Chapter 5
States of Consciousness
Chapter 5 Overview
Levels of Consciousness
Sleep Stages
Sleep Deprivation
Sleep Disorders
Dreams
Biofeedback
Hypnosis
Meditation
Drugs and Altered Consciousness
Levels of Consciousness
Consciousness: general state of being ___________ and ____________ to events in the
environment, as well as one’s own mental processes
Freud: divided consciousness into levels (conscious vs. unconscious)
Behaviorists: avoided the study of consciousness
Cognitive revolution: consciousness reconsidered
Theories of consciousness attempt to explain the underlying basis of self-awareness,
some by relying on philosophy and others by relying on neuroscience.
Descartes’s mind-body dualism vs. modern materialist viewpoints among psychologists &
neuroscientists
Consciousness may be viewed as a continuum
___________ states: any state of consciousness that differs from ordinary awareness and
responsiveness (awake/alert)
The most common example is sleep.
_____________ rhythm: internally-generated patterns of body functions that vary over a
24-hour cycle (e.g., sleep, body temperature, blood pressure)
Light is the primary stimulus that cues such rhythms by synchronizing our biological clock
(suprachiasmatic nucleus).
What happens when our biological clocks are disturbed?
Examples?
Even small adjustments to our sleep schedule can produce negative effects.
What can be done to reduce the negative effects of shift work or jet lag?
Stages of Sleep
The sleep-wakefulness cycle
Researchers studying EEG patterns in the 1950s discovered several levels of
consciousness during sleep (REM sleep and several NREM stages)
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep
o Decreased activation and arousal in the brain and body
o Stages of NREM sleep:
N1: light sleep; low-amplitude, non-rhythmic brain waves
N2: low-amplitude brain waves; deeper sleep
N3: lower frequency and higher amplitude brain waves (delta waves);
lowest level of arousal (deepest sleep)
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep
o The brain and body experience high levels of arousal, similar to when awake
(paradoxical sleep)
rapid eye movements
increased breathing and heart rate
high frequency, low amplitude brain-waves.
paralysis of postural muscles
o REM sleep occurs after we go through stages of NREM sleep.
o Each cycle takes about 90 minutes, with an average of 5 cycles per night.
Sleep Deprivation
Randy Gardner (1964): age 17; set the world record – 264 hours w/out sleep
William Dement (sleep researcher) recorded his progress after the first two days, and he
experienced significantly worsening symptoms each day.
Went to research facility (EEG monitoring) and slept for only 14 hours.
Common effects of sleep deprivation (even short-term):
Sleepiness
Difficulty concentrating
Slower reaction time
Poorer decision making
REM Sleep Rebound: our brains attempt to make up for lost REM sleep first after a period
of sleep deprivation
____% of adults in the U.S. do not get the recommended 7 hours or more of sleep/night
o may cause problems in work, social, and family life, as well as safety risks (e.g.,
driving)
Why do we sleep?
Competing theories with no clear answer
o Restorative theory
o Evolutionary approach
o Circadian theory
o Benefits of REM sleep (learning & memory)
We maintain sleep/waking rhythms even in the absence of day/night cues, clocks, etc.
o suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
o ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO)
o orexin (neuropeptide) in the hypothalamus and locus coeruleus
Sleep Disorders
______________: experience of sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep
Experience muscle weakness as they fall asleep
Affects approximately 1 in 2,000 people.
Attacks are unpredictable
Risk comes from potential for accidents/injury
Has a genetic component
Drug treatments are available
______________: disorder causing airflow to the lungs to stop during sleep for at least
10 seconds
may occur as many as 100 times per night
excessive snoring is common
poor-quality sleep daytime sleepiness
may cause memory loss, severe headaches, and work-related accidents
in rare cases, may be fatal
prevalence: 2-4% (but many are undiagnosed)
treatments: weight loss (if overweight), avoiding alcohol, special airway/pressure
machines
_________: the inability to fall asleep or remain asleep
Everyone experiences this occasionally, and 10% of population experiences significant
insomnia at some point, often due to anxiety and depression
poor quality of sleep do not feel rested; daytime sleepiness
modern sleep meds safe for short-term use only
behavioral methods (relaxation and thought-restructuring) and environmental changes
recommended over drug treatments
______________: a high degree of arousal and symptoms of panic that occur 60 – 90
minutes after falling asleep
may sit up abruptly, scream, breathe rapidly, and appear to be in a state of total fright,
yet not fully awake
not associated with nightmares
occur during NREM sleep (N3/deep sleep)
more common in children ages 3 – 8
cause not fully established; linked to stress, interruption of sleep schedules, and fever;
not linked to mental illness
_______________
more common among children than adults, and runs in families
occurs during N3 (deep sleep); person appears both asleep and awake at the same time
motor areas of the brain are active, but not higher-level cognitive areas
episodes not remembered
only risk is falling/injury; not dangerous to awaken them
Dreams
__________: a state of consciousness that occurs during sleep and is usually
accompanied by vivid visual imagery, although the imagery may also be tactile or
auditory.
more common during REM sleep, but also occur in other stages; REM dreams tend to be
more vivid and memorable
most common topics relate to person’s daily events; also includes anxiety-provoking
experiences, familiar people
external sounds/sensory experiences may be incorporated
________ dreams: dreams during which individuals are aware they are dreaming; more
common during REM sleep
Psychodynamic Theories of dreaming
Sigmund Freud
o Dreams express desires, wishes, and unfulfilled needs that exist in the
unconscious.
o Manifest Content: obvious storyline, characters, and settings.
o Latent Content: deeper, hidden meaning, usually symbolic
Carl Jung
o accepted that a dream is nature’s way of allowing humans to access their own
unconscious, but viewed dreams as more complex than Freud
o dreams give visual expression to shared instincts from our
_____________unconscious: a storehouse of primitive ideas and images in the
unconscious that are inherited from our ancestors and that all humans share
Cognitive Theories of Dreaming
Dreams have meaning but no hidden (latent) content
Content is connected to the thoughts and issues we have while awake.
Creation of a dream depends on active, integrative cognition.
Cross-cultural research suggests that life events do affect dream content.
Biological Theories of Dreaming
Dreams have a physiological basis and no hidden meaning.
“Activation-Synthesis” theory: dreams are produced by the cerebral cortex in an attempt
to synthesize brain stimulation
o REM sleep activates parts of the brain responsible for long-term memory, vision,
audition, and perhaps even emotion.
Evolutionary Theories: dreaming evolved to help humans process and rehearse handling
threatening situations
Biofeedback
Biofeedback: a process through which people receive information about the status of a
physical function and use this feedback to learn to _________ that function.
researchers once believed autonomic (automatic) processes could not be consciously
controlled
since the 1960s, has been used as a therapeutic technique, especially to control chronic
headaches
• also useful for muscle tension, back pain, and temporary reduction in blood pressure
Meditation
Meditation: a variety of techniques used to produce a state of consciousness
characterized by a sense of __________ and deep ______________
directs focus away from outside world via intense concentration
_______________ meditation reduces a person’s need to react/overreact to thoughts
_______________ meditation involves focus on a visual image or mantra
may provide physical and mental health benefits, similar to other forms of relaxation
Hypnosis
Hypnosis: a state of consciousness during which a person’s sensations, perceptions,
thoughts, or behaviors change because of ____________ made to the person
controversial; even the definition is debated.
can produce effects such as relaxation, increased concentration, and pain reduction
(similar to meditation)
Posthypnotic Suggestion – despite claims and media portrayals, no more effective for
altering behavior than placebo
can distort rather than enhance memory
Drugs and Altered Consciousness
Terminology:
Drug: any chemical substance that alters biological or mental processes, or both
Psychoactive Drug: any drug that alters behavior, thought, or perceptions, and thus
consciousness, by crossing the blood-brain barrier and affecting biochemical reactions in
the nervous system.
_____________: condition in which higher and higher doses of a drug are required to
produce the same effect
_____________: condition that occurs when a drug becomes part of the body’s
functioning in such as way that the user suffers with withdrawal symptoms when the
drug is discontinued
Sedative-Hypnotics (also called sedatives or depressants): drugs that reduce brain
activity; relax and calm users (short-term); produce both tolerance and dependence
o most commonly used is __________ dampens arousal, decreases inhibitions,
impairs coordination, reaction time, motor skills
o Barbiturates/tranquilizers induce sleep, may lead to unconsciousness or even
death; each one has medical uses (w/prescription)
o ___________: derived from opium poppy
examples: morphine, hydrocodone, heroin
prescribed for pain relief, mimicking effects of endorphins
potential for misuse and abuse opioid epidemic (since the 1990s)
stricter control of prescription opiates
___________ is a street drug; considered one of the most addictive
substances
Stimulants: drugs that increase alertness, reduce fatigue, and elevate mood; can produce
both tolerance and dependence
o ___________: most commonly used drug; can produce dependence; socially
acceptable drug, even for children
o ___________: the addictive drug in tobacco, leading to health risks of smoking;
strong dependence but not tolerance
o ______________: used for appetite suppression and treatment of ADHD; potential
for misuse/abuse; may produce psychosis; can produce both tolerance and
dependence
o ___________: also used as an anesthetic; crack is an affordable form that can be
smoked; produces fast dependence
Psychedelics (also called hallucinogens): consciousness-altering drugs that affect mood,
thoughts, memory, judgment, and perception and are consumed solely for the purpose
of producing these results
o not as likely to produce tolerance or dependence, but they are subject to abuse
o health and safety risks are noted for these drugs
o ___________ can produce ‘trips’ that last for many years
o ___________ can produce long-lasting effects in the brain
o ______________ can impair judgment and perception; may produce psychological
dependence; laws changing in some states to allow both medical & recreational
usage
Substance Use, Abuse, and Dependence
Not all drug users are drug abusers, and not all drug abusers are dependent (addicted).
Substance Abuse: __________ of and _________ on a drug to deal with everyday life
A person is a substance abuser if he/she:
o has used a drug for at least one month;
o experiences legal, personal, social, or vocational problems as a result of drug use;
and
o uses the drug in situations when doing so is hazardous.
Regular drug abuse drug usage causes them to miss work/school, spend money they
cannot afford, or have relationship or legal problems.
Drug abusers are dependent on the drug when they experience withdrawal symptoms if
they reduce or try to stop using the drug.
The DSM-5 (2013) combined substance abuse and substance dependence diagnoses
“Substance Use Disorders”
Risk factors for substance use/abuse:
o stress and/or psychological problems (coping/self-medication)
o family members’ drug use (parent models)
o peer usage
o inaccurate beliefs about the risks
o sex (men>women)
o ethnicity (highest among Native Americans, lowest among Asian Americans)
o genetic factors (inherited metabolism or control of GABA)
o cultural factors (influence both perception & usage)
