COMPUTER NETWORKS

CN, 5th Semester

Department of Information Science and Engineering
NMIT
Data and Signals
Physical layer
● The physical layer has complex tasks to perform.

● One major task is to provide services for the data link layer.

● The data in the data link layer consists of O’s and 1’s organized into frames that are
ready to be sent across the transmission medium.

● This stream of O’s and 1’s must first be converted into another entity: signals.

● One of the services provided by the physical layer is to create a signal that represents
this stream of bits.
● One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the form of
electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium.

● Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in a form that can be
transmitted over a network.

● For example, a photograph must first be changed to a form that transmission media
can accept. Transmission media work by conducting energy along a physical path.

● To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

Data
•Data: Data can be in analog or digital form

•Analog data refers to information that is continuous with continuous values

• Clock with hour/min/second hands shows time continuously: analog clock

•Digital data refers to information that has discrete states with discrete values
• Clock with hour/min/second numeric display 3:02:06: Digital clock

Data Communication by transmission:

• To send (transmit) ‘Data’ from one point to another point it must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals
Data Transmission

• To Transmit data, it must be represented in some form

• Example of data: Text, Voice, Pictures, Videos etc.

• Data can be transmitted in following forms:

1. Block oriented information
2. Stream oriented information

• Method of Transmission
• Modulation: Requires a Signal to superimpose data
• Transmit the signal from a transmitter with data/information and
• Receive the signal with data at the receiver
Signal
•A ‘Signal’ can be analog or digital

•Analog signals can have an infinite number

of values in a range

• Digital signals can have only a limited

number of values – 1, 0
 Forms of ‘SIGNAL’ – Periodic & Non Periodic
•Periodic signal (Analog):
• Completes pattern within measurable time frame: ‘Period’

• Repeats pattern over identical periods

• Completion of one full pattern is a ‘Cycle’

• Periodic signals are classified as simple or composite

• Simple periodic signal (sine wave) cannot be decomposed into simpler signals

• A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves

•
In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and non periodic digital signals.
Forms of ‘SIGNAL’ – Periodic & Non Periodic

•Periodic signal can be represented with three parameters:

• Peak Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase

•Non Periodic
Forms of ‘SIGNAL’ – Periodic & Non Periodic
•Periodic signal: Peak Amplitude

The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional
to the energy it carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.

Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes

The power in your house can be represented by a sine wave with a peak amplitude of 155 to 170 V.
Forms of ‘SIGNAL’ – Periodic & Non Periodic
Periodic signal: Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time
• Change in a short span of time means high frequency
• Change over a long span of time means low frequency

• If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero

• If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite

• Frequency and period are the inverse of each other

Forms of ‘SIGNAL’ – Periodic & Non Periodic
Periodic signal: Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to
time 0

A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero

amplitude. The amplitude is increasing (fig. a)

A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with

a peak amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing. (Fib. b)

A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with

a zero amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.
Wavelength and period

Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission

medium.

Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation
speed of the medium
Frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on both the
frequency and the medium.

In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe the transmission of light in an

optical fiber.

The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.

Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation speed (the speed of light) and the
period of the signal.

However, since period and frequency are related to each other, if we represent wavelength by λ,
propagation speed by c (speed of light), and frequency by f, we get

Wavelength = propagation speed x period

 λ = propagation speed (C) / frequency (f)

The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on the
frequency of the signal.

For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 x 108 mls.

That speed is lower in air and even lower in cable.

The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns) instead of meters.

For example, the wavelength of red light (frequency = 4 x 1014) in air is

Representing sine wave in Time-domain and frequency-domain

• A complete sine wave in the time domain

can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain

Frequency domain is easy to plot

we can immediately see the values of the

frequency and peak amplitude.

A complete sine wave is represented by one

spike.

The position of the spike shows the frequency;

its height shows the peak amplitude.
Representing sine waves in Time-domain and frequency-domain

Sine waves, each with different amplitude Represented by three spikes in

and frequency in time domain the frequency domain.
Units of period and frequency
A single frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send a
composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves.

any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.

A composite signal can be periodic or non periodic.

A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a series of simple sine waves with
discrete frequencies - frequencies that have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on).

A non periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite

number of simple sine waves with continuous frequencies, frequencies that have real
values.
Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and frequency domains
Non periodic composite periodic signal in the time and frequency domains
Bandwidth and Signal Frequency

The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
Given the frequencies listed below, calculate the corresponding periods.

a. 24Hz
b. 8 MHz
c. 140 KHz
Given the following periods, calculate the corresponding frequencies.

a. 5 s
b. 12 µs
c. 220 ns
What is the bandwidth of a signal that can be decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies at 0, 20, 50, 100, and 200 Hz? All peak amplitudes are the same. Draw the
bandwidth.
A periodic composite signal with a bandwidth of 2000 Hz is composed of two sine
waves. The first one has a frequency of 100 Hz with a maximum amplitude of 20
V; the second one has a maximum amplitude of 5 V. Draw the bandwidth.
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and
peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency
domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz.
Communication – Analog and Digital
● Analog communication

● Digital Communication

● Difference between Analog and Digital Communication

Digital Communication – In computer to computer communication
• Why digital communication is suited for computer communication

• Properties of Digital Transmission

• Transmission Channel

• Data Transmission through a data communication channel

 Digital Signal representation, Bit rate & length

• A signal is of one or more cycles with defined levels

in a cycle
• In digital domain1 bit can represented in 2 levels
– 0, 1
• For Signal with L levels
- Each level needs Log2 L bits
- For 2 levels: Log2 2 = 1 bit per level
- For 4 levels: Log2 4 = 2 bits per levels
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the
number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number of
bits by using the formula. Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, this answer is
not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For
this example, 4 bits can represent one level.
Bit Rate
Most digital signals are non periodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.
Another term-bit rate (instead of frequency)- is used to describe digital signals.
The bit rate is the number of bits sent, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Bit Length

We have discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle
occupies on the transmission medium.

We can define something similar for a digital signal: the bit length. The bit length is the distance
one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

Bit length =propagation speed x bit duration

Digital Signals as Composite Analog Signal
• From Fourier analysis a digital signal is a
composite analog signal
• Bandwidth is infinite

• Decomposing digital signal

• Periodic digital signal has infinite
Bandwidth and discrete frequency

• Non-periodic digital signal has infinite

bandwidth and the frequency is continuous
Transmission of Digital Signals
• Digital signals can be transmitted in two ways
• Baseband Transmission
• Sending a digital signal as it is
• Requires low pass and bandwidth starting from zero
• Dedicated medium with bandwidth of one channel
• Entire bandwidth in one single channel
• Preserves the shape of the digital signal as defined in case2
• Ideal Case 1 : Low Pass channel with infinite Bandwidth
•
Transmission of Digital Signals
• Baseband Transmission:

• Case 2: Low Pass channel with limited bandwidth

○ Since the bandwidth is limited the digital signal is approximated with an analog signal, levels of
approximation depend on the bandwidth available.

○ The approximation can be done in two methods

■ Rough Approximation

■ Better Approximation
Transmission of Digital Signals
• Baseband Transmission:
• Case 2: Low Pass channel with limited bandwidth - Rough Approximation
○ Assume bitrate = N bits/m to simulate an analog signal, considering the worst-case situation has
maximum changes in the digital signal
○ Ex: 3 bit signal simulated by using analog signals
Transmission of Digital Signals
• Baseband Transmission:
• Case 2: Low Pass channel with limited bandwidth - Better Approximation
Transmission of Digital Signals

• Digital signals can be transmitted in two ways

• Broadband transmission
• Changes digital to analog signal
• Modulation is amplified
• Uses bandpass filters which does not start from zero
• Receiver converts analog signal to digital signal
Transmission Impairment
● Transmission media, air, vacuum, coaxial cable does not provide accurate
lossless mediums for signal transmission.

● The transmission media introduces impairment, because of which the

receiver’s signal is not the same as the transmitted signal.

● There are 3 causes for impairment

• Attenuation
• Distortion
• Noise
Attenuation
● Attenuation means a loss of energy.

● When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its
energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.

● That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while.

● Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.

● To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
● Figure below shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.
Transmission Impairment
● A signal travels from point A to point B. At point A, the signal power is 100 W.
At point B, the power is 90 W. What is the attenuation in decibels?

The attenuation of a signal is -10 dB. What is the final signal power if it was originally 5
W?
We use the decibel to measure the changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers can be
added (or subtracted) when we are measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
Transmission Impairment
● Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.

● Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal
component has its own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore, its own
delay in arriving at the final destination.

● Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the
same as the period duration.

● In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what
they had at the sender.
● The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.
Transmission Impairment
● Noise:
○ Is another cause of signal impairment which occurs while a signal is travelling through a
transmission media.

● Different types of noises are

○ Thermal Noise: due to random motion of electrons in a wire which introduces a extra signal
which is not originally transmitted by the transmitter
○ Induced Noise: comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a
sending antenna and transmission media acts as a receiving antenna
○ Cross Talk: is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the
other as a receiving antenna
○ Impulse noise: is a spike which in a signal with high energy in a very short time. These spikes
come from power lines and lightning
Transmission Impairment
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the signal power to the
noise power.

The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as

We consider the average signal power and the average noise power because these may
change with time.

SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).

A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal is
more corrupted by noise.
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the values of
SNR and SNRdB ?
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Data rate Limits
• How fast or speed with which data can be sent in bits per second over the
channel
• It depends on three factors

• Bandwidth available

• Level of signals used

• Quality of the channel (level of noise)

Data rate Limits
• Data rate can be calculated using

• Nyquist bit rate for noiseless channel

• For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate

• BitRate= 2 x bandwidth x Log2 L

• bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,

• L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and
• BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
1. Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
What can be the maximum bit rate?

BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log2(2) = 6000bps

2. We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels
do we need?
Given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bitrate we want, by increasing the number
of signal levels.

Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit.

When we increase the number of signal level’ s, we impose a burden on the receiver.

If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a
0 and a 1.

If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish
between 64 different levels.

In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
Shannon capacity for noisy channel

• In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.

• Shannon capacity is used, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a
noisy channel

Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR)

bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,

SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and
Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
 Note that in the Shannon formula there is no indication of the signal level, which
means that no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate
higher than the capacity of the channel.

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise

ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

C = B * log2 (1 + SNR)
= B *1og2 (l + 0)
= B *log2 1
= B*0
= 0
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth.
Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone
line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data
communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162.

C = B * log2 (1 + SNR)

= 3000 * log2 (l + 3162)

= 3000 * log2 3163
= 3000 x 11.62
= 34,860 bps

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps.

If we want to send data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of
the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.
Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Find the
theoretical channel capacity?
For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can assume that
SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR.

In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be simplified to

C= B * ( SNRdB /3 )

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of the previous

example as

C = 2 MHz X36/3 = 24 Mbps

 PERFORMANCE
One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how good is
it?

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Jitter
Bandwidth
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth.

However, the term can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth in hertz
and bandwidth in bits per second.

Bandwidth in Hertz
Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of frequencies a
channel can pass. For example, we can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.

Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds

The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a network can
transmit.
For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a maximum of
100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.
Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.

A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link
with T always less than B. In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement
of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.

For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot
send more than 200 kbps through this link.
 Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute with
each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as : total bits / time period

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive
at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission
time, queuing time and processing delay.

Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing time + processing delay

Propagation Time
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation
speed.

Propagation time = Distance/ Propagation speed

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Transmission Time

In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a message.

The first bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its
destination; the last bit also may take the same amount of time.
However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit
arriving at the receiver.
The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives
later.
The time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of the
message and the bandwidth of the channel.

Transmission time =Message size / Bandwidth

 Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an
e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
 Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
Queuing Time
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each
intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can be processed.
The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load imposed on the
network.
When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases

Bandwidth-Delay Product
Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link.
Let us assume that we have a link with a bandwidth of 1 bps.
We also assume that the delay of the link is 5 s We want to see what the bandwidth-
delay product means in this case.
Filling the link with bits
Figure Filling the link with bits
Figure Concept of bandwidth-delay product

The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
A computer network is designed to send information from one point to another.

This information needs to be converted to either a digital signal or an analog

signal for transmission.

How we can represent digital data by using digital signals.

The conversion involves three techniques:

Line coding, block coding, and scrambling.

Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not be
needed.
Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.

We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images,

audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits.

Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the
receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
Line coding and decoding
 Characteristics
1. Data element and a signal element.

A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information: this is the
bit.
In digital data communications, a signal element carries data elements.
A signal element is the shortest unit (time wise) of a digital signal.
In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are what we
can send.
Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.
Define a ratio r which is the number of data elements carried by each signal element.
Following figure shows several situations with different values of r.
Signal element versus data element
Suppose each data element is a person who needs to be carried from one place to another.

We can think of a signal element as a vehicle that can carry people.

When r = 1, it means each person is driving a vehicle.

When r > 1, it means more than one person is travelling in a vehicle (a carpool, for
example).
2. Data Rate Versus Signal Rate

Data rate – Number of data elements transmitted per second (bps).

Signal rate – Number of signal elements transmitted per second (baud).
The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate;
The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate,
or the baud rate.

We can formulate the relationship between data rate and signal rate as
S =c * N * -1/r baud

where N is the data rate (bps);

c is the case factor, which varies for each case;
S is the number of signal elements; and r is the previously defined factor.
 Example
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one
signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is then
3. Bandwidth
Bandwidth (range of frequencies) is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate).

The minimum bandwidth can be given as Bmin = c * N * 1/ r

maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the channel is given. N max = 1/c * B * r
4. Baseline Wandering

In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of the received
signal power.

This average is called the baseline.

The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to determine the value of
the data element.

A long string of Os or 1s can cause a drift in the baseline (baseline wandering) and make it
difficult for the receiver to decode correctly.

A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.

5. DC Components

When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates
very low frequencies.

These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components, present

problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system that uses electrical
coupling.

For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz. Also a
long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate different parts of the line
electrically.

For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC component.

6. Self-synchronization

To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit intervals
must correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals.

If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched and the
receiver might misinterpret the signals.

A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being

transmitted.

This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to the
beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.

If the receiver's clock is out of synchronization, these points can reset the clock.
Effect of lack of synchronization
Line coding schemes
Unipolar Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or
below.
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-
zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O.
It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.
Polar Schemes
In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis.

For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for I can be negative.

Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage amplitude.

We can have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I, as shown in
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.

In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of

the bit.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are
not synchronized.
The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting.
One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive,
negative, and zero.
In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.

1. we see that the signal goes to 0 in the middle

of each bit.

2. It remains there until the beginning of the

next bit.
Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-L are
combined into the Manchester scheme.

In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves.

The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level
in the second half.

The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.

Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I.

There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are
determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the
next bit is 1, there is none.
Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes
 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage levels:
positive, negative, and zero.

The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other element alternates
between positive and negative.

AMI and pseudoternary

A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI).
In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy and means 1.
So AMI means alternate 1 inversion.
A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0.

Binary Is are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.

A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a

zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.
Multilevel Schemes
The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required bandwidth has resulted in
the creation of many schemes.

The goal is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of m data
elements into a pattern of n signal elements.

We only have two types of data elements (0s and 1s), which means that a group of m
data elements can produce a combination of 2m data patterns.

We can have different types of signal elements by allowing different signal levels.

If we have L different levels, then we can produce Ln combinations of signal patterns.

If 2m =Ln, then each data pattern is encoded into one signal pattern.

If 2m <Ln, data patterns occupy only a subset of signal patterns.

Data encoding is not possible if 2m >Ln because some of the data patterns cannot be
encoded.

The code designers have classified these types of coding as mBnL, where m is the length
of the binary pattern, B means binary data, n is the length of the signal pattern, and L is
the number of levels in the signaling.
Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
Multiline Transmission: MLT-3

The multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3) scheme uses three levels (+v, 0, and -
V) and three transition rules to move between the levels.

1. If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.

2. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.
3. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of the last
nonzero level.
Block coding concept

Block coding is normally referred to

as mB/nB coding;

it replaces each m-bit group with an

n-bit group.
Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Converting analog signal to digital data.

❑ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and

❑ Delta Modulation (DM).

Analog to Digital
converter
Components of PCM encoder
 Three processes of PCM encoder are

1. The analog signal is sampled.

2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.
Sampling

• The first step in PCM is sampling.

• The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the sample interval or period.
• The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or sampling
frequency and denoted by Fs, where is = 1/Ts
• There are three sampling methods-ideal, natural, and flat-top-as shown in Figure.
Three different sampling methods for PCM
In ideal sampling, pulses from the analog signal are sampled.

This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be easily implemented.

In natural sampling, a high-speed switch is turned on for only the small period of time
when the sampling occurs.

The result is a sequence of samples that retains the shape of the analog signal.

The most common sampling method, called sample and hold, however, creates flat-top
samples by using a circuit.

The sampling process is sometimes referred to as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).

 Quantization
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the maximum and minimum
amplitudes of the signal.

The set of amplitudes can be infinite with nonintegral values between the two limits.

These values cannot be used in the encoding process. The following are the steps in quantization:

1. We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes between Vmin and
Vmax
2. We divide the range into L zones, each of height ∆ (delta). ∆ =(Vmax - Vmin )/L
3. We assign quantized values of 0 to L - I to the midpoint of each zone.
4. We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized values.

As a simple example, assume that we have a sampled signal and the sample amplitudes are between -20
and +20 V. We decide to have eight levels (L = 8). This means that ~ =5 V. Figure below shows this
example.
Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
❖PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques have been developed to
reduce the complexity of PCM.
❖The simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude
for each sample; DM finds the change from the previous sample.
❖Note that there are no code words here; bits are sent one after another.
Modulator
❖ The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog signal.
❖ The process records the small positive or negative changes, called (delta) ∂.
❖ If the delta is positive, the process records a 1; if it is negative, the process records a 0.
❖ However, the process needs a base against which the analog signal is compared.
❖ The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase.
❖ Finding the change is then reduced to comparing the input signal with the gradually made staircase
signal.
The process of delta modulation
Delta modulation components
The modulator, at each sampling interval, compares the value of the analog signal with the
last value of the staircase signal.

If the amplitude of the analog signal is larger, the next bit in the digital data is 1; otherwise,
it is O.

The output of the comparator, however, also makes the staircase itself.

If the next bit is 1, the staircase maker moves the last point of the staircase signal 0 up; it
the next bit is 0, it moves it 0 down.

Note that we need a delay unit to hold the staircase function for a period between two
comparisons.
 TRANSMISSION MODES

The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either

parallel or serial mode.

In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1
bit is sent with each clock tick.

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of
serial transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
Data transmission and modes
Parallel transmission

Binary data, consisting of Is and Os, may be organized into groups of n bits each.

Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use spoken
language in the form of words rather than letters. By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time
instead of 1.

This is called parallel transmission.

• The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: Use n wires to
send n bits at one time.

• That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted
with each clock tick from one device to another.

• Figure 32 shows how parallel transmission works for n =8.

• Typically, the eight wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

• The advantage of parallel transmission is speed.

• All else being equal, parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor
of n over serial transmission.

• But there is a significant disadvantage: cost.

• Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires in the example) just to

transmit the data stream.

• Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

Serial transmission

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices.

The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication
channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a
factor of n.
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more
stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.

Asynchronous here means “asynchronous at the byte level,” but the bits are still
synchronized; their durations are the same.
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
Asynchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission
 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous) transmission of

multiple signals across a single data link.

As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.

✔ Frequency-Division Multiplexing
✔ Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
✔ Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
✔ Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
 Dividing a link into channels

a. In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. Above Figure
shows the basic format of a multiplexed system.

b. The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX),
which combines them into a single stream (many-to -one).
• At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which
separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs
them to their corresponding lines.

• In above the figure, the word link refers to the physical path.

• The word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a
given pair of lines.

• One link can have many (n) channels.

Categories of multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.

In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies.

These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported
by the link.
Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal.

These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.

Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from
overlapping.

In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.

Above Figure gives a conceptual view of FDM.

In this illustration, the transmission path is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that
carries one transmission.
 FDM process (Multiplexing Process)
)

Below Figure is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process.

Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range.

Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies (f1,f2, and f3).

The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link
that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
FDM demultiplexing example

Demultiplexing Process
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals.

The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and
passes them to the output lines.
❖ Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable

❖ The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission
cable.

❖ Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.

❖ Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one

❖ The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

From basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the
frequency.

Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each
containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies.

A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections
to share the high bandwidth of a link.

• Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.

• Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

• Below Figure gives a conceptual view of TDM.

• Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however, the link is shown sectioned
by time rather than by frequency.

• In the figure, portions of signals 1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
THANK YOU