point where rays of light parallel to the principal axis converge (convex) or appear to diverge (concave).

Focal Length (f) The distance between the principal focus and the optical centre of a lens.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Rules to obtain image

(i) A ray of light from the object, (iii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre
parallel to the principal axis of a lens

(ii) A ray of light passing through a principal

focus
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Convex Lens Concave Lens

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Convex Lens
Uses of Convex Lens:
overhead projector
camera
focus sunlight
simple telescope
projector microscope
magnifying glasses

Uses of Concave Lens:

Concave Lens spy holes in the doors
glasses
some telescopes
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A student wants to obtain magnified image of an object AB as on a Screen. Which one of the
following arrangements shows the correct position of AB for him/her to be successful?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Important Formulas of Lens:

All measurements are taken from the optical centre of the lens.
focal length of a convex lens = positive, and that of a concave lens = negative.
Lens formula: Magnification:

Power of Lens: The ability of a lens to converge or diverge the ray of light after refraction through it is
called the power of the lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length.
SI unit = Dioptre (D)
-1
1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m.

power of a convex lens = positive

power of concave lens = negative.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The power of a lens is –2D. It means the lens is:

(a) Convex with a focal length of 50 cm
(b) Concave with a focal length of 50 cm
(c) Convex with a focal length of 2 m
(d) Concave with a focal length of 2 m
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The focal length of four convex lens P, Q, R and S are 20 cm, 15 cm, 5 cm and 10 cm, respectively. The
lens having the greatest power is
(a) P
(b) Q
(c) R
(d) S
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. An object is placed 30 cm from a convex lens, and its real image is formed on a screen 60 cm from
the lens.
a) Determine the focal length of the lens.
b) If the object's height is 2.4 cm, calculate the height of the image.
c) State whether the image formed is erect or inverted.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. An object is placed 30 cm from a convex lens, and its real image is formed on a screen 60 cm from the lens.
a) Determine the focal length of the lens.
b) If the object's height is 2.4 cm, calculate the height of the image.
c) State whether the image formed is erect or inverted.

a) Focal Length Calculation:

Using the lens formula:
1/f = 1/v - 1/u
Substituting the values:
1/f = 1/60 - 1/(-30)
f = 60/3 = 20 cm
b) Image Height Calculation:
m = v/u
m = 60/(-30)
m = -2
The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.
Image height (h') is calculated as:
h' = m × h
h' = -2 × 2.4 cm
h' = -4.8 cm
The negative sign indicates the image is inverted.
c) Nature of the Image:
The image formed is real, inverted, and magnified.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Rishi went to a palmist to show his palm. The palmist used a special lens for this purpose.
(i) State the nature of the lens and reason for its use.
(ii) Where should the palmist place/hold the lens so as to have a real and magnified image of an
object?
(li) If the focal length of this lens is 10 cm, the lens is held at a distance of 5 cm from the palm, use lens
formula to find the position and size of the image.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Rishi went to a palmist to show his palm. The palmist used a special lens for this purpose.
(i) State the nature of the lens and reason for its use.
(ii) Where should the palmist place/hold the lens so as to have a real and magnified image of an object?
(li) If the focal length of this lens is 10 cm, the lens is held at a distance of 5 cm from the palm, use lens formula to find the
position and size of the image.
Ans: (i) The lens used here is a convex lens and it is used as a magnifying glass because at close range, i.e., when the object is
placed between optical centre and principal focus it forms an enlarged, virtual and erect image of the object.
(ii) When this lens is placed such that the object is between the centre of curvature and the principal focus, the palmist obtain a
real and magnified image.
(iii) Given, focal length, f = 10 cm and u = -5 cm
According to lens formula,

Thus, the image will be formed at 10 cm on the same side of the palm and the size of the image will be enlarged.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. One student uses a lens of focal length +50 cm and another of -50 cm. State the nature and find the
power of each lens. Which of the two lenses will always give a virtual and diminished image irrespective
of the position of the object?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. One student uses a lens of focal length +50 cm and another of -50 cm. State the nature and find the
power of each lens. Which of the two lenses will always give a virtual and diminished image irrespective
of the position of the object?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

HUMAN EYE
AND THE COLORFUL WORLD
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Sense organ for vision, located in the eye sockets of the skull; it helps us
Human eye: Types of Neuron:
see by detecting light and colors.

Q. Draw a neat labelled diagram of the structure of the human eye and mention the functions of any five parts.

Lens: Fibrous, jelly-like, convex; Ciliary Muscles: Hold and adjust

Aqueous Humor: Clear fluid focuses light on the retina, the lens curvature for focus.
between cornea and lens; creating a real, inverted image.
maintains eye pressure and
nourishes cornea and lens.
Retina: Delicate membrane with
light-sensitive cells.
Pupil: Small opening in the iris; Rods: Detect light intensity.
controls light entry into the eye. Cones: Detect primary colors.

Iris: Ring-like, muscular tissue Optic Nerve: Transmits visual

behind the cornea; determines eye information from the retina to the
color and adjusts pupil size. brain.

Cornea: Outermost transparent Vitreous Humor: Provides nutrients

part; provides most light refraction. and maintains eye shape.

Sclera: Tough, white outer covering of the eye; provides protection.

 PRASHANT KIRAD
Power of Accommodation
The ability of the human eye to focus on objects at different distances by changing the focal length of the eye lens, controlled
by ciliary muscles.

Near point: Far point:

Minimum distance for clear vision without Maximum distance seen clearly,
strain, typically 25 cm for a normal eye. normally at infinity.

When looking at a nearby object, the When looking at a distant object,

ciliary muscles contract, making the the ciliary muscles relax, making
lens thicker and decreasing its focal the lens thin and increasing its
length. focal length.

Gives a wider field of view.

Enhances the ability to detect faint objects.
Provides three dimensional view.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Define the term 'power of accommodation' of the human eye. How does the eye adjust to focus on objects at varying
distances?

Answer. The power of accommodation of the human eye is its ability to adjust the focal length of the eye lens to focus on
objects at different distances. This is done by changing the curvature of the lens using the ciliary muscles.
Adjustment Mechanism:
For nearby objects: The ciliary muscles contract, making the lens thicker and increasing its converging power.
For distant objects: The ciliary muscles relax, making the lens thinner and decreasing its converging power.
This ability allows the eye to focus on objects at varying distances and form clear images on the retina.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Defects of Vision & their Corrections

Defect Description Cause Correction Image Formation

- Excessive curvature
- Can see nearby objects clearly
Myopia (Near- of the eye lens. Concave lens of Image forms in
but not distant ones.
sightedness) - Elongation of the suitable power. front of the retina.
- Far point is closer than infinity.
eyeball.

- Can see distant objects clearly - Focal length of eye

Hypermetropia Convex lens of Image forms
but not nearby ones. lens is too long.
(Far-sightedness) appropriate power. behind the retina.
- Near point is farther than 25 cm. - Eyeball is too small.

- Weakening of ciliary Bifocal lenses

- Difficulty seeing nearby objects Image formation
muscles. (concave for
Presbyopia due to aging. issues corrected
- Reduced flexibility of distance, convex
- Near point recedes with age. with bifocal lenses.
the eye lens. for near vision).

- Cannot focus on both horizontal - Irregularly shaped Image clarity

Astigmatism and vertical lines simultaneously. cornea or distorted Cylindrical lens. varies based on
- Objects clear in one plane only. lens. plane.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
cataract

cloudy or blurry vision

Causes: age related condition,

weakening of eye muscles

treatment: surgery.

Refraction through a glass prism

Prism: Transparent refracting

medium. Structure: Two triangular
bases, three rectangular lateral
surfaces.
Angle of Prism: Angle between two
lateral faces.
Angle of Deviation: Angle between
incident and emergent rays.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A person is suffering from hypermetropia. List its two possible causes. Explain with a ray diagram how this
defect is corrected.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A person is suffering from hypermetropia. List its two possible causes. Explain with a ray diagram how this
defect is corrected.

Answer: Hypermetropia (Farsightedness): A defect where a person can see distant objects clearly but cannot
see nearby objects clearly.
Causes:
1. Shortening of the eyeball.
2. Decreased curvature of the eye lens.
It is corrected using a convex lens which converges the light rays before they enter the eye so that the image
is formed on the retina.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Akshay, sitting in the last row in his class, could not see clearly the words written on the blackboard. When the
teacher noticed it, he announced if any student sitting in the front row could volunteer to exchange his seat with
Akshay. Salman immediately agreed to exchange his seat with Akshay. He could now see the words written on
the blackboard clearly. The teacher thought it fit to send the message to Akshay’s parents advising them to get
his eyesight checked. In the context of the above event, answer the following questions:
(a) Which defect of vision is Akshay suffering from? Which type of lens is used to correct this defect?
(b) State the values displayed by the teacher and Salman.
(c) In your opinion, in what way can Akshay express his gratitude towards the teacher and Salman?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Riya is unable to see clearly the words written on the blackboard placed at a distance of approximately 3 m
from her.
(a) Name the defect of vision Riya is suffering from.
(b) State two possible causes for this defect.
(c) Explain why Riya is unable to see distinctly the objects placed beyond her far point.
(d) With the help of Digarm - Describe the type of corrective lens used to restore proper vision and explain how
this defect is corrected using the lens.
(e) If the focal length of the corrective lens required for Riya is -3 m, calculate the power of the lens using the
new Cartesian sign convention.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Riya is unable to see clearly the words written on the blackboard placed at a distance of approximately 3 m from her.
(a) Name the defect of vision Riya is suffering from.
(b) State two possible causes for this defect.
(c) Explain why Riya is unable to see distinctly the objects placed beyond her far point.
(d) With the help of Digarm - Describe the type of corrective lens used to restore proper vision and explain how this defect is
corrected using the lens.
(e) If the focal length of the corrective lens required for Riya is -3 m, calculate the power of the lens using the new Cartesian sign
convention.

(a) Riya is suffering from myopia (short-sightedness).

(b) Possible causes of myopia:
1. Elongation of the eyeball from front to back.
2. Excessive curvature of the eye’s cornea or lens.
(c) In myopia, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina instead of directly on it. This happens because the
light rays converge too early due to the elongated eyeball or excessively curved lens.
(d) A concave lens (diverging lens) is used to correct myopia.
The concave lens diverges the incoming light rays before they enter the eye, effectively extending the far point of the
person to infinity. This ensures the image forms directly on the retina.
(e) focal length: f=−3m
Using the formula for power:
P=1/f (in meters)orP=1/−3=−0.33 D
Hence, the power is – 0.33 D.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Dispersion of White Light: Splitting of white light into seven colors when passing through a prism.

Spectrum: The band of seven colors formed.

Color Sequence: VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red).
Causes: Varying refraction indices of different colours.
wavelength of light when passing through transparent medium like prism.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM The visible light range is from 400 nm to 700 nm in wavelength.

Violet: 400 nm (shortest wavelength), Red: 700 nm (longest wavelength) Wavelength ∝ Velocity ∝ 1/Deviation
In vacuum and air, all colors of light travel at the same speed. In other media, they travel at different speeds, causing dispersion.
Red light travels fastest and deviates least, while violet light travels slowest and deviates most.

Seven coloured lights of the spectrum." can be recombined to give back

Recombination of white light white light by passing two prism one by upside down.

Newton’s Experiment: Used a second inverted prism to recombine

the spectrum into white light, proving sunlight is made up of
seven colors.
White Light: Any light producing a similar spectrum to sunlight is
called white light.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) With the help of labelled ray diagram show the path followed by a narrow beam of monochromatic light
when it passes through a glass prism.
(b) What would happen if this beam is replaced by a narrow beam of white light?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) With the help of labelled ray diagram show the path followed by a narrow beam of monochromatic light
when it passes through a glass prism.
(b) What would happen if this beam is replaced by a narrow beam of white light?

Here, in the figure, ∠D is the angle of deviation of the given monochromatic light by the glass prism.
(b) If AO were a ray of white light, then on screen BC, a spectrum will be observed, consisting of seven colours
arranged from bottom to top as follows. Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red (VIBGYOR)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What is dispersion of light? Explain with a diagram how a prism disperses white light into its
constituent colors.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What is dispersion of light? Explain with a diagram how a prism disperses white light into its
constituent colors.

Answer: Dispersion: The splitting of white light into its seven colors (VIBGYOR) when passing through a
prism.
Cause: Different colors of light have different wavelengths and bend by different angles when passing
through a glass prism.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How will you use two identical glass prisms so that a narrow beam of white light incident on one
prism emerges out of the second prism as white light? Draw and label the ray diagram.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How will you use two identical glass prisms so that a narrow beam of white light incident on one
prism emerges out of the second prism as white light? Draw and label the ray diagram.

Answer: Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of a white light. He then
placed a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to the first prism. This allowed all
the colours of the white light to pass through the second prism combining to form a white light
emerging from the other side of the second prism. This made him believe that white light was
composed of different colours.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
A natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower, caused by
Natural spectrum: Rainbow :
the dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets in the atmosphere.

Refraction of Sunlight Dispersion into Colors Internal Reflection Refraction Again

Mechanism: Water droplets act like prisms, refracting and dispersing sunlight, reflecting it
internally, and refracting it again.
Color Sequence: Red at the top, violet at the bottom.
Formation Direction: Always opposite to the sun.

Atmospheric Refraction

The refraction of light caused by the Earth‘s atmosphere (having air layers of varying optical densities)

Stars Twinkle Advanced Sunrise & Delayed Sunset: Why Planets Don’t Twinkle

Caused by Sun appears ~2 minutes before sunrise and Planets are closer and seen as
atmospheric after sunset due to atmospheric refraction. The extended sources, averaging out the
refraction; starlight Sun's disc also appears flattened at these times. light variations and reducing the
bends as it enters twinkling effect.
Earth's atmosphere,
causing stars to
appear to change
position and flicker.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Describe how a rainbow is formed when sunlight passes through raindrops. Include the roles of refraction,
dispersion, and reflection in your answer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Describe how a rainbow is formed when sunlight passes through raindrops. Include the roles of refraction,
dispersion, and reflection in your answer.

Answer. A rainbow is formed when sunlight passes through raindrops in the

atmosphere, involving three key processes: refraction, dispersion, and
reflection.
1. Refraction: When sunlight enters a raindrop, it slows down and bends
due to the change in medium from air to water. This bending of light is
known as refraction.
2. Dispersion: As the light is refracted, it also disperses into its constituent
colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) because different
colors of light have different wavelengths and refract at slightly
different angles. This separation of colors is called dispersion.
3. Reflection: After dispersion, the light reflects off the inner surface of the
raindrop. This internal reflection causes the light to bounce back toward
the outside of the raindrop.
4. Emergence: Finally, as the light exits the raindrop, it undergoes a second
refraction. This further bending of the light enhances the separation of
colors, allowing us to see a spectrum of colors in the form of a rainbow.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Scattering of Light

Scattering of light occurs when light is absorbed by particles and then re-emitted in different directions.

Red Sun at Sunrise/Sunset Blue Sky

During sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels a longer due to the scattering of sunlight by small air
distance through the atmosphere. Blue light is molecules and fine particles. Blue light, having a
scattered away, while red light, with a longer shorter wavelength, scatters more than red light,
wavelength, reaches the observer's eyes, making the making the sky appear blue.
sun appear red.

Tyndall
Effect:

Light scatters when it strikes particles in a colloid, making the light path
visible.
Seen in sunlight passing through mist or a dense forest canopy.
Smaller particles scatter blue light, while larger particles scatter red light.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain the Tyndall effect. (a) Why does the sky appear blue during the day and (b) reddish at sunrise and
sunset?

Answer. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by tiny particles in a medium, making the path of light
visible. It is more effective for shorter wavelengths (blue) than longer wavelengths (red).

(a) During the day, shorter wavelengths (blue) scatter more in all directions due to atmospheric particles,
making the sky appear blue.

(b) At sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels a longer path through the atmosphere. Most of the blue light is
scattered out, leaving red and orange hues visible.
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

BIOLOGY
MAHA MARATHON
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Chapter Topics

Human Heart (Diagram)

Excretion (Specially Nephron)
Chapter 5: Life Processes
Respiration (Aerobic, Anaerobic)
Nutrition (Diagram)

Neuron (Function + Diagram)

Chapter 6: Control and Reflex arc (Diagram)
Coordination Hormone Topic is very important
Function of Brain (MCQ)

Asexual Reproduction
Budding (Diagram)
Vegetative Propagation
Chapter 7: Reproduction
Fertilization in plants (Diagram + Functions)
Reproduction (diagram) - Male & female
STDs (MCQs)

Definition of 3 Laws of Mendel

Chapter 8: Heredity Monohybrid Cross (Numerical on F2 generation)
Difference in Acquired and Inherited traits

10% Law (Numerical)

Chapter 13: Our Environment Ozone (formation)
Biomagnification
 PRASHANT KIRAD

LIFE
PROCESSES
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Life processes
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Multicellular Organism (multiple cells)

nutrition Unicellular Organisms (single cell)

Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition

Organisms that prepare their own food. Organisms that are dependent on other
e.g., Green plants, Algae, etc. organisms for food. E.g., Animals, fungi,etc.

Holozoic nutrition: involves organisms Saprophytic nutrition: Parasitic nutrition:

ingesting whole food material, which is then Organisms feed on dead Organisms derive nutrition
digested and absorbed inside their bodies. and decaying matter. Food from plants or animals
Examples include: Animals - [Herbivores: is digested externally and without killing them. They
Cow, goat], [Carnivores: Lion, tiger], then nutrients are obtain nutrition by living
[Omnivores: Human beings], Unicellular absorbed. e.g. Bread mold, on or inside the host. e.g.
organisms: Amoeba, Paramecium Mushroom, Yeast. Tapeworm, Lice .
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. The following image shows the bread moulds on bread:

How do these fungi obtain nutrition?

(a) By eating the bread on which it is growing
(b) By using nutrients from the bread to prepare their own food
(c) By breaking down the nutrients of bread and then absorbing them
(d) By allowing other organisms to grow on the bread and then consuming them
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Photosynthesis is the process of capturing light energy and
transforming it into chemical energy (glucose).

Raw materials : Sunlight: It is inorganic material.

Chlorophyll: Sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll.
CO2: Enters through stomata and oxygen (O2) is released as by-product through stomata on leaf.
Water: Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus etc. are taken up by the roots of the soil.

Humans - glycogen

Energy
(chlorophyll) (carbohydrates)
Events of Photosynthesis
Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll Starch (stored carbohydrates)
Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecule into hydrogen and oxygen.
Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis which are green pigmented cell
organelles containing chlorophyll.

(Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate

which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Explain the mechanism of stomatal opening and closing.
Stomata: Tiny pores on the surface of leaves that regulate the exchange
of gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) and control water loss through
transpiration.
Stomatal pores open/close via guard cells:
Swollen guard cells → Pore opens.
Shrunken guard cells → Pore closes (to prevent water loss).

Heterotrophic Single-celled organisms absorb food

nutrition through the entire surface.
Amoeba: Uses pseudopodia (temporary finger-like
extensions) to engulf food.
Forms a food vacuole, where complex food is
broken down into simpler forms.
Digested nutrients diffuse into the cytoplasm,
and undigested waste is expelled.
Paramoecium: Has a fixed body shape and takes in
food at a specific spot.
Cilia help move food to this spot for ingestion.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Explain with the help of neat and well labelled diagrams the different steps involved in nutrition in
Amoeba.

Answer. Amoeba is a unicellular organism that performs nutrition through

the process of holozoic nutrition, involving ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation, and egestion. The steps are as follows:
Ingestion: Amoeba engulfs food particles using its pseudopodia, forming
a food vacuole.
Digestion: Enzymes from the cytoplasm enter the food vacuole and
break down the complex food into simpler forms.
Absorption: The digested food is absorbed into the cytoplasm of
Amoeba for energy and growth.
Assimilation: The absorbed nutrients are utilized for various life
activities like growth and repair.
Egestion: Undigested waste material is expelled from the body by
rupturing the cell membrane.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Nutrition in Humans:
Alimentary Canal: Long tube from mouth to anus, with specialized
regions for digestion.
Food Processing:
Teeth crush food for uniform texture.
Saliva (from salivary glands) moistens food and contains salivary
amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar.
Oesophagus (Food pipe): Peristaltic movements : Rhythmic
contractions move food through the digestive tract.
Stomach Digestion: Gastric glands secrete:
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) → Creates acidic medium for enzyme action.
Pepsin → Breaks down proteins.
Mucus → Protects stomach lining.

Small Intestine Digestion:

Longest part of the alimentary canal (longer in herbivores, shorter in carnivores).
Liver secretes bile → Makes food alkaline and emulsifies fats. Breakdown of large fat glbules
Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice → Contains: Small soluble fat globules
Trypsin (digests proteins), Lipase (breaks down fats).Pancreatic amylase - digestion of carbohydrates
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Intestinal juice completes digestion:
Proteins → Amino acids, Carbohydrates → Glucose and Fats → Fatty acids & Glycerol.
Absorption of Nutrients:
Villi (finger-like projections in small intestine) increase surface area for absorption.
Blood vessels in villi transport absorbed nutrients for energy, tissue building, and repair.
Large Intestine: Absorbs excess water from undigested food.
Remaining waste is expelled via the anus, controlled by the anal sphincter.

Why do herbivores have longer intestines than carnivores?

Herbivores have a longer small intestine to digest cellulose present in plant food, which takes more
time to break down. Carnivores have a shorter small intestine as meat is easier to digest.

Q. List two functions of finger-like projections present in the small intestine.

Answer: Internally, the wall of the small intestine is provided with long finger-like projections called villi. Two
functions of villi are :
(i) The villi greatly increase the absorptive surface area of the inner lining of small intestine.
(ii) The large surface area of small intestine helps in rapid absorption of digested food.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Complete the following flow chart as per the given instructions.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Complete the following flow chart as per the given instructions.

Answer.
a – Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
b – Protein digesting enzyme pepsin
c – Mucus
d – HCl makes medium acidic for the activation of
an enzyme pepsin.
e – Pepsin acts in acidic medium which breaks down
proteins into peptones.
f – Mucus protects the inner lining of stomach from
corroding action of HCl.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Draw a well-labeled diagram of the human digestive system and explain the
functions of :
(a) Bile juice
(b) Pancreas
(c) Small intestine
(d) Liver
(e) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach
(f) Lipase
Answer. (a) Bile Juice: Secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
Helps in the emulsification of fats (breaking large fat globules into smaller ones).
Makes the medium alkaline for enzyme action in the small intestine.
(b) Pancreas: Secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes like amylase, lipase, and
trypsin.
Amylase digests starch, lipase digests fats, and trypsin digests proteins.
Releases insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.
(c) Small Intestine: Completes digestion of food with the help of enzymes.
Absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream through finger-like projections called villi.
Transports undigested food to the large intestine.
(d) Liver: Produces bile juice which aids in fat digestion.
Detoxifies harmful substances in the blood.
Stores glycogen for energy regulation.
(e) Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) in the Stomach: Creates an acidic medium for the activation
of pepsin (protein-digesting enzyme).
Kills harmful microbes present in food.
Helps in the breakdown of complex food substances.
(f) Lipase: breaks down fats into smaller molecules, aiding in their digestion
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In human alimentary canal, the specific enzyme/juice secreted in locations (i), (ii), (iii) are :
(a) (i) Amylase (ii) Pepsin (iii) Bile
(b) (i) Amylase (ii) Bile (iii) Trypsin
(c) (i) Lipase (ii) Amylase (iii) Pepsin
(d) (i) Trypsin (ii) Bile (iii) Amylase
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Respiration
process by which food is burnt in the cells (mitochondria) of the body with the help of oxygen to release energy. Energy is stored
in the cells in the form of ATP molecules.

Breathing Respiration Respiration

Physical process Biochemical process Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Large number of enzymes are Occurs in the presence of oxygen. Occurs in the absence of oxygen.
No enzymes involved
involved
Takes place in mitochondria. Takes place in cytoplasm.
Confined to certain organs Occurs in all the cells of the body
End products are carbon dioxide End products are lactic acid (in animals) or
No energy is released; rather, energy and water. ethanol & CO₂ (in yeast).
Energy is released in the form of ATP
is used
Releases more energy (38 ATP per
Releases less energy (2 ATP per glucose).
Extracellular process Intracellular process glucose).

Intake of fresh air and removal of foul Oxidation of food to form carbon Occurs in some bacteria, yeast, and human
Occurs in most plants and animals.
air dioxide, water, and energy muscles during heavy exercise.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Breakdown of Glucose:

Absence of oxygen Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy

(in yeast) (2-carbon molecule)
Pyruvate
Glucose
In cytoplasm (3-carbon Lack of oxygen Lactic acid + Energy
(6- Carbon
molecule) (in our muscle cells) (3-carbon molecule)
molecule)
+ Energy
Presence of oxygen
Muscle Cramps: Due to lactic acid buildup when Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
(in mitochodria)
oxygen is insufficient.

Respiration in Plants: O₂
CO₂

Respiration in Animals:
Different animals have specialized respiratory organs (lungs, gills, skin, etc.).
Terrestrial animals breathe oxygen from the air.
Aquatic animals extract dissolved oxygen from water. O₂
Fish open & close their mouths to push water over their gills, where oxygen is absorbed. CO₂
Since oxygen in water is less than in air, aquatic organisms breathe faster than land animals.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Respiration in Humans:

Air Passage & Filtration:

Nostrils: Entry point for air into the body.
Nasal Cavity: Filters, warms, and moistens air; hairs & mucus trap dust
and microbes.
Pharynx: Common passage for food and air.
Larynx: Contains vocal cords, which produce sound as air passes.
Trachea (Windpipe): A tube leading air to the lungs; cartilage rings
prevent collapse.
Lungs & Gas Exchange:
Bronchi: Trachea divides into two bronchi, each entering a lung.
Bronchioles: Smaller branches of bronchi inside the lungs.
Alveoli (Air Sacs): Primary site of gas exchange between air and blood.
Blood Capillaries in Alveoli: Oxygen enters blood, and carbon dioxide is
expelled.
Oxygen & CO₂ Transport:
Blood (with Haemoglobin in RBCs): Carries oxygen to body cells and collects carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is transported mainly in dissolved form in the blood.
Breathing Mechanism: Diaphragm & Ribs: Control breathing by changing chest cavity size.
Inhalation: Diaphragm flattens, ribs lift → Chest expands → Air enters lungs.
Exhalation: Diaphragm rises, ribs relax → Chest contracts → Air is pushed out.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What is aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Write their equations and differences. Give examples of
organisms performing these processes.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Occurs in the presence of oxygen. Occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Takes place in mitochondria. Takes place in cytoplasm.

End products are carbon dioxide and water. End products are lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol & CO₂ (in yeast).

Releases more energy (38 ATP per glucose). Releases less energy (2 ATP per glucose).

Occurs in most plants and animals. Occurs in some bacteria, yeast, and human muscles during heavy exercise.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. (a) In the process of respiration, state the function of alveoli.
(b) Rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that in terrestrial organisms. Give reasons.
(c) What are the raw materials required for photosynthesis? Write the balanced chemical equation for it.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. (a) In the process of respiration, state the function of alveoli.
(b) Rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that in terrestrial organisms. Give reasons.
(c) What are the raw materials required for photosynthesis? Write the balanced chemical equation for it.

Answer: (a) Functions of alveoli are :

(i) They increase the surface area for exchange of gases.
(ii) The thin walls of alveoli facilitate rapid exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveolar air and
blood.
(b) Aquatic animals like fishes obtain oxygen from water present in the dissolved form through their gills.
The amount of dissolved oxygen is quite small as compared to the amount of oxygen in the air. Therefore,
to obtain required oxygen from water, aquatic animals have to breathe much faster than the terrestrial
organisms.
(c)Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – From the atmosphere, Water (H₂O) – Absorbed from the soil by roots, Sunlight –
Provides energy for the process.and Chlorophyll – Present in leaves to trap sunlight.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Movement of water, minerals, nutrients, etc. from one part of
Transportation the body to other

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

Blood is a fluid connective tissue that consists
of plasma, blood cells and platelets. Feature Arteries Veins Capillaries

Direction of Away from the Link arteries and

Towards the heart
Blood Plasma Platelets Blood heart veins

cells
Fluid medium carrying Help in blood Pressure High Low Medium Lymphatic System:
nutrients, waste clotting to Lymph: Colorless fluid
products, and other prevent leaks Deoxygenated carrying digested fats
Oxygen Oxygenated blood Both
substances. (pale and maintain
blood and excess tissue fluid;
yellowish in color) pressure drains into lymphatic
Valves Absent Present Absent capillaries and
eventually into veins.
Walls Thick and elastic Thin Extremely Thin Function: Helps in fat
absorption and
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Exchange O₂ and
Carries oxygen and Returns blood to returns excess tissue
Function nutrients with
nutrients heart fluid to blood.
Contain haemoglobin to Provides Immunity, cells
transport oxygen and produce antibodies
carbon dioxide. (red in against disease causing Carries carbon
Distributes blood Picks up CO₂ and
Role dioxide and other
color) microbes pumped by heart waste from cells
waste
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Structure of the Heart: Muscular organ, about the size of a fist.

Has four chambers to prevent mixing of oxygenated & deoxygenated blood.
Right side: Handles deoxygenated blood (CO₂-rich).
Left side: Handles oxygenated blood (O₂-rich).
Valves prevent backward flow of blood.
Pathway of Blood Circulation:
1. Oxygen-rich blood from lungs → Left Atrium (relaxes & collects blood).
2. Left Atrium contracts → Blood moves to Left Ventricle.
3. Left Ventricle contracts → Blood pumped to the whole body.
4. Deoxygenated blood from the body → Right Atrium.
5. Right Atrium contracts → Blood moves to Right Ventricle.
6. Right Ventricle pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
Double Circulation:
Blood passes through the heart twice in one complete cycle.
Ensures efficient oxygen supply to the body.
Occurs in mammals and birds to maintain constant body temperature.

Comparison with Other Animals:

Fishes: Two-chambered heart, blood passes through the heart once in a cycle.
Amphibians & Reptiles: Three-chambered heart, partial mixing of oxygenated &
deoxygenated blood.
Mammals & Birds: Four-chambered heart, efficient oxygen supply for high energy needs.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. (a) Describe the structure and functioning of the human heart with a labeled diagram.
(b) Why are the walls of the ventricles thicker than the walls of the atria?
(c) Why do arteries have thick and elastic walls?
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. (a) Describe the structure and functioning of the human heart with a labeled diagram.
(b) Why are the walls of the ventricles thicker than the walls of the atria?

Answer. (a) The heart has four chambers:

Right atrium and right ventricle: Carry deoxygenated blood.
Left atrium and left ventricle: Carry oxygenated blood.
Functioning:
Deoxygenated blood from the body → Right atrium → Right
ventricle → Lungs (via pulmonary artery).
Oxygenated blood from the lungs → Left atrium → Left ventricle →
Body (via aorta).
Valves: Ensure blood flows in one direction.
(b) The ventricles have thicker walls because they pump blood to distant
parts of the body or lungs, requiring greater force.
The left ventricle is the thickest as it pumps blood to the entire body.
Atria have thinner walls as they only push blood into the adjacent ventricles.

(c) Arteries have thick and elastic walls because they need to withstand the high pressure of blood pumped by the
heart. The elasticity helps them expand and contract as blood flows through, ensuring smooth circulation and
maintaining blood pressure.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Explain the mechanism of double circulation in human beings.

Ans. The human heart pumps blood twice in one complete cycle, which is called double circulation. It consists
of:
1. Pulmonary Circulation: The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery. In the lungs, blood gets oxygenated and returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary
veins.
2. Systemic Circulation: The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta. After
supplying oxygen, the deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium via the vena cava.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants have two independent conducting tissues:
Xylem → Transports water & minerals from roots to all parts.
Phloem → Transports food (sugars), amino acids & other substances from leaves to other parts (translocation).
Transport of Water (Xylem)
Root suction: Roots absorb water and minerals due to a concentration gradient. Root hairs take in minerals, lowering
water potential, causing water to enter through osmosis. This water moves up via root pressure and transpiration pull.
Root pressure pushes water upwards but is insufficient for tall plants.
Transpiration pull: Evaporation from leaves creates suction, pulling water up through xylem.
Functions of Transpiration: Aids in water & mineral absorption .Helps in cooling & temperature regulation
Transport of Food (Phloem - Translocation)
Translocation moves sucrose, amino acids, and other substances from leaves to various parts through phloem.
Storage organs & growing parts receive nutrients.
Process: Sugars (e.g., sucrose) are actively transported into phloem using ATP, increasing osmotic pressure. Water
moves in, creating pressure differences for bidirectional movement.

Xylem Phloem

1. Conducts water and minerals from roots to leaves. 1. Conducts food from leaves to all parts of the plant.

2. Transport is unidirectional. 2. Transport is bidirectional.

3. Composed of mainly dead elements. 3. Composed of mainly living elements.

4. Has four types of cells: Tracheids, Vessels, Xylem parenchyma, and Xylem 4. Has four types of cells: Phloem fibers, Companion cells, Sieve tubes, and
fibers. Phloem parenchyma.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Explain the transportation of water and food in plants. How do xylem and phloem function and
differentiate between them?
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Explain the transportation of water and food in plants. How do xylem and phloem function and
differentiate between them?
Transport of Water (Xylem): Xylem vessels and tracheids form continuous
water-conducting channels from the roots to all parts of the plant.
Process:
Root cells actively absorb ions from the soil, creating a concentration
difference.
Water moves into the roots from the soil through osmosis to balance this Xylem Phloem
difference, creating root pressure.
During the day, transpiration pull (caused by evaporation of water through Transports water Transports food
stomata) becomes the main driving force, pulling water upwards in the and minerals. (sucrose).
xylem.
Transpiration: The loss of water as vapour through stomata helps absorb and
Movement is
transport water and minerals and regulates the plant's temperature. Movement is
unidirectional
Transport of Food (Phloem): Phloem transports soluble products of bidirectional.
(upward).
photosynthesis (e.g., sucrose) from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Process (Translocation):
Sucrose is loaded into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. Made of dead cells Made of living cells
This increases osmotic pressure, causing water to enter the phloem. (vessels and (sieve tubes and
The pressure difference moves the food to storage organs or growing tracheids). companion cells).
regions in both upward and downward directions.
Importance: Phloem also transports amino acids and other nutrients to roots,
fruits, seeds, and growing parts of the plant.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. Describe the human excretory system with a Excretion in Human Beings
labeled diagram and explain its function.

Excretion is the biological process of removing harmful metabolic wastes from the body.
Organisms use different strategies for excretion:
Unicellular organisms: Remove waste via diffusion into surrounding water.
Multicellular organisms: Have specialized organs for excretion.
Location: Abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.
Function: Filter waste products from the blood to produce urine. The basic filtration
units in the kidneys are nephrons, which consist of a cluster of thin-walled blood
capillaries associated with a cup-shaped end of a tube that collects the filtered
urine. Nephrons selectively reabsorb useful substances like glucose, amino acids,
salts, and water as the urine flows along the tube.

Location: Tubes connecting the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

Function: Transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

Location: Pelvic region.

Function: Stores urine until it is ready to be expelled from the body. The bladder is
muscular and under nervous control, allowing us to control the urge to urinate.

Location: Tube leading from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
Function: Allows urine to be excreted from the body
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Q. What is the structural & functional unit of kidney and explain its function.
Structural & functional unit of kidney/excretion system. Responsible for filtration of blood. There are millions of
nephron in each kidney.
Glomerular Filtration: Blood enters the kidneys, and in the nephrons,
nitrogenous wastes, glucose, water, amino acids, and excess salts are filtered
out. This initial filtrate enters the Bowman’s capsule of each nephron.

Selective Reabsorption: As the filtrate moves through the nephron, useful

substances such as glucose, amino acids, salts, and a significant amount of
water are reabsorbed back into the blood by the capillaries surrounding the
nephron.

Tubular Secretion: Urea, additional water, and excess salts are secreted into
the tubule, which then opens into the collecting duct. The urine then flows
from the collecting ducts into the ureters.

Urine Formation: After filtration and reabsorption, the remaining fluid is

urine, containing waste products and extra water.
Transport: Urine travels from the kidneys through the ureters to the
urinary bladder.
Storage: Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until it becomes full.
Excretion: When the bladder is full, the nervous system triggers the urge
to urinate, and urine is released from the bladder through the urethra
and out of the body.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Name the organs that form the excretory system in human beings.
(b) Describe in brief how urine is produced in human body.
or
Describe the human excretory system with a labeled diagram and explain its function.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Name the organs that form the excretory system in human beings.
(b) Describe in brief how urine is produced in human body.

Answer: (a) Excretory system (Urinary system) in human beings consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra.
(b) In the kidney, the wastes are converted to urine by three processes :
(i) Ultrafiltration : In it, large amount of water along with certain harmful substances like urea, uric acid, K+,
ammonium salts, creatinine, etc., and certain useful substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc., pass
through glomerular capillaries and glomerular membrane into cavity of Bowman’s capsule of nephrons under
pressure. The filtrate so formed is called nephric filtrate which is moved towards ureter.
(ii) Selective reabsorption : In it, large amount of water and sodium, whole of glucose and amino acids and
small amount of urea are passed back from nephric filtrate into blood capillaries. It occurs either by back
diffusion (i.e., water and urea) or active transport (i.e., Na+, glucose and amino acids). It generally occurs in
PCT (Proximal convoluted tubule) of nephrons.
(iii) Tubular secretion : In this, certain harmful chemicals like uric acid, creatinine, K+, etc., are passed from
blood capillaries surrounding the nephron into nephric filtrate by active transport. It generally occurs in DCT
(Distal convoluted tubule) of nephrons. Now, the fluid is termed as urine and is excreted out of the excretory
organs.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)
1. Hemodialysis Process: Blood is drawn and passed through a dialysis machine. The
machine has semi-permeable tubes in a dialysing fluid (same osmotic pressure as blood,
but no waste). Wastes diffuse out of the blood into the fluid. Purified blood is sent back
into the body.
2. Difference from Natural Kidney: No reabsorption in artificial kidney.Natural kidneys
filter 180L of fluid daily, but only 1-2L is excreted after reabsorption.

Excretion in Plants

Oxygen as a Waste Product: Oxygen, produced during photosynthesis, is considered a

waste product and is released through the process of transpiration.
Dealing with Gases: Plants manage excess oxygen and carbon dioxide through stomata
during gas exchange.
Transpiration: Excess water is removed by transpiration through stomata in leaves.
Dead Tissues and Leaf Shedding: Plants use dead cells and shed leaves to eliminate
waste. Waste products are often stored in parts of the plant that will be discarded.
Cellular Vacuoles: Many waste products are stored in the vacuoles of plant cells.
Storage in Leaves: Some waste products are stored in leaves that eventually fall off the
plant.
Resins and Gums: Old xylem stores waste products in the form of resins and gums.
Excretion into Soil: Plants can also excrete some waste substances directly into the soil
around their roots.
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Control and
Coordination
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Coordination: working together of the various organs of an organism to adjust various
activities of life.

Stimuli: change in the environment that can cause a physical or behavioral change in a
living organism.

Response: the reaction of an organism to an internal or external stimulus.

Receptors: Cells or groups of cells in Effectors: Parts of the body that respond to
sense organs that detect stimuli and impulses sent by the nervous system, converting
convert them into impulses. them into actions. e.g. muscles and glands.

Photo receptors Phono receptors Thermo receptors Olfactory receptors Gustatory receptors
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Nervous system Endocrine system

Hormones
Central Peripheral

Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Fore - Brain Arise from the brain Arise from spinal cord

Mid - Brain
Hind- Brain
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Q. (a) Draw a neat diagram of a
The structural & functional unit of nervous system.
neuron and label (i) dendrite and NEURONS: Longest cell of the human body.
(ii) axon. Also tell there functions.

Cell body Axon

Acquired information Longest fibre on the cell body. It
travels as an transmits electrical impulse from cell
electrical impulse. body to dendrite of next neuron.

Synapse:
Dendrites Gap between the nerve ending of
one neuron and dendrite of the
Acquires information
other neuron.
Electrical signal Chemical signals
Nerve impulse is an electrical signal
carrying information in the nervous Nerve ending
system, initiated by receptor cells in Neuromuscular junction (NMJ):
response to environmental stimuli. a synaptic connection between the
terminal end of a motor nerve and muscle.

Dendrites Cell body Axon Nerve ending Synapse

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Sensory neurons Motor neurons Relay Neurons

They help in transmitting nerve impulse They help in transmitting nerve impulse from They connect sensory and
from receptor to central nervous system. central nervous system to a muscle or gland motor neuron.

Aspect Voluntary Actions Involuntary Actions Reflex Actions

Actions occurring without conscious Sudden, automatic responses to

Definition Actions under conscious control
control stimuli

Involves the brain’s thinking and Controlled by the autonomic nervous Controlled by the spinal cord via
Control
decision-making system or lower brain centers reflex arc

Pulling hand away from a hot

Examples Walking, writing, speaking Heartbeat, digestion, breathing
object, blinking
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Q. What is a reflex arc? Describe its pathway with a diagram.

Reflex Actions: Involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli without conscious thought. Example:
Pulling hand away from a hot object.

Reflex Arc: Direct nerve pathway from sensory neuron

to spinal cord and then to motor neuron for quick
action.
Purpose: Prevents injury by providing an immediate
response before the brain processes the information.
Brain Involvement: Reflex actions occur via the spinal
Stimulus
cord, but the brain still receives the signal for Receptors
awareness.
Evolutionary Advantage: Helps in survival by enabling
Spinal cord
fast responses, especially in animals with less- Effector
developed brains. Response
Motor neuron
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Q.Reflex arcs continue to be more efficient for quick responses." Justify this statement with a reason.

Answer: Reflex action is an automatic and spontaneous response to a stimulus. The pathway taken by
nerve impulses and responses in a reflex action is called a reflex arc. It consists of receptor, sensory nerve
(afferent), spinal cord, motor nerve (efferent) and effector (muscles or glands). Reflex arc is evolved in
animals because the thinking process of the brain is not fast enough. Reflex arc enables the body to give
quick responses to harmful stimuli so that chances of damage to body are decreased. It also prevents
overloading of brain, so prevents its fatigue. Many animals have very little or none of the complex neuron
network needed for thinking. So, it is likely that reflex arc has evolved as an efficient way of functioning in
the absence of true thought processes. However, even after complex neuron networks have came into
existence, reflex arcs continue to be more efficient for quick responses.
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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYTEM

Most complex or specialized part of

brain (largest also). Consists of
cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus.
Functions: Thinking part of the brain
Control the voluntary actions.
Store information.
Receives sensory impulse
Centre associated with hunger.

Controls involuntary actions such as:

controls voluntary act. Eg: Changing pupil size.
blood pressure, salivation, reflex movement of head, neck and trunk.
vomiting.

Control involuntary actions, regulation

of respiration

controls posture and balance. Precision

of voluntary act.
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Spinal Cord Functions: Not just for reflex actions; also transmits information to the brain.
Part of the Central Nervous System (CNS) along with the brain.
Connects with the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) to communicate with the body.
Brain as the Main Control Centre: Controls both voluntary (e.g., walking, writing) and involuntary (e.g.,
heartbeat, digestion) actions. It is made up of Fore-brain, Mid-brain, and Hind-brain.

Fore-brain (Thinking & Sensory Centre)

Cerebrum: Largest part of the brain, responsible for sensory perception, voluntary actions, thinking, and
intelligence.
Thalamus: Relays sensory signals to the cerebrum and regulates consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
Hypothalamus: Controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, emotions, and the endocrine system.

Mid-brain & Hind-brain (Control of Involuntary Actions)

Mid-brain & Medulla (Hind-brain) regulate blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.
Pons - It also controls invountary actions and regulate respiration.
Cerebellum (Hind-brain) controls balance, coordination, and posture (e.g., cycling, walking).
Q: How are delicate tissues like the brain and spinal cord protected?
Answer. The brain is protected inside a bony box (skull). It is further cushioned by a fluid-filled balloon that
absorbs shocks.
The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column (backbone).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Which part of the human brain is:

(i) the main thinking part of the brain?
(ii) responsible for maintaining the posture and balance of the body?

(b) How brain and spinal cord are protected in human ?

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MOVEMENTS
Not related to growth Related to growth

Positive - part grows or moves towards the stimulus

NASTIC TROPIC
Negative - part grows or moves away from the stimulus

Thigmonasty Phototropism
Non-directional movement in response to touch (e.g., Mimosa pudica). Shoots grow towards light, roots grow
away.
Photonasty Hydrotropism
Non-directional movement in response to light (e.g., dandelion, moonflower) Roots grow towards water.

Geotropism
Nastic Movement Tropic Movement Roots grow towards gravity, shoots
grow opposite.

Non-directional response to stimuli. Directional response to stimuli.

Chemotropism
Growth towards or away from chemicals.
Fast movement. Slow movement.
Thigmotropism
Growth in response to touch.
Involves flat organs (leaves, petals). Involves all plant parts.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
FUNCTIONS:
Coordination in Plants Germination of seeds (or Breaking the dormancy of seeds).
Growth of root, stem, and leaves.
Movement of stomata (or stomatal movement) in leaves.
HORMONES (PHYTOHORMONES) Flowering of plants
Ripening of fruits

Growth of a plant can be divided into three stages: 1.Cell division 2.Cell enlargement 3.Cell differentiation (or cell specialization

Plant Hormone Function

Auxin Promotes cell elongation, helps in phototropism (bending towards light), and root development.

Gibberellins Stimulates stem elongation, seed germination, and flowering.

Cytokinins Promotes cell division, delays aging of leaves, and helps in fruit and seed development.

Abscisic Acid
Inhibits growth, induces dormancy in seeds, and helps in closing stomata during water stress.
(ABA)

Ethylene Promotes fruit ripening and helps in leaf and flower shedding.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Raghav potted some germinated seeds in a pot. He put the pot in a cardboard box that was opened
from one side. He keeps the box in a way that the open side of the box faces sunlight near his window.
After 2-3 days, he observes the shoot bends towards the light, as shown in the image.

Which type of tropism does he observe?

(a) Geotropism
(b) Phototropism
(c) Chemotropism
(d) Hydrotropism
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structure made of cells or tissue that

GLANDS secretes specific substances in the body.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS EXOCRINE GLANDS

Secrete substances directly into the bloodstream (ductless). Secrete substances through ducts onto body surfaces.
Substances are hormones. Substances include enzymes, sweat, saliva, etc.
Secretion occurs throughout the body via blood. Secretion occurs on external body surfaces or into body cavities.
Examples: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands. Examples: Sweat glands, salivary glands, digestive glands.
Part of the endocrine system. Not part of the endocrine system.

HORMONES: Chemical messengers in the bloodstream that

regulate and control the activity of organs and tissues.

Feedback Mechanism: A process that maintains hormonal

balance by adjusting hormone secretion in response to changes
in hormone levels.
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Gland Location Hormone Function Related Condition

Pituitary Gland Below the brain Growth Hormone Controls body growth (bones, muscles)- master gland Dwarfism, Gigantism

Thyroid Gland Attached to windpipe Thyroxine Regulates metabolism of carbs, fats, and proteins Goitre (iodine deficiency)

Parathyroid Embedded in thyroid

Parathormone Regulates calcium and phosphate levels in blood -
Gland gland

Lower neck/upper Develops immune system; large in children, shrinks

Thymus Gland Thymus Hormone -
chest after puberty

Pancreas (dual Regulates blood sugar levels; insulin helps glucose

Below the stomach Insulin & Glucagon Diabetes
gland) uptake

Prepares body for 'fight or flight' response (increases

Adrenal Glands On top of kidneys Adrenaline -
heart rate, breathing, energy mobilization)

Male reproductive
Testes Testosterone Controls male puberty (voice, hair growth) -
organs

Female reproductive Estrogen & Controls female puberty (voice, skin, breasts);
Ovaries -
organs Progesterone progesterone supports menstrual cycle and pregnancy
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.Name the endocrine glands associated with the following functions and the hormones they secrete:
1. Regulation of blood sugar level.
2. Growth and development of the body.
3. Fight or flight response
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Q.Q8: Write in tabular form the location and function of the hormones secreted by each of the following
glands present in the human body:
(A) Pituitary gland
(B) Thyroid gland
(C) Pancreas

Ans: (A) Pituitary Gland

Location: At the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain.
Function: Secretes growth hormone, which regulates the growth and development of the body.
(B) Thyroid Gland
Location: In the neck region.
Function: Secretes thyroxine hormone, which regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats in the body.
(C) Pancreas
Location: Just below the stomach.
Function: Secretes insulin hormone, which lowers the blood sugar level.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q.A cheetah, on seeing a prey moves towards him at a very high speed. What causes the movement of his
muscles? How does the chemistry of cellular components of muscles change during this event?
Answer:
The cheetah senses its prey by photoreceptors and the information is sent to the central nervous system.
The response is then carried by neurons. Along with nervous system, the hormonal system also plays a
role. Adrenaline hormone produced by the adrenal glands triggers the flight or fight action. On seeing a
prey, these hormones are released into the cheetahs blood stream. It speeds up heartbeat, breathing
increases blood flow into leg muscles and causes liver to put more stored glucose into cheetahs blood. All
these actions of adrenline hormone produces a lot of energy which helps cheetah to run fast.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

HOW DO ORGANISMS
REPRODUCE?
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Reproduction: is a biological process by which living organisms produces new individuals similar to
themselves. It ensures continuity of life on earth and helps in evolution of species.

DNA: (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) is thread-like structure that carries all information about our traits and is
passed from one generation to the next.

DNA Copying Process Errors in Copying Variations in DNA

(Biochemical reactions are not fully (DNA is not identical to the original)
reliable)

Extreme Variation ➔ New cell can't Mild/Moderate Variation ➔

function ➔ Cell dies No severe consequences
(Cell continues to function normally)
VARIATION:
The differences in traits among individuals of a species caused by genetic changes. Variations play a
crucial role in adaptation and evolution

Useful variation
Not a useful variation
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Q. State the importance of variation in species.
Importance:
Survival in Changing Environment: Variations help species adapt to environmental changes, increasing their chances of
survival.
Basis for Evolution: Beneficial variations accumulate over generations, leading to the evolution of new species.
Disease Resistance: Some variations provide resistance to diseases, ensuring the survival of certain individuals.
Better Adaptation: Variations help organisms adjust to different habitats and conditions.
Continuity of Species: Variations prevent species from becoming extinct due to sudden environmental changes.
Although variation helps the species, some changes might not be good for an individual in their specific environment, which
could make it harder for them to survive.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Two parents are involved Only one parent is involved

Gamete formation occurs No gamete formation occurs

Fertilization occurs Fertilization does not occur

Offsprings formed are genetically diverse Offsprings are genetically identical to the parent

MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Fission budding Fragmentation Regeneration spore formation vegetative propagation

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Q.Reason for the greater similarities among the offsprings produced by asexual reproduction, is:

(i) Asexual reproduction involves only one parent

(ii) Asexual reproduction involves two parents

(iii) Asexual reproduction involves gametes

(iv) Asexual reproduction does not involve gametes

(a) (i) and (ii)

(b) (i) and (iii)

(c) (ii) and (iv)

(d) (i) and (iv)

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Write one main difference between asexual and sexual mode of reproduction. Which species is likely to have

comparatively better chances of survival – the one reproducing asexually or the one reproducing sexually?

Give reason to justify your answer

Answer: Difference between asexual and sexual mode of reproduction is as follows : Asexual reproduction:

Gametes are not formed hence fertilisation does not take place. Sexual reproduction: Gametes are always

formed and fertilisation takes place to form a zygote. Species reproducing sexually has a better chance of

survival as variations occur only during the sexual reproduction. Variations increase the chances of survival of

an individual by making them more fit. Selection of variations by environmental factors forms the basis of

evolution
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Fission: Fission: A type of asexual reproduction in which a unicellular organism splits to form two or more new
individuals.

1. Binary Fission: A type of asexual reproduction where a single parent organism divides into two nearly equal-sized
daughter cells. The process begins with nuclear division (karyokinesis), followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis),
resulting in two identical daughter organisms. Leishmania, a unicellular organism, undergoes binary fission in a specific
direction due to its whip-like structure. It causes Kala-Azar disease.

Binary fission in Amoeba

Binary fission in Leishmania

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2. Multiple Fission: A type of asexual reproduction where the parent organism divides into many small daughter cells. The
nucleus divides multiple times before the cytoplasm splits, forming several daughter nuclei. In Plasmodium (malarial
parasite), during unfavorable conditions, a tough cyst forms around the cell. When favorable conditions return, the cyst wall
breaks, releasing multiple daughter cells.

Multiple fission in Plasmodium

Binary Fission Multiple Fission

A single parent cell divides into two daughter cells. A single parent cell divides into multiple daughter cells at once.

Can be simple (Amoeba) or oriented (Leishmania, divides in a specific direction due to its whip-
Occurs as a survival mechanism, especially in unfavorable conditions.
like structure).

Produces two daughter cells. Produces many daughter cells.

Example: Amoeba, Leishmania. Example: Plasmodium (malarial parasite).

Occurs in favorable conditions. Can occur in unfavorable conditions by forming a protective cyst.
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Fragmentation is a type of asexual reproduction in which an organism breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation,
and each piece develops into a new individual. This process occurs in simple multicellular organisms that can
regenerate lost parts.
Organisms like Spirogyra break into fragments, each growing into a new individual.
Only works in simple organisms with less specialized cell organization.
How Fragmentation Occurs:
1. The mature parent organism breaks into fragments naturally or due to external factors like water currents.
2. Each fragment grows and develops into a complete organism.
3. This process leads to rapid population growth under favorable conditions.

Spirogyra (a filamentous green algae) breaks into smaller

pieces, and each fragment grows into a new individual.
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Some organisms like Hydra and Planaria regrow entire bodies from cut parts.
Performed by specialized cells that undergo developmental changes.
Not a primary mode of reproduction, as it depends on external damage.

Regeneration in Hydra Regeneration in Planaria

Seen in organisms like Hydra.

A new organism grows as a bud on the parent body, matures, and detaches to live independently.

Budding in hydra Budding in Yeast

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Spore formation is a type of asexual reproduction in which the parent organism produces
tiny spores that grow into new individuals under favorable conditions.

How Spore Formation Occurs:

The parent organism develops thread-like structures called hyphae (non-reproductive
parts).
Tiny blob-on-a-stick structures appear, which are sporangia (spore-producing bodies).

Inside the sporangia, numerous spores are formed. Spore formation in Rhizopus
When mature, the sporangium bursts, releasing spores into the surroundings.
Under favorable conditions (moisture, warmth), each spore germinates into a new Rhizopus individual.
Example: Rhizopus (bread mould) reproduces through spore formation. The hyphae grow on moist bread, while the
sporangia release spores to form new mould colonies.

Advantages of Spore Formation:

Survival in Harsh Conditions: Spores are resistant to extreme heat, cold, and drought, ensuring survival.
Wide Dispersal: Spores are lightweight and spread by wind, water, or animals, helping colonization.
Rapid Population Growth: Large numbers of spores are produced, ensuring species survival despite losses.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The method of producing new plants from vegetative parts like roots, stems, and leaves.

Reproductive part Vegetative part

This part of the plant (flower) which is involved in These parts of the plant (stem, leaf, root) are not
the process of sexual reproduction. involved in the process of sexual reproduction.
refers to plants that grow without human intervention. New plants develop
Natural vegetation: from the leaves, roots, or stems of the parent plant.

By Underground Stem: Tubers: Swollen, fleshy underground stems with

buds (eyes). Example: Potato (Buds grow into new plants).
By Root: Tuberous roots: Fleshy roots with buds that detach and grow
into new plants. Examples: Sweet Potato, Dahlia, Tulip.
By Leaves: Leaf buds: Adventitious buds grow on leaf margins, fall off,
and develop into plantlets. Examples: Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe.

Artificial vegetative propagation is a method of asexual reproduction in which

Artificial Vegetative
new plants are grown artificially from the stems, roots, or leaves of a parent
Propagation : plant with human intervention.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Methods of Artificial Vegetative Propagation:
🔹 Cutting: A cut portion of stem, root, or leaf is planted in soil, where it develops roots
and grows into a new plant. Example: Rose, Hibiscus, Sugarcane.

🔹 Layering: A lower branch of a plant is bent and covered with soil while still attached
to the parent plant. After rooting, it is cut off and grows independently. Example:
Jasmine, Strawberry.

🔹 Grafting: A part of one plant (scion) is joined to the root system of another plant
(stock)to combine desired traits. Example: Mango, Apple, Rose.

🔹 Tissue Culture: A few plant cells are grown in a nutrient medium under controlled
conditions to develop into a complete plant. Example: Orchid, Banana. Used for disease-
free plant production (e.g., ornamental plants).

Advantages of Artificial Vegetative Propagation:

Faster Growth: Plants grow faster than from seeds.
Genetic Similarity: Offspring are identical to the parent plant.
Desirable Traits: Maintains good quality plants (e.g., disease resistance, better
yield).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A Planaria worm is cut horizontally in the middle into two halves P and Q such that the part P contains the

whole head of the worm. Another Planaria worm is cut vertically into two halves R and S in such a way that

both the cut pieces R and S contain half head each. Which of the cut pieces of the two Planaria worms could

regenerate to form the complete respective worms?

(a) Only P

(b) Only R and S

(c) P, Rand S

(d) P, Q, R and S
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The ability of a cell to divide into several cells during reproduction in Plasmodium is called

(a) budding

(b) multiple fission

(c) binary fission

(d) reduction division

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Name and explain the process taking place in the given diagram.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Name and explain the process taking place in the given diagram.

Answer. The process shown in the diagram is Spore Formation, an

asexual mode of reproduction.
Explanation:
Rhizopus (bread mold) reproduces through spore formation.
It produces spores inside sporangia (blob-like structures present at
the tips of hyphae).
When the sporangium matures, it bursts, releasing spores into the
surroundings.
These spores are lightweight and dispersed by wind, water, or
animals.
Under favorable conditions, spores germinate and develop into new
individuals.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What happens when

(a) accidently, Planaria gets cut into many pieces-

(b) Bryophyllum leaf falls on the wet soil

(c) on maturation sporangia of Rhizopus bursts?

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What happens when

(a) accidently, Planaria gets cut into many pieces-

(b) Bryophyllum leaf falls on the wet soil

(c) on maturation sporangia of Rhizopus bursts?

Answer: (a) When Planaria accidently gets cut into many pieces then its each piece grows into a complete

organism. This is known as regeneration. (b) When the Bryophyllum leaf falls on the wet soil, the buds present

in the notches along the leaf margin develop into new plants. This is known as vegetative propagation. (c) The

sporangia of Rhizopus contain cells or spores that can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals when it

bursts on maturation.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. What is vegetative propagation? Write two of its advantages.

Answer: Vegetative propagation is a method of asexual reproduction in plants where new plants are produced

from the roots, stems, leaves, or buds. Advantages include:

It helps preserve the characters of the plants through successive generations as the genetic character is

the same for the parent plant and offspring.

It allows for the propagation of plants that do not produce viable seeds
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. During a biology experiment, a student observed two different types of asexual reproduction in organisms.

In the first case, a hydra was seen developing a small bud on its side, which eventually detached to form a new

individual. In the second case, an amoeba was observed undergoing a process where it elongated and divided

into two equal parts, resulting in two new amoebas.

Questions:

1. Identify the two types of asexual reproduction observed in the case study.

2. Explain the process of budding in hydra and binary fission in amoeba, highlighting the steps involved in each

process.

3. Draw and label neat diagrams to illustrate both budding in hydra and binary fission in amoeba.

4. Discuss the advantages of asexual reproduction in organisms.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Answer.
1. Types of Asexual Reproduction: Budding (in hydra), Binary fission (in amoeba)
2. Process Explanation:
Budding in Hydra:
A small bud forms on the side of the hydra.
The bud grows and develops tentacles and a mouth.
Eventually, the bud detaches, becoming a new individual.
Binary Fission in Amoeba:
The amoeba's nucleus divides by mitosis.
The cell elongates and the cytoplasm begins to split.
The cell membrane pinches inwards, dividing the amoeba
into two equal parts.
4. Advantages of Asexual Reproduction:
Rapid population increase.
Does not require a mate, making reproduction easier in
isolated environments.
Offspring are genetically identical, which can be beneficial
in stable environments.
 It is a mode of reproduction that depends on the involvement of two individuals
Sexual Reproduction before a new generation can be created.
Steps in sexual reproduction
Formation of gametes in the sex organs.
Transfer of male gamete to female gamete.
Fusion of gametes, either inside or outside the female parent's body.
Development of the zygote to embryo and then complete individual.

Advantages of sexual reproduction

Variations are produced among the progeny.
Such populations are able to adapt well to changing environment and thus evolves faster.

Gamete formation

Gametes transfer

Fertilization

Formation of zygote

Development of
zygote into embryo

Growth and development of embryo

into a whole new individual.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Parts Function

SEPALS Usually green and provide protection to flower during bud stage

PETALS Brighly coloured and have strong fragrance to attract pollinators

ANTHER Produces pollen grain which consists male gametes

FILAMENT It forms the stalk that bears anther

STIGMA Recievea pollen grain during pollination

Elongated structure, connects stigma and ovary, pollen tube travel

STYLE
through the style to reach the ovule.

OVARY Basal swallen part of pistil, converts into fruit after fertilization.

OVULE Present inside ovary, consists of female gamete, site of fertilization.

 PRASHANT KIRAD
Reproduction in plants

Stamen/Male reproductive organ Pistil/Carpel/Female reproductive organ

BISEXUAL: Both stamen and pistil are UNISEXUAL: either stamen or pistil is
present in a same flower. E.g., Rose, lily present. E.g., Papaya, Watermelon,

Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of a pistil. This can happen
through wind, insects, or other agents.
Agents of pollination

Example - Wind Example - Birds, Insects,

and water Abiotic Biotic Bats, and snails

Self-pollination – Pollen transfers within the same flower.

Cross-pollination – Pollen transfers between different flowers via wind, water, or animals.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Fertilization – Pollen germinates, a pollen tube forms, and male germ-cells fuse with female gametes in the ovary to
form a zygote.Pollination: Pollen grain carrying the male gamete lands on the stigma.
Pollen Tube Formation: The pollen grain germinates, forming a pollen tube that grows towards the ovule.
Male Gamete Transfer: The male gamete travels through the pollen tube and reaches the ovule via the micropyle.
Fertilization: The male gamete fuses with the female gamete inside the ovule, forming a zygote.
Post-fertilization Changes –
Petals, sepals, stamens, style, and stigma wither and fall.
The ovule matures into a seed.
The ovary develops into a fruit.
The endosperm provides nutrients for the developing embryo.

Pollination Fertilization

Transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of a flower. Fusion of male gamete with female gamete.

Achieved by the growth of the pollen tube, allowing the male gamete to reach
Achieved by agents like wind, water, or animals.
the female germ cell.

Leads to fertilization. Leads to the formation of seeds.

External process. Internal process.

 PRASHANT KIRAD
Seed is the final product of Sexual reproduction.
Seed develops into embryo which then develops into seedling under favorable conditions.

Parts of Seed:
Seed coat - It is the protective layer.
Cotyledon - Food storage & provides nourishment to growing embryo.
Embryo
- Plumule - Shoot system
- Radicle - Root system

PARTS OF SEED

SEED COAT
EMPRYO COTYLEDON

PLUMULE RADICLE
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Part(s) of a flower which attracts insects for pollination is (are)

(a) Petals and Sepals

(b) Anther and Stigma

(c) Petals only

(d) Sepals only

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Length of the pollen grain depends upon the distance between ________.

(a) pollen grain and upper surface of stigma

(b) pollen grain on upper surface of stigma and ovule

(c) pollen grain in anther and upper surface of stigma

(d) upper surface of stigma and lower part of style

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (i) Name the part marked A in the diagram.

(ii) How does A reaches part B?

(iii) State the importance of the part C.

(iv) What happens to the part marked D after fertilisation is over?

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The image shows the structure of a flower. Which of the following processes will likely be disturbed

or not occur if the labelled part is removed from the flower?

a) Formation of fruit

b) Transport of pollen

c) Formation of pollen

d) Development of the pollen tube

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain the process of fertilization in flowering plants. What happens to the ovary and ovule after

fertilization?
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Explain the process of fertilization in flowering plants. What happens to the ovary and ovule after

fertilization?

Answer. After pollination, the pollen grain lands on the stigma and germinates, forming a pollen tube that

extends through the style and reaches the ovary. The male gamete travels through the pollen tube and fuses

with the female gamete (egg cell) inside the ovule, resulting in the formation of a zygote. This process is called

fertilization.

What Happens After Fertilization?

The ovule develops into a seed. 🌱

The ovary matures into a fruit, which protects the seed. 🍎
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Puberty is the period during which sexual maturation occurs, leading to reproductive capability.
Changes During Puberty:
Common in both genders: Growth of thick hair in armpits and genital areas, oily skin, pimples, and increased
awareness of bodily changes.
Girls: Breast development, menstruation starts, darkening of nipple tips.
Boys: Growth of facial hair, deepening of voice, enlargement of penis, occasional erections.

Why does puberty occur?

The body prioritizes growth first; reproductive tissues mature later as body growth slows down.

Sexual Maturity Indicators: Body changes (hair growth, body structure) signal readiness for reproduction.

Role of Male & Female Organs:

Penis is specialized for sperm transfer.
Female reproductive system matures for pregnancy and breastfeeding.

Males Females

Sperm cell Egg cell

Male sex hormone Female Sex hormones
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Functions of the Male Reproductive System:
Produces germ cells (sperms).
Delivers sperms to the site of fertilization.
Organ Location/Structure Function

Located in the scrotum, outside the Produce sperm and secrete

Testes
abdominal cavity. testosterone.

Sac-like muscular structure outside the Maintains a lower temperature for

Scrotum
abdominal cavity. sperm production.

Tube connecting the epididymis to the Transports sperm to the urethra

Vas deferens
urethra. during ejaculation.

Secretes fluid that nourishes sperm

Seminal vesicle Located near the base of the bladder.
and forms part of semen.

Secretes fluid that protects sperm

Prostate gland Below the bladder, around the urethra.
from acidity.
🔥 Key Concepts:
Bladder Located in the pelvic region. Stores urine. Scrotum helps maintain a lower temperature
essential for sperm production.
Urethra
Tube extending from the bladder to the Conveys sperm and urine for Testosterone controls male puberty and sperm
penis. discharge. production.
Sperms are carried in semen, which aids
External organ of the male reproductive Deposits sperm in the vagina and
Penis
system. disposes of urine.
transport and nutrition.
Urethra serves as a common passage for both
urine and sperms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Which among the following is not the function of the testes at puberty?

(i) Formation of germ cells

(ii) Secretion of testosterone

(iii) Development of placenta

(iv) Secretion of estrogen

a) (i) and (ii)

b) (ii) and (iii)

c) (iii) and (iv)

d) (i) and (iv)

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) What is puberty?

(b) Describe in brief the functions of the following parts in the human male reproductive system.

(i) Testes (ii) Seminal vesicle (jii) Vas deferens (iv) Urethra

1. Why are testes located outside the abdominal cavity?

2. State how sperms move towards the female germ cell.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) What is puberty?

(b) Describe in brief the functions of the following parts in the human male reproductive system.
(i) Testes (ii) Seminal vesicle (jii) Vas deferens (iv) Urethra
1. Why are testes located outside the abdominal cavity?
2. State how sperms move towards the female germ cell. (2020)

Ans: (a) The age at which the sex hormones begin to be produce and the boy and girl becomes sexually mature, i.e., able
to reproduce is called puberty.
(b) (i) Testes: The two testes in male are the sites where male gametes, i.e., sperms are formed. Testes also produce the
male sex hormone called testosterone.
(ii) Seminal vesicles: Seminal vesicles are one pair of sac-like structures near the base of bladder. Seminal fluid is a
watery alkaline fluid that contains nutrients (fructose) which serve as a source of energy for the sperm. Each seminal
vesicle releases its contents into the ejaculatory duct during ejaculation. (iii) Vas deferens: This is a straight tube, about
40 cm long, which carries the sperms to the seminal vesicles, where mucus and a watery alkaline fluid containing
fructose, mix with the sperms. (iv) Urethra : It is a long tube that arises from urinary bladder. Urethra carries urine from
the bladder as well as sperms from the vas deferens, through the penis.
(c) Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity because sperm formation requires a lower temperature than normal
body temperature. The temperature of the testes in the scrotum is about 2-
2.5°C lower than normal body temperature. This temperature is ideal for sperm formation and development.
(d) The sperms present in the testes of man are introduced into the vagina of the woman through penis during
copulation. Millions of sperms are released into the vagina at one time. The sperms are highly active and mobile. They
travel from here upward through the uterus at the top of fallopian tube within five minutes.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Based on the given diagram answer the questions given below:

(a) Label the parts A, B, C and D.
(b) Name the hormone secreted by testis and mention its role.(c) State the functions of B and C in the process
of reproduction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Based on the given diagram answer the questions given below:

(a) Label the parts A, B, C and D.
(b) Name the hormone secreted by testis and mention its role.(c) State the functions of B and C in the process
of reproduction.

Ans: (a) A-Ureter

B - Seminal vesicle
C - Urethra
D - Vas deferens
(b) Testes produce male sex hormone testosterone Hormone testosterone brings about the development of
secondary sexual characters during puberty in boys like growth of facial hair, deepening of voice, build up of
muscle mass and also regulates formation of sperms.
(c) Seminal vesicles (B) release its contents into the ejaculatory duct during ejaculation. Urethra (C) carries
sperms from the vas deferens through the penis.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw a neat and labeled diagram of the human male reproductive system. Write its main functions.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw a neat and labeled diagram of the human male reproductive system. Write its main functions.

Answer. Main Functions of the Human Male Reproductive System:

Sperm Production: The testes produce sperm cells (germ cells) in the
seminiferous tubules.
Hormone Secretion: The testes secrete testosterone, which regulates
sperm formation and causes secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty.
Sperm Transport: The vas deferens transports sperm from the testes to
the urethra.
Seminal Fluid Production: Glands such as the prostate and seminal vesicles
add fluids to sperm, providing nourishment and facilitating transport.
Common Passage: The urethra serves as a passage for both urine and
sperm.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Functions of the Female Reproductive System:
Produces female germ cells (eggs or ova).
Provides a site for fertilization and supports embryo development.
Secretes female reproductive hormones.

Organ Location/Structure Function

Paired organs located in the lower Produces female gametes (ova/eggs) and
Ovary
abdomen, on either side of the uterus. secretes estrogen and progesterone.

The process in which an ovary releases an Release of an ovum from the ovary,
Ovulation
egg. typically occurring once a month.

Tubes extending from the sides of the Transports the egg to the uterus and
Fallopian Tube
uterus. provides the site for fertilization.

Houses and supports the developing

Hollow, muscular organ located in the pelvic
Uterus embryo; implantation occurs in the
cavity.
endometrium.
🔥 Key Concepts:
Ovaries produce eggs and hormones.
Connects the uterus to the vagina, acts as a Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes.
Cervix Narrow, lower part of the uterus. passage for sperm, and dilates during
The uterus supports embryo development.
childbirth.
The placenta facilitates nutrient and waste
exchange.
Muscular canal extending from the cervix to Receives sperm during intercourse and
Vagina
the external body. serves as the birth canal during delivery.
Childbirth happens through uterine contractions.
Menstruation occurs if the egg is not fertilized.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Fertilization and Development of Embryo:
Sperms enter the vagina during intercourse and travel to the fallopian tube.
If sperm meets the egg, fertilization occurs, forming a zygote.
The zygote divides to form an embryo, which implants in the uterus.
The placenta (a special tissue) provides:
Nutrition (glucose, oxygen) from mother’s blood.
Removes waste from the embryo.
Pregnancy lasts about 9 months.
Childbirth occurs through rhythmic contractions of the uterus.
Implantation: is the process where the fertilized egg (zygote) attaches to the lining of the uterus to develop into an embryo.
Nutrition to embryo:
A placenta is a special tissue connection between the embryo and the uterine wall.
The lining of the uterus thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
The embryo receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother’s blood through the placenta.
It is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue.
This provides a large surface area for nutrition and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
Waste substances produced by the embryo are removed through the placenta into the mother’s blood.

Zygote Foetus

It is fertilized egg formed after the fusion of the sperm with the It is a state of the embryo that shows all the main recognizable body parts of a mature
egg. organism.

The zygote divides several times to from an embryo. An embryo gradually develops into a foetus.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
What Happens When the Egg is Not Fertilized?
The egg survives for about one day if fertilization does not occur.
The uterus prepares its lining every month for possible pregnancy.
If the egg is not fertilized, the uterine lining breaks down and is expelled
through the vagina.
This process is called menstruation, which lasts for about 2 to 8 days.
The menstrual cycle repeats roughly every 28 days.
MENSTRUATION:
The ovary releases one egg each month, causing the uterus to thicken its lining in preparation for potential fertilization.
If the egg is not fertilized, it survives for about a day, and the uterine lining is no longer needed.
This lining breaks down and is expelled through the vagina as blood and mucus.
This monthly process, known as menstruation, typically lasts 2 to 8 days.
Menarche: 11 - 12 years Mensturation: 12 - 50 years Menopause: 50+ years
ASPECT MALE GAMETE (SPERM) FEMALE GAMETE (OVUM)

Size Smaller Larger than sperm

Motility Motile (Swims using tail) Non-motile

Production Site Produced in testes Produced in ovary

Quantity Produced in large numbers Only one is released per month

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) In the female reproductive system of human beings, state the functions of:

(i) Ovary (ii) Oviduct.

(b) Mention the changes which the uterus undergoes, when

(i) it has to receive a zygote. (ii) no fertilisation takes place.

(c) State the functions of placenta.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) In the female reproductive system of human beings, state the functions of:
(i) Ovary (ii) Oviduct.
(b) Mention the changes which the uterus undergoes, when
(i) it has to receive a zygote. (ii) no fertilisation takes place.
(c) State the functions of placenta.
Ans: (a) (i) The ovaries in female are primary sex organs (or female gonads) which perform the dual function - production
of female gametes (eggs or ova) and secretion of female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
(ii) Oviducts or fallopian tube are paired tubes originating near the ovaries of their respective sides and extend upto
uterus. The terminal part of fallopian tube is funnel-shaped with finger-like projections called fimbriae lying near ovary.
Fimbriae pick up the ovum released from ovary and push it into fallopian tube.
Fertilisation also takes place in the oviduct.
(b) (i) As the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself, every month to receive fertilised egg
by making its lining thick and spongy to nourish the zygote if fertilisation takes place. (ii) When the female gamete/egg is
not fertilised, this lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and
mucus through menstrual cycle that takes place every month.
(c) Placenta performs the following functions:
(i) All nutritive elements from maternal blood pass into the fetus through it.
(ii) Placenta helps in respiration i.e., supply of oxygen and removal of CO2 from fetus to maternal blood. (iii) Fetal
excretory products diffuse out into maternal blood through placenta and are excreted by
mother.
(iv) Placenta also secretes various hormones during pregnancy.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Identify the given diagram. Name the parts 1 to 5

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Identify the given diagram. Name the parts 1 to 5

Ans: (a) The given diagram is the sectional view of human female reproductive system. The labelled parts are:

1. Funnel of fallopian tube or oviduct

2. Ovary

3. Uterus or womb

4. Cervix

5. Vagina
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) List two preparations shown every month by the uterus in anticipation of pregnancy in humans. (b) Why

is variation important in organisms?

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) List two preparations shown every month by the uterus in anticipation of pregnancy in humans. (b) Why

is variation important in organisms?

Answer: (a) The two preparations shown every month by the uterus in anticipation of pregnancy in human are:

(i) the wall of uterus becomes thick to receive the fertilised egg and

(ii) the uterine wall is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

(b) Variation is important in organisms because:

Adaptation to Environment: Helps organisms survive environmental changes.

Foundation of Evolution: Drives natural selection and evolution of species.

Prevents Extinction: Increases chances of survival during diseases or climate changes.

Diversity in Traits: Leads to better chances of survival for the population.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw a neat and labeled diagram of the human female reproductive system. Write its main functions.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Draw a neat and labeled diagram of the human female reproductive system. Write its main functions.
Answer. Main Functions of the Human Female Reproductive System
Egg Production: The ovaries produce eggs (female germ cells) and secrete hormones like estrogen and
progesterone.
Egg Transport: The oviducts (fallopian tubes) carry the matured egg from the ovaries to the uterus.
Fertilization Site: The oviducts are the site where sperm can meet and fertilize the egg.
Embryo Development: The uterus provides a suitable environment for the fertilized egg (zygote) to implant and
develop into a fetus.
Nutrient Transfer: The placenta, formed from embryonic and maternal tissues, facilitates nutrient and waste
exchange between the mother and the developing embryo.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
It is the overall well-being of an individual in all aspects related to reproduction, including physical,
emotional, and social health.
It involves safe reproductive practices, awareness, and the prevention of diseases.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are infections passed from one person to another through sexual
contact with an infected individual.

Gonorrhea, Syphilis Bacterial Infections Viral Infections HIV-AIDS, Genital Warts

Contraception: Methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy. It includes techniques like condoms, oral
pills, intrauterine devices (IUDs), and sterilization procedures. It should be adopted
To prevent unwanted children.
To maintain the distance between two children and plan the family
To prevent sexually transmitted diseases.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
1. Mechanical/barrier method
Barrier methods, such as condoms (for males and females) and diaphragms (for females), prevent
the sperm and ovum from meeting.
They also help prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases by blocking the intermixing
of body fluids.

2. Chemical Methods:
Hormonal contraceptives, such as oral and vaginal pills, prevent ovulation, alter cervical mucus, or
change the uterine lining to prevent implantation. However, these methods may have side effects and
do not protect against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

3. Intrauterine Devices (IUDs):

These are small T-shaped devices that are planted in the uterus.
Copper-T or Loop placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy.
Can cause uterine irritation in some cases.

4. Surgical Methods (Permanent):

Male (Vasectomy): Blocking the vas deferens to prevent sperm transfer. Tubectomy
Female (Tubectomy): Blocking the fallopian tubes to prevent egg transfer.
Surgery is safe in the long run but may have risks like infection.
Vasectomy
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Which of the following is a surgical method of contraception?

(A) Use of a condom

(B) Copper-T insertion

(C) Vasectomy

(D) Oral pills

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Which among the following diseases is not sexually transmitted?

a) Syphilis

b) Hepatitis

c) HIV-AIDS

d) Gonorrhea
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Suggest three contraceptive methods to control the size of human population which is essential for the
health and prosperity of a country. State the basic principle involved in each.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Suggest three contraceptive methods to control the size of human population which is essential for the
health and prosperity of a country. State the basic principle involved in each.
Answer: Three contraceptive methods which can help to control human population are:
(i) Condom : It is a mechanical barrier which does not allow sperms and ovum to meet, hence prevents
fertilisation. Condoms are made of thin rubber/latex sheath used to cover the penis in the male and
vagina/cervix in female just before coitus (intercourse) so that the ejaculated semen is not released in the
female reproductive tract.
(ii) Intrauterine devices (IUDs): These are devices inserted by doctors or expert nurses in the uterus through
vagina. These are presently available as non-medicated IUDs, copper releasing IUDs (CuT, etc.) and hormone
releasing IUDs. They increase phagocytosis of sperms within uterus and suppress sperm motility and its
fertilising capacity. They also make uterus unsuitable for implantation and cervix hostile to sperms.
(iii) Oral pills : These pills contain progesterone alone or a combination of progestogen and estrogen. They
inhibit ovulation and make uterus unsuitable for implantation, hence prevent fertilisation.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q: Name the part/organ of the human female reproductive system

1. where contraceptive devices such as loop or copper-T are placed to prevent pregnancy.

2. which is blocked to prevent the transfer of eggs.

3. where formation of green cells as ova takes place.

4. from where the embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q: Name the part/organ of the human female reproductive system (2022)

1. where contraceptive devices such as loop or copper-T are placed to prevent pregnancy.
2. which is blocked to prevent the transfer of eggs.
3. where formation of green cells as ova takes place.
4. from where the embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood.
Ans:
1. The part/organ of the human female reproductive system where contraceptive devices such as loop or
copper-T are placed to prevent pregnancy is the uterus or womb. These devices are inserted into the uterus
to inhibit fertilization and implantation of a fertilized egg.
2. The part/organ of the human female reproductive system that is blocked to prevent the transfer of eggs is
the fallopian tubes. These tubes connect the ovaries to the uterus, and they are blocked or sealed off in
certain contraceptive methods or sterilization procedures to prevent the eggs from reaching the uterus for
fertilization.
3. The part/organ of the human female reproductive system where the formation of green cells as ova takes
place is the ovaries. Ovaries are responsible for producing and releasing mature eggs, or ova, during the
menstrual cycle.
4. The part/organ of the human female reproductive system from where the embryo gets nutrition from the
mother's blood is the placenta. The placenta is a temporary organ that develops during pregnancy and
attaches to the uterine wall. It facilitates the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between
the mother's blood and the developing fetus.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. The growing size of the human population is a cause of concern for all people. The rate of birth and death in
a given population will determine its size. Reproduction is the process by which organisms increase their
population. The process of sexual maturation for reproduction is gradual and takes place while general body
growth is still going on. Some degree of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean that the mind or body is
ready for sexual acts or for having and bringing up children. Various contraceptive devices are being used by
human beings to control the size of population.
(i) List two common signs of sexual maturation in boys and girls. (ii) What is the result of reckless female
Foeticide?
(iii) Which contraceptive method changes the hormonal balance of the body? (iv) Write two factors that
determine the size of a population.

Ans: i Two common signs of sexual maturation in boys and girls are:
1. Growth of pubic hair and extra hair in the armpits.
2. Development of oily skin and pimples.
(ii) Female Foeticide is reducing the number of girls drastically in our country, due to which male-female sex
ratio is also declining.
(iii) Chemical contraceptive method changes the hormonal balance of the body.
(iv) The rate of birth and death in a given population will determine the size of a population.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

HEREDITY
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The process of passing down traits and characteristics from parents to their offspring through genes.
Variation: The differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same species are
called variations. Environmental and genetic variations are types of variation in a species.
Importance of Variations:
Variations help some organism to fit better in the struggle for existence.
Variations help to adapt according to the changing environment.
Discontinuous variations produce new traits in the organisms.
Variation is essential for growth and it takes place during sexual reproduction.
Variations give each organism a distinct individuality.

Accumulation of Variation During Reproduction

Asexually Sexually

Variation are fewer. Variation are large.

Occurs due to small inaccuracies in DNA Occurs due to crossing over, separations of chromosomes.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Genetics is the branch of biological sciences which deals with the study of genes, genetic variation, and
heredity in living organisms.

Father of genetics - Gregor Johann Mendel Willam

Bateson coined the term genetics

Q. List two difference between Acquired Traits and inherited Traits.

Acquired Traits Inherited Traits

a) Do not change germ cells Bring changes in germ cells

b) Cannot be passed on to future generations Can be passed on to their progeny

c) Do not lead to evolution May lead to evolution

Example: Losing limbs due to an accident Example: Deformed limbs at birth due to a genetic defect
 PRASHANT KIRAD

DNA is a molecule that contains genetic information for the development and functioning of an
organism.
Chromatin: refers to a mixture of DNA and proteins that form the chromosomes found in the cells of
humans and other higher organisms
Chromosomes: is a DNA molecule that consists of a part or all of the genetic material of an organism

Genes: a segment of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity and is passed
from parent to child, is a molecule that contains genetic information for
the development and functioning of an organism.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Haploid Cells Diploid Cells

Contain one set of chromosomes (n). Contain two sets of chromosomes (2n).

Formed by the process of meiosis. Undergo mitosis for division.

Examples: Sperm and egg cells. Examples: Nerve and muscle cells.

Rules of inheritance
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Alleles: a pair of genes that occupy a specific location on a particular chromosome and control the
same trait

Recessive allele
Dominant allele
Homozygous Heterozygous The recessive allele is the
The dominant allele is the Condition: Condition: weaker of the two alleles.
stronger of the two alleles. Inherits Inherits Represented by a lowercase
Represented by a capital identical different letter, it remains suppressed
letter, it determines the alleles of a alleles of a in the presence of a
dominant traits. gene from gene from dominant allele.
Dominant traits manifest in both parents each parent.
Recessive traits are
both homozygous and
expressed only in the
heterozygous conditions.
homozygous condition.
Q. List two difference between dominant and recessive traits.
- Genotype: The unique DNA sequence or allele combination inherited from parents.
- Phenotype: Observable traits like appearance and behavior, influenced by genotype and environment.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Homozygous Dominant Homozygous Recessive

Heterozygous Condition
Condition Condition

TT Tt tt
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

F1 Generation : Generation produced as a result of cross fertilization.

F2 Generation : Generation produced as a result of selfing or self-fertilization of F1
generation.
Haploid cells contain only one set of Chromosomes (n).
Diploid, as the name indicates, contains two sets of chromosomes (2n).
ALL CELLS OF HUMAN BODY ARE DIPLOID EXCEPT SPERM AND OVUM

Annual Plant I

Short Life Cycle I

Why only pea
plant? Choice of cross orI self-fertilization
Pisum sativum
Large no. of offsprings
S

7 pairs of allelic characteristics

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Law of Dominance: In heterozygous pairs, the dominant allele masks the recessive one.
Law of Segregation: Traits have two alleles that separate during gamete formation; one
from each parent combines during fertilization.
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently into
gametes.
Gamete Formation: Meiosis, a two-step process gives rise to gametes. The outcome of
this process is 4 haploid daughter cells, each of which contains only one set of
chromosomes. Through the process of fertilization (which can either be external or
internal), they unite forming the zygote. The zygote is the future foetus which is diploid
in nature containing two sets of chromosomes, each from both the parents.

Characters/traits like T are

called dominant trait
( because it express itself )
and t are recessive traits.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Mono Hybrid Cross:

A cross between two types of plants of same species considering only the
transmission of one character is called monohybrid cross. For example, a
cross between tall pea plants and dwarf pea plant that is considering only
the height of the parents is a monohybrid cross.

3:1 is monohybrid phenotypic ratio.

Genotypic ratio: 1:2:1

Dihybrid cross:

A dihybrid cross is a breeding experiment between two organisms

which are identical hybrids for two traits.
Two characters are considered while crossing.
A cross in which inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters is
simultaneously studied
Phenotypic Ratio (F1 Generation) : 9 : 3: 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio: 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In peas, a pure tall (TT) is crossed with a pure short plant(tt). The ratio of pure tall plants to pure short
plants in the F2 generation is:
(a) 1:3
(b) 3:1
(c) 1:1
(d) 2:1
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. In humans, if gene B gives brown eyes and gene b gives blue eyes, what will be the colour of the eyes of
the person having combination (i) Bb (ii) BB:
(a) (i) Brown (ii) Brown
(b) (i) Blue (ii) Blue
(c) (i) Blue (ii) Brown
(d) (i) Brown (ii) Blue
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Why did Mendel carry out an experiment to study the inheritance of two traits in the garden peas?
(b) What were the findings with respect to the inheritance of traits in the F1 and F2 generations?
(c) State the ratio obtained in the F2 generation in the above-mentioned experiment.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. (a) Why did Mendel carry out an experiment to study the inheritance of two traits in the garden peas?
(b) What were the findings with respect to the inheritance of traits in the F1 and F2 generations?
(c) State the ratio obtained in the F2 generation in the above-mentioned experiment.

Answer:(a) Mendel performed crosses between two qualities to observe how they interacted and how their inheritance
patterns differed. Mendel conducted a dihybrid cross, and it was found that each character exhibited itself
independently of the other when two pairs of characters were taken into account.
(b) An example of a cross between parents would be a round yellow and wavy green hybrid.
All plants of the F1 generation have spherical yellow seeds. The F2 generation, on the other hand, contains a wide
variety of plants, including round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow, and wrinkled green.
F2 generation ratio :
Round-yellow = 9 : Round- green = 3 : Colour of stem in the F1 progeny Wrinkled- yellow = 3 : Wrinkled-green = 1
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. How did Mendels experiments show that different traits are inherited independently? Explain.

Answer: In a dihybrid cross given by Mendel, it was observed that

when two pairs of traits or characters were considered, each trait
expressed independent of the other. Thus, Mendel was able to
propose the Law of Independent Assortment which says about
independent inheritance of traits. This could be explained clearly
from the given cross:

F2 generation ratio : Round-yellow = 9 : Round- green = 3: Wrinkled-

yellow = 3: Wrinkled-green = 1
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. A green stemmed rose plant denoted by GG and a brown stemmed rose plant denoted by gg are allowed to undergo a
cross with each other.
(a) List your observations regarding :
(i) Colour of stem in their F1 progeny
(ii) Percentage of brown stemmed plants in F2 progeny if plants are self pollinated.
(iii) Ratio of GG and Gg in the F2 progeny.
(b) Based on the findings of this cross, what conclusion can be drawn?

Answer:
(a) (i) Colour of stem in F1 progeny:
(b) This is a monohybrid cross. This shows that out
of two contrasting traits only one dominant trait
appears in F1 generation and the trait which does
not express is recessive. On selfing the F1 plants,
both the traits appear in next generation but in a
definite proportion.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these 23 pairs, 22 pairs are

Autosomes and only one pair is the ‘Sex Chromosome’, which actively
takes part in the process of sex determination.
Both males and females carry two sets of sex chromosome.
Male has one X and one Y (XY) sex chromosome in which both are active
Female has both X (XX) sex chromosome in which one is active.
The XY sex-determination system is found in humans, mammals, in some
insects, and in few plant species.
All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother, despite
whether they are a boy or girl. Thus, the sex of the children will be
determined by the type of chromosome inherited from their father.
A child who inherits Y chromosome will be a boy and who inherits X
chromosome will be a girl.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Q. Humans have two different sex chromosomes, X and Y. Based on Mendel’s laws, a male offspring will
inherit which combination of chromosomes?
(a) Both the X chromosomes from one of its parents
(b) Both the Y chromosomes from one of its parents
(c) A combination of X chromosomes from either of its parents
(d) A combination of X and Y chromosomes from either of its parents
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Q. It is a matter of chance whether a couple will have a male or a female child.” Justify this statement by
drawing a flow chart.
or
Explain how the sex of a child is determined in human beings.
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Q. It is a matter of chance whether a couple will have a male or a female child.” Justify this statement by
drawing a flow chart.
or
Explain how the sex of a child is determined in human beings.

Answer: Sex is determined at the time of fertilisation when male and female gametes fuse. Male produces
two types of gametes, i.e., having X or Y chromosome and female produces same type of gametes
containing X chromosomes. The sex of the child is determined at the time of fertilisation when male and
female gametes fuse to form zygote.
If a sperm (male gamete) carrying X chromosome fertilises
an egg or ovum (female gamete) carrying X chromosome,
then the offspring will be a girl (female). This is because the
offspring will have XY combination of sex chromosomes.
Therefore, there are 50% chance of a male child and 50%
chance of a female child.
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our environment
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The environment refers to the surroundings and conditions in which an organism or community of
organisms lives, including physical, chemical, and biological factors.

a community of living organisms and their physical

Ecosystem environment that interact together in a specific area

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem

The ecosystem which exist in nature on its own. Man-made ecosystem.
Example: forest, lake, ocean. (Aquarium, Garden, Crop field etc )

Aquatic Territorial

Marine Fresh water

Forest Desert Grassland
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Living Organism Non living organisms

Biotic components Aboitic Components

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
Physical factors Chemical factors
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Air Protein,
All green plants and Include all animals which Include organisms which Organic
fats
blue green algae can depend on producers decompose the dead plants Water
produce their own directly or indirectly for and animals. Example:
food using abiotic their food bacteria, fungi, earthworms Minerals
factors. Hydrogen,
Inorganic
(i) Herbivores: Plant Eaters Oxygen
e.g., goat, deer, etc. Soil

(ii) Carnivores: Flesh Eaters

e.g., tiger, crocodile, etc.
Fundamental energy
(iii) Omnivores: Eat both plants
and animals e.g., human. driving our climate system Sunlight
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Environment Ecosystem

The physical and biological surroundings where A system where living (biotic) and non-living
organisms live. (abiotic) components interact.

Includes all the external conditions affecting an Includes interactions like food chains, food webs,
organism's life. and nutrient cycles.

Environment changes as an organism moves from Ecosystems remain stable regardless of an

one place to another. organism's movement.

Focuses on the physical surroundings like air, Focuses on interactions between biotic and abiotic
water, and land. factors like plants, animals, and sunlight.

Environment does not depend directly on life Ecosystems depend on processes like
processes. photosynthesis and decomposition.
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Food Chain: Food Web:

A series of organisms feeding on one A food web is a network of interconnected food
another. chains showing complex feeding relationships in an
ecosystem.
It demonstrates how each organism can be
consumed by multiple organisms and vice versa.
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It is the position an organism occupies in a food chain,
Trophic level based on its role in the flow of energy

First Level: Autotrophs/Producers (e.g., green plants)

Fix solar energy and convert it into chemical energy.
Second Level: Herbivores/Primary Consumers
Third Level: Small carnivores/Secondary Consumers
Fourth Level: Larger carnivores/Tertiary Consumers

ENERGY FLOW:

The 10% law of energy transfer, proposed by Raymond Lindeman, states that only 10% of
the energy from one trophic level is passed on to the next level in a food chain. The
remaining 90% is lost as heat, during movement, growth, and other life processes.
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KEY OBSERVATIONS about ENERGY FLOW:
Green plants capture 1% of solar energy falling on their leaves.
At each trophic level:
Heat loss: A large part of energy is lost as heat to the environment.
10% Rule: Only 10% of the consumed energy is converted into biomass and made
available to the next level.
Due to energy loss, food chains are usually limited to 3-4 levels.
Producers are the most numerous, with numbers decreasing progressively at higher
trophic levels.

Progressive accumulation of harmful chemicals (e.g.,

BIO MAGNIFICATION pesticides) in organisms at higher trophic levels.
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Q. (a) Describe trophic levels in an ecosystem and explain the flow of energy through them.
(b) Why do producers always occupy the first trophic level in every food chain?

(a) Trophic Levels in an Ecosystem:

Trophic levels represent the different stages in a food chain, where organisms obtain energy. The main
trophic levels are:
1. Producers (1st Trophic Level): Green plants and algae that prepare food using sunlight through
photosynthesis.
2. Primary Consumers (2nd Trophic Level): Herbivores that feed on producers (e.g., deer, grasshopper).
3. Secondary Consumers (3rd Trophic Level): Carnivores that eat herbivores (e.g., frog, snake).
4. Tertiary Consumers (4th Trophic Level): Top predators that feed on secondary consumers (e.g., lion,
eagle).
Flow of Energy:
Energy flows in one direction from Sun → Producers → Consumers.
Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next (as per the 10% Law), while the
rest is lost as heat.
(b) Producers always occupy the first trophic level because they are the only organisms that can convert
solar energy into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. They serve as the foundation of every
food chain.
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Q. Explain the phenomenon of biological magnification with respect to pesticide accumulation in a food
chain.
Answer. Biological Magnification is the increase in toxic substance concentration (like pesticides) at higher
trophic levels in a food chain.
Process:
Pesticides enter plants (producers) from soil/water.
Herbivores eat plants, accumulating toxins.
Carnivores consume herbivores, further increasing toxin levels.
Top consumers (e.g., eagles) have the highest toxin concentration.
Effects:
Health issues (nerve damage, cancer).
Reproductive problems (thin eggshells in birds).
Ecosystem imbalance (decline in predators).
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Q. (a) Gardens and aquariums are created by humans, yet they are considered ecosystems.
Justify this statement.
(b) Why is it necessary to clean an aquarium regularly while natural ponds and lakes do not
require frequent cleaning?

Answer.(a) A garden is an ecosystem because it has both biotic (plants, insects, birds,
microbes) and abiotic (soil, water, sunlight) components interacting with each other.
Similarly, an aquarium is also an artificial ecosystem, where fish (biotic) depend on water,
oxygen, and food (abiotic) for survival.
Since energy flow, nutrient cycles, and interactions occur in both, they function like natural
ecosystems, even though they are man-made.
(b) Aquariums need regular cleaning because they lack natural decomposers and self-
sustaining cycles found in ponds and lakes. In natural water bodies, decomposers break down
waste, maintaining balance. However, in an aquarium, waste accumulates, depleting oxygen
and harming aquatic life, requiring manual cleaning for survival.
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Q. The amount of energy that flows from one trophic level to another in a food chain is
a) 5%
b) 10 %
c) 20 %
d) 15 %
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Q. In the following food chain, 100 J of energy is available to the lion. How much energy was available to
the producers?
Plants → Deer → Lion
In the given food chain, what will be the impact of removing all the organisms of the second trophic level
on the first and third trophic levels? Will the impact be the same for the organisms of the third trophic
level in the above food chain if they were present in a food web? Justify.

Answer. Energy Available to Producers:

According to the 10% Law, energy decreases at each trophic level. Since the lion has 100 J, the deer
had 1000 J, and the plants had 10,000 J of energy.
Impact of Removing Deer (Second Trophic Level):
Plants (First Level): Increase due to no grazing.
Lions (Third Level): Decrease due to no prey.
Impact in a Food Web:
If lions were part of a food web, they could hunt other herbivores, so their survival wouldn't be
immediately affected.
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Q. Give differences between a food chain and a food web and also tell the reason why is the flow of
energy in an ecosystem unidirectional? Explain briefly.

Aspect Food Chain Food Web

A linear sequence of organisms where each A network of interconnected food chains showing multiple
Definition
organism is eaten by the next one. feeding relationships.

Structure Simple and direct. Complex with many interconnections.

Energy Flow Follows a single path of energy flow. Shows multiple paths of energy flow.

Stability Less stable as it depends on a single chain. More stable due to alternative feeding pathways.

Example Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk ← Eagle ← Rabbit

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional because energy moves from the Sun to
producers (plants) through photosynthesis, and then to consumers (herbivores, carnivores, etc.).
At each trophic level, energy is lost as heat due to metabolic processes, and only a fraction
(about 10%) is passed on to the next level.
This energy loss prevents energy from being recycled or flowing back, ensuring that energy
transfer remains unidirectional.
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Ozone Layer and its Depletion :

Q. What is the ozone layer? Discuss the causes and effects of its depletion.

OZONE: Molecule made of three oxygen atoms.

Protects Earth from harmful UV radiation, which can cause skin
cancer in humans.
Ozone is formed when UV rays split oxygen molecules (O₂), and
free oxygen atoms combine with O₂ to form ozone (O₃):
O₂ → O + O (by UV rays)
O + O₂ → O₃ (ozone formation)
Stratosphere
Depletion of ozone layer
It is mainly depleted due to synthetic chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in
refrigerators.
CFCs are very stable, so they do not degrade easily and rise in the atmosphere. In atmosphere,
UV radiation breaks CFC molecules in the release of chlorine which in reaction with ozone
breaks it into oxygen molecules.
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Harmful effects of Depletion of the ozone layer
Respiratory Issues: Ground-level ozone can cause or worsen respiratory problems, such as asthma
and other lung diseases.
Irritation: It can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, leading to discomfort and health issues.
Plant Damage: Ozone exposure can harm vegetation, affecting crop yields and forest health.
Air Quality: Ground-level ozone is a key component of smog, contributing to poor air quality and
environmental pollution.
Global Warming: While ozone in the stratosphere protects against UV radiation, ground- level
ozone acts as a greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming

Waste
Unwanted or unusable substances produced as a result of various human and natural activities
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Q. Which of the following is responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer:
a) CFCs
b) Oxygen
c) SO₂
d) CO₂
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Q. A gas 'X' which is a deadly poison is found at the higher levels of the atmosphere and performs an
essential function. Name the gas and write the function performed by this gas in the atmosphere.
Which chemical is linked to the decrease in the level of this gas? What measures have been taken by an
international organization to check the depletion of the layer containing this gas?
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Q. A gas 'X' which is a deadly poison is found at the higher levels of the atmosphere and performs an
essential function. Name the gas and write the function performed by this gas in the atmosphere.
Which chemical is linked to the decrease in the level of this gas? What measures have been taken by an
international organization to check the depletion of the layer containing this gas?

Ans: Gas 'X' is Ozone.

Ozone shields the surface of the earth from ultra-violet (UV) radiations from the sun.
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
Succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels / Manufacturing of CFC
free refrigerators
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Improvements in lifestyle have resulted in
Garbage disposal : accumulation of large amounts of waste material.

Types of waste
Ozone depletion

Biodegradable Non-Biodegradable

Can be decomposed by natural Cannot be decomposed by natural Air, soil and

organisms like bacteria and fungi. organisms.
water pollution
Harmful
Causes long-term pollution and
Does not cause long-term pollution.
environmental harm.
effects of
waste
Breaks down in a short time (days to Takes hundreds to thousands of years Bioaccumulation
months). to break down.

Examples: Paper, food waste, cotton, Examples: Plastic, glass, metals,

wood. polythene.
Bio
Q. Differentiate between Biodegradable and non bidegradable waste magnification
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Some methods of Waste disposal

CHALLENGES: Improper disposal of plastics and electronic waste harms the soil and water.
Recycling processes, like for plastics, may also have environmental impacts.
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Q. Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem. Why are they important for nutrient cycling?

Answer:Role of Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms, primarily bacteria and fungi, that break down
dead organic matter, such as dead plants and animals. They play a crucial role in recycling nutrients back
into the ecosystem. Importance for Nutrient Cycling: By decomposing organic material, they release
essential nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil, making them available for plants. This
process is vital for maintaining soil fertility and promoting healthy plant growth, which is essential for the
overall health of the ecosystem.
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Q. What is biodiversity? List the threats to biodiversity and discuss their effects on ecosystems.

Answer: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms in a particular habitat or ecosystem, encompassing
the diversity of species, genetic variation, and the range of ecosystems present. Threats to Biodiversity:
Habitat Destruction: Activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural expansion lead to
the loss of natural habitats, making it difficult for species to survive.
Pollution: Contamination of air, water, and soil can adversely affect the health of various species,
leading to reduced reproductive success and population declines.
Climate Change: Altered weather patterns and rising temperatures affect species distributions,
migration patterns, and survival rates.
Overexploitation: Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and resource extraction can deplete species
populations to critical levels.
Effects on Ecosystems: The loss of biodiversity can result in the extinction of species and disruption of
food chains, leading to diminished ecosystem resilience. This decline affects the essential services
ecosystems provide, such as pollination, water purification, and climate regulation, ultimately
threatening human well-being and environmental stability.
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Kal Milte h!