Key questions peer ay Pee Cae) Ph ol co keo rgy you use is obtained b) Tc ee eek eee ues Mitkas phones working. Most of the ene’ coal, oil, and gas. oP eres oo ou kooe ee z-tehel( Ser sackets) cau Pepe ieee needeetinr te cake Wie cost) ol aan Nini pent eee Kent ca na cea Reinier ue cui] ae gue ae hee aR epee ee cen pM RCIN Urea Preach Celt we Rratcasmerey accel ea ar) Ee ensaeniMtee tk OL ute) using energy. You will also learn Nacleana tan Keot le K-arlelg Making connections ticity ge energy stored ai the flick of P15 Electromagnetism Nuclear pov ; y ut burning n uranium to Nn generate sands of homes, You in P7 Radioactivity.BUC yo cao) a I will learn... Noes tase ech oUt] in an object when it is lifted or stretchec Meum nreoEUCh Cus esac ncaa tee) ommckeculer i turvelassea kos e eau How energy is transferred by heating through conduction, How energy transfer by radiation is caus to become warmer. encony object ark out the energy needed to heat a Talo nMmoNeol lor 1CKe iin aca e eae ae] renewable energy resource Rona ae isa aU different energy resources. ao act Practical Topic 1 [Determining the specific heat capacity ofa | P24 metal 2__| Testing sheets of materials as insulators P24y pee LK Learning objectives After this topic, you should know: the ways in which energy can be stored © how energy can be transferred the changes in energy stores that happen when an object falls the energy transfers that happen when a falling object hits the ground without bouncing back On the move Cars, buses, planes, and ships all use fuels as chemical energy stores. They carry their own fuel. Electric trains use energy transferred from fuel in power statons. Electricity transfers energy from the power station to the train Figure 1. The French Train @ Grande Vitesse electric train can reach speeds of more than 500 km/hour Energy can be stored indifferent ways and is transferred by heating, waves, an electric current, or when a force moves an object. Here are some examples © Chemical energy stores include fuels, foods, or the chemicals found in batteries. The energy is transferred during chemical reactions. © Kinetic energy stores describe the energy an object has because it is moving. © Gravitational potential eneray stores are used to describe the energy stored in an object because of its position, such as an object above the ground © Elastic potential energy stores describe the energy stored in a springy object when you stretch or squash it © Thermal energy stores describe the energy a substance has because of its temperature. Energy can be transferred from one store to another. In a torch, the torch’s battery pushes a current through the bulb. This makes the torch bulb emit light, and also get hot. When an electric kettle is used to boil water, the current in the kettle’s heating element transfers energy to the thermal energy store of the water and the kettleWhen an object is thrown into the air, the object slows down as it goes up. Here, energy is transferred from the object's kinetic energy store to its gravitational potential eneray store. You can show the energy transfers by using a flow diagram: ical light waves chee i ere Sry aye | |surentin |—> | transferred to Increase in the Raitecy [thewires | | thesurroundings thermal energy store of the surroundings Figure 2 Changes in energy stores in a torch lamp Energy transfers When an object starts to fall freely, it speeds up as it falls. The force of gravity acting on the object causes eneray to be transferred from its gravitational potential energy store to its kinetic energy store. Lookat Figure 3, t shows an object that hits the floor with a thud. All ofthe eneray in its kinetic energy store is transferred by heating to the thermal energy store of the object and the floor, and by sound waves moving away from the point of impact. The amount of energy transferred by sound waves is much smaller than the amount of energy transferred by heating, increase in the [gravitational Kinetic Jeneray thermal energy store potential | —> |energy | —> |transferto the of the surroundings energy store store surroundings sound waves Figure 4 An energy transfer diagram for an object when it falls and when it hits the ground 1. Describe the changes to eneray stores that take place when: a a ball falls in air [2 marks} b an electric heater is switched on. [2 marks} 2 a Name two different objects you could use to light a room if you have a power cut. For each object, describe the energy, transfers and changes to energy stores that occur when it lights up the room, b Which of the two objects in a is: i. easier to obtain energy from? (4 marks] {,mark) {1 mark] =e kinetic energy increasing Figure 3. An energetic drop. on impact, energy is transferred to the thermal energy store of the surroundings by heating and by ‘sound waves Key points ‘© Energy can be stored in a variety of different energy stores. © Energy is transferred by heating, by ‘waves, by an electric current, or by a force when it moves an object. ‘© When an object falls and gains speed, its store of gravitational potential energy decreases and its, kinetic energy store increases. ‘¢ When a falling object its the ground without bouncing back, its kinetic energy store decreases. Some or all of its eneray is transferred to the surroundings - the thermal energy store of the surroundings increases, and energy is also transferred by sound waves.P1.2 Conservation of energy Learning objectives After this topic, you should know: © what conservation of energy is © why conservation of energy is a very important idea @ what a closed system is howto describe the changes to energy stores in a closed system. Figure 1 Energy transfers on a roller coaster = 4 a caine TS hota gravitational maximum —_ gravitational potential kinetic potential ‘energy ‘energy energy Figure 2 A pendulum in motion, As the pendulum swings down and towards the centre, its gravitational potential energy store decreases as its kinetic energy store increases. As the pendulum moves upwards and away from the centre, its gravitational potential energy store increases as its Rinetic energy store decreases At the funfair Funfairs are very exciting places because changes to stores of energy happen quickly. As a roller coaster climbs an incline, its gravitational potential energy store increases. This eneray is then transferred to other energy stores as the roller coaster races downwards, {As the roller coaster descends, Its gravitational potential energy store decreases, Most of this energy is transferred to its kinetic energy store, ‘which therefore increases. However, some energy is transferred to the thermal energy store of the surroundings by air resistance and friction, and some energy is transferred by sound waves. Investigating pendulums @ ‘When changes to energy stores happen, does the total amount of energy stay the same? You can investigate this question with a simple pendulum. Figure 2 shows a pendulum bob swinging from side to side. {As it moves towards the middle, energy is transferred by the force of gravity from its gravitational potential energy store to its kinetic energy store. So its gravitational potential energy store decreases and its kinetic energy store increases. ‘As it moves away from the middle, its kinetic energy stores decreases and its gravitational potential energy store increases. If the air resistance on the bob is very small the bob will reach the same height on each side. © Describe the changes to energy stores that take place in the bob when it goes from one side at maximum height to the other side at maximum height. ‘© Explain why itis difficult to mark the exact height the pendulum bob rises to. Suggest how you could make your judgement of height more accurate, eS Conservation of energy The pendulum in Figure 2 would probably keep on swinging for ever if it was in a vacuum because there would be no alr resistance acting on it, and so no energy would be transferred from any of its energy stores. There would be no net change to the energy stored in the system. Because of this, it would be an example of a closed system. ‘A system is an object or a group of objects. Scientists have done lots of tests and have concluded that the total energy of a closed system is always the same before and after energy transfers to other energy stores within the closed system.This important results known as the principle of conservation of energy. Itsays that: ‘energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can be stored in various ways, For example: ‘© when rubber band is stretched, its elastic potential energy store increases @ when an object is lifted, its gravitational poter increased. Bungee jumping What energy transfers happen to a bungee jumper after jumping off the platform? © When the rope is slack, energy is transferred from the gravitational potential energy store to the kinetic energy store as the jumper accelerates towards the ground due to the force of gravity. © When the rope tightens, it slows the bungee jumper's fall. This is because the force of the rope reduces the speed of the jumper. The jumper’ kinetic eneray store decreases and the rope's elastic potential energy store increases as the rope stretches, Eventually the Jumper comes to a stop — the energy that was originally in the kinetic energy store of the jumper has all been transferred into the elastic potential energy store of the rope. After reaching the bottom, the rope recoils and pulls the jumper back up. ‘As the jumper rises, the energy in the elastic potential energy store of the rope decreases and the bungee jumper’ kinetic eneray store increases until the rope becomes slack. After the rope becomes slack, and at the top of the ascent, the bungee jumpers kinetic energy store decreases to zero. The bungee jumper’s gravitational potential eneray store increases throughout the ascent. The bungee jumper doesn't return to the original height. This is because some energy was transferred to the thermal energy store ofthe surroundings by heating as the rope stretched and then shortened again. ‘ial energy store is, 1 When a roller coaster gets to the bottom of a descent, describe ‘the energy transfers and changes to energy stores that happen if: a the brakes are applied to stop it (2 marks} b it goes up and over a second hill. (3 marks) a Aball dropped onto a trampoline returns to almost the same height after it bounces. Describe the eneray transfers and changes to the energy stores of the ball from the point of release to the top of its bounce. [3 marks} b Describe the energy stores of the ball at the point of release compared with its energy stores at the top ofits bounce. {1 mark] Describe how you would use the test in ato see which of three trampolines is the bounciest. @) ground ride acts like a gia [5 marks} PCa They ‘¢ Energy cannot be created or destroyed. © Conservation of energy applies to all energy changes. ‘® Aclosed system is a system in which rno energy transfers take place out of or into the energy stores of the system. Energy can be transferred between energy stores within a closed system. The total energy of the system is always the same, before and after, any such transfers.Learning objectives After this topic, you should know: ‘what work means in science how work and energy are related how to calculate the work done by aforce what happens to work done to overcome friction Figure 1 Working out Worked example Abuilder pushed a wheelbarrow ™ a distance of 5.0m across flat ground with a force of SON. How much work was done by the builder? Solution ‘work done = force applied x distance Figure 2 Pulling a lorry Working out Ina finess centre ora gym, you have to work hard to keep fit Lifting tneights and pedaling onan exercise bike ae ust two ways to keep fit Whichever way you choose to Keep fit, you have to apply a force to move something. So the work you do causes a transfer of energy. Wen an object is moved by aforce, works done on the object by the force. So the force transfers energy to the object. The amount of energy transferred to the object is equal to the work done on it. For example, to raise an object, you need to apply a force to it to overcome the force of | gravity ont. Ifthe work you do on the object is 20, the energy transferred toit must be 201 So its gravitational potential energy store increases by 20. energy transferred = work done | The work done by a force depends on the size of the force and the | distance moved, One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes an object to move a distance of one metre in the direction of the force. To calculate the work done by a force when it causes displacement of an object, use this equation: jistance moved along the line of action of the force, s (metres, m) workdone, W = force applied, F x (oules,J) (newtons, N) Superhuman force Imagine pulling a lorry over 40m. On level ground, a pull force of about 2000 is needed. The work done by the pulling force is 80kI (= 2000N x 40m). Very few people can manage to pull with such force, Don't even try, though. The people who can do it are very, very strong and have trained specially for it Carry out a series of experiments to calculate the work done in performing the tasks below. Use a newton-meter to measure the force applied, and use a metre ruler to measure the distance moved. 1 Draga small box a measured distance across a rough surface. 2. Repeat the test above with two rubber bands wrapped around the box (Figure 3). rubber, nds newton bbe Figure 3 At work © Whatis the resolution of your measuring instruments? Repeat your tests and comment on the precision of your repeat measurements. Can you be confident about the accuracy of your results? SeFriction at work Work done to overcome fiction is mainly transferred to thermal energy stores by heating, save 1. Ifyou rub your hands together vigorously, they become warm, Your muscles do work to overcome the friction between your hands. The work you dois transferred as energy that warms your hands, 2 Brake pads on a vehicle become hot if the brakes are applied for too long. Friction between the brake pads and the wheel discs opposes the motion ofthe wheel. The force of friction does work on the breke pads and the wheel discs Asa result, eneray is transferred from the kinetic eneray store ofthe vehicle to the thermal energy store ofthe brake pads and the wheel discs. This makes them become hot and transfer energy by heating to the thermal energy store ofthe surrounding ai. 3 Meteorites are small objects from space that enter the Earth’ atmosphere and fall to the ground. As they pass through the : ; atmosphere, friction caused by air seseisies acts ip them, This Quescron Za's OASirey results in energy being transferred from the meteorite’ gravitational potential energy and kinetic eneray stores to the meteorite’ thermal energy store, causing the meteorite to heat up. Ifa meteorite becomes hot enough, it ows and becomes visible as a'shooting star’ Very small objects can burn up completely. The surface of a space vehicle is designed to withstand the very high temperatures caused by this friction when it re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere. eq bake pedal clei pipes wheel disc Figure 4 Disc brakes 1a Explain what happens to the energy transferred: i. byarower rowing a boat [i mark it by an electric motor used to raise a car park barrier. [1 mark] b Calculate how much work is done when a force of 3000N pulls a truck through a distance of 50m in the direction of the force. (1 mark] 2. Acaris brought to a standstill when the driver applies the brakes a Explain why the brake pads become warm. [2marks] | if you calculate the work done, this is b The car travelled a distance of 20 metres after the brakes were equaltothe energy transfered.) applied. The braking force on the car during this time was \4o000 Sg 7000N, calculate Teneo braking force. his may Poe CSS ‘a Calculate the work done when: ; i. a force of 20N makes an object move 48min the |e Workis done on an object whena direction of theforee %6 Joules {i mark) force makes the object move. ji an object of weight 80N is raised through a height, | | Energy transferred = work done. of12m. G6 JOULES fimarkl "| 6 Work done is W=F s where Fis the b When a cyclist brakes, his Kinetic energy stores reduced faemana ciethe dietatas minted from 14004 to zero in a distance of 7.0m. Calculate the Ba | {along the line of action ofthe brakingfore. 2omy.5) it) force). ¥ ‘A student pushes a box at a steady speed a distance of 12mactoss2 | ¢ Work done to overcome friction level floor. ie ___ «| fstransferred as energy to the a The student applied a horizontal force of 25N tothe box, thermal energy stores of the Calculate the work done by the student, 200 = ma ‘objects that rub together and to the b Describe the energy transfers and changes to energy stores |) surroundings. asthe box moves. PE~wy kineteLearning objectives Changes in gravitational actential enersy stores je ML ome of your After this topic, you should know: Every time you lift an object up, you do some wor y Tg ee muscles transfer energy from the chemical energy store in the muscle to Sp What happens Ur Tea the gravitational eneray store of the object. In calculations we refer to the renee eters an object energy in tis store as gravitational potential eneray E,, when it © why an object moving up has an ‘The force you need to lift an object at constant velocity is equal and increase in its gravitational potential opposite to the gravitational force on the object. So the upward force you energy store rneed to apply to it is equal to the object’s weight. For example, you need © why itis easier to lift an object on a force of 80N to lft a box of weight BON. tthe Moon thian on the Earth © When an object is moved upwards, the energy in its gravitational bee powsccakculate the change it potential energy store increases. This increase is equal to the work gravitational potential energy of an done on it by the lifting force to overcome the gravitational force object when it moves up or down. on the object. © When an object moves down, the enerdf in its gravitational potential energy store decreases. This decrease is equal to the work done by seemed CAFC the gravitational force acting on it. A student of weight 300N climbs th hen an ob don ona fonaplatform thats 12m higher than Te Work done when an object moves up or down depends on the floor, Calculate the increase inher 1 how farit is moved vertically (its change of height) gravitational potential energy store. 2 its weight. | Solution Using work done = force applied x distance moved in the direction of Increase of E,=300Nx1.2m=360) the force: change in object's itational i i Worked example ee ronan _ pee change ai A2.0kg objectiis raised through ious D fons, (metres, m) aheight of 0.4m, Calculate the increase in the gravitational potential energy store of the object. The gravitational field strength of the Earth at its surface is 9.8N/kg. Solution Gain of E, = mass x gravitational field : strength x height gain = 2.0kg x 9.8N/kg x 0.4m 78)Gravitational potential energy stores and mass ‘Astronauts on the Moon can lift objects much more easily than they can (on the Earth. This is because the gravitational field strength on the Moon's surface is only about a sixth of the gravitational field strength on the Earths surface. You have previously learnt that the weight of an object in newtons is equal to its mass x the gravitational feld strength. So, when an object is lifted or lowered, the change to its gravitational potential energy store is equal to its weight x its change of height. Therefore: change of gravitational i on ae mass, x field strength, g Pangea energystore, az. *lograms, kg)“ (newtons per ean joules.) Kilogram, N/kg) MEMES: / 1 a Describe the changes to the energy stores of a ball when it falls and rebounds without regaining its initial height. [4 marks} = b When a ball of weight 1.4N is dropped from rest froma height of 25m above a flat surface, it rebounds to a height of 1.7m above the surface. i Calculate the total energy lost from the ball’s energy stores when it reaches this maximum rebound height. 1-12.42 marks} th. “TT Name two Causes of the energy transfer. (Heat Aeug -[2 marks] : OE 2. Astudent of weight 450N steps on a box of hei a Calculate the increase in her gravitational potential e010) 01 0 oseh b Calculate the work done by the student if she steps on and off the box SO times. QOOO Jour eightliter 1 25kg th o the gr (mark) ue a Watch out for objects going up a slope. To calculate the increase in their gravitational potential energy stores, you need the vertical height gained, not the distance along the slope. = In physics, the greek letter delta (A) is used to represent the phrase ‘change in. For example, Ah can be used in place of “change in height. Corie © The gravitational potential energy store of an object increases when it moves up and decreases when it moves down. The gravitational potential energy store of an object increases when itis lifted up because work is done onit to overcome the gravitational force. The gravitational field strength at the surface of the Moon is less than onthe Earth. The change in the gravitational potential energy store of an object is AE,=mgAhP1.5 Kinetic energy and elastic energy stores Learning objectives After this topic, you should know: @ what the amount of energy ina kinetic energy store depends on @ how to calculate the amount of energy in a kinetic energy store © what an elastic potential energy store is © howto calculate the amount of energy in an elastic potential energy store. Investigating a catapult Use rubber bands to catapult a trolley along a horizontal runway. Find out how the speed of the trolley depends on how much the catapult is pulled back before the trolley is released. For example, see if the distance needs to be doubled to double the speed. Figure 1 shows how the speed of the trolley can be measured. Safety: Take care to ensure you do this safely. Protect your hands and feet, and the bench, from falling trolleys. © ‘The energy an object has because of its motion depends on its mass and speed. This energy is called kinetic energy. Investigating kinetic energy stores @ Figure 1 shows how you can investigate how the kinetic energy” store of an object depends on its speed. millimetre rule Figure 1 Investigating changes in kinetic energy stores 1. The ballis released on a slope from a measured height above the foot ofthe slope. You can calculate the decrease in its gravitational potential energy store by using the following equation: change in gravitational potential energy store = mass x gravitational field strength x change in height. Due to conservation of energy, this decrease in the gravitational potential energy store is matched by an equal increase in its kinetic energy store. 2. The balls timed, using light gates, over a measured distance between X and Y after the slope. © Explain why light gates improve the quality of the data you can collect in this investigation. Table 1 shows some sample results. Table 1 Sample measurements for a ball of mass 0.5 kg 00s | ato | o16 | 020 025 | oso | 080 | 100 o98 | 072 | 057 | aso 102 2.00 Work out the speed of the ball between X and Y in each case. The first, and last values have been worked out for you. Can you see a link between speed and height drop? The results show that the greater the heightdrop, the faster is the speed, So it can be sald that the kinetic energy store of the ball increases ifthe speed increases. The kinetic energy equation Table 1 shows that when the height drop is increased by four times from 0.05m to 0.20, the speed doubles. The height drop is directly proportional to the speed squared, or (speed) Because the height drop isa measure of the balls kinetic energy store, it can be said that the balls kinetic energy store is directly proportional to the square of its speed. ‘The amount of energy in the kinetic energy store of an object can be calculated using the kinetic energy equation below: kinetic energy, E, = 3 x (joules, J) Using elastic potential energy When you stretch a rubber band ora spring, the work you do is stored in itas elastic potential energy. speed? v? (metres per second, m/s}* mass»m x (kilograms, kg) Figure 2 shows how the force F needed to stretch a spring varies with its extension e. The graph obeys the equation for Hooke's Law F =I, where kis the spring constant. Fora spring stretched to an extension e, we can calculate the energy in its elastic potential energy store using the equation below: elastic potential energy, E, spring constant x extension’, ¢? (ules, J) (newtons per metre, N/m) (metres, mj? 1. a Calculate the kinetic energy store of: i avehicle of mass 500kg moving at a speed of 12m/s. [2 marks) | ii a football of mass 044kg moving at a speed of 20mr/s. [2 marks] b Calculate the velocity ofa 500kg vehicle with twice the kinetic energy store as calculated in 2. a Acatapultis used to fire an object into the ait. Describe the energy transfers when the catapult is: i stretched (2marks] i released. b An object of weight 20N fired vertically upwards from a catapult reaches a maximum height of 50m. Calculate: 1 the increase in the gravitational potential energy store of the object (2 marks} ji the speed of the object when itleft the catapult. [4 marks] 3. Acar moving at a constant speed has 360000/ in its kinetic energy store, When the driver applies the brakes, the car stops in a distance of 100m. a Calculate the force that stops the vehicle {3 marks} bb The speed of the car was 30 m/s when its kinetic energy. store was 360000J, Calculate its mass. (3 marks} 4 Amobllty aid to assist walking uses a stee! spring to store energy when the walker’s foot goes down, and it returns energy as the foot is lifted, The spring has a spring constant of 250N/m. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in the spring when its extension [2 marks) is021m, Leen EEE [3 marks} [2 marks} Worked example Calculate the kinetic energy stored ina vehicle of mass 500kg moving at a speed of 12 m/s. Solution Kinetic eneray = Lm 20,5 x 500kg x (12 m/s)? = 360005 In Figure 2, the force F increases as the extension eis increased. The average force when the springs extended to extension cis $F, where F= ke. | Therefore, the energy stored inthe | spring = work done=average force | extension=}F e=dhe 0B force F ° ° extension e Figure 2 Force versus extension for a spring. The spring constant kis the force per unit extension of the spring rons ‘@ The energy in the kinetic energy store of a moving object depends on its mass and its speed. The kinetic energy store of an object isE,=3me? ‘¢ Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an elastic object when work s done on the object. ‘© The elastic potential energy stored ina stretched spring is E,= ke, where ¢ is the extension of the spring.