Light Centre of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere of which 4 , the mirror's reflecting surface forms @ part = Rectlinear propagation of light ~ light travels ina straight line./, Radius of Curvature (R): The radius of the sph ~Speediol Might = ond x (Gans the mirror’s reflecting surface forms a part. R=2F Principal Axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the center of curvature of the mirror. The Lows of reflection [+ Principal Focus (F): The point where parallel rays of light states that: either converge or appear to diverge after reflecting from the 1. The Incident roy. the | mirror. Reflected rey ond Focal Length (1 Normal al ein the principal focus. sare plane Aperture: The diameter of the reflecting surface of the 2.Angieof incidence [MMe minor Ci) The angle of % reflection ( 1). Ray Diagrams Penne mie | (i) A ray parallel to principal Plane mirror: A smooth and polished surface that reflects ‘axis will pass through focus light uniformly after reflection. The image formed by a plane mirror is + always virtual and erect. . + size of the image is equal to that of the object. (Gi A ray passing throvgh * mage formed is ax far behind the miroras the object + | tow che sume path back in front of it. d + image is laterally inverted. after reflection. Spherical mirror: a mirror whose reflecting surface is part {ii) A ray passing through of a hollow sphere of glass. _cus{ the principal focus will K CONCAVE MIRROR ; become parallel to ss) = reflecting surface is curved inwards, principal axis after towards the center of the sphere reflection CONVEX MIRROR {iv) Ray incident at pole is reflected back making same 3 ‘angle with principal axis. reflecting surface is curved outwards. + Pole (P): The center point of the ‘CONCAVE MIRROR ign Conventions for Spherical Same reflecting surface of a spherical ‘The object is always placed to the mirror. pean left of the mirror. Distances are measured from the pole of the mirror. _———> Distances along the incident ray (+X-axis) are postive, and those against it (-X-axis) are negative. Distances above the principal axis are positive. Object distance » always sve stances be incipal axis Fetal length of concave mirror = ve crenegarie Ne Principal axis Fecal eagth of convex mirror ove Important Formulas: of which Reflection: The bouncing back of light from any shiny surface eg. mirror or water. he distance between the pale and the r= postive tual mas) gate (re images mane ra as pote etl) 7 | Magnification refers to the ratio of the height of an image EI | co the height of an object Refraction of Light ‘wnuimwea {Phenomenon of change in the direction of light when it passes from jone transparent medium to another. [sata | (0) The incident ray, the refracted toyed arate interface of two transparent media © Torches, Search-lights, and Vehicle Headlights: the same plane : Satine ina ae ie TO Os em ae 2 Have awider field 9f view due fe thet outward curve 2 Re CES a ee Snell's law of refraction. Refractive index: Eee) measurement of how much a light ray bends when it passes, from one medium to anathLenses: ‘A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one ‘or both surfaces are spherical, CONVEX LENS CONCAVE LENS Convex Lens -"Thicker in the middle, converges light. Concave Lens ~ Thicker at edges, diverges light Centre of Curvature (Cy Cx) ~ Center ofthe sphere forming the lens surface, Prineipal Axis ~ Straight line through both curvature centers. Optical Centre (0} - Central point where ight passes undevated, | eres me ‘Aperture ~ Effective diameter of the lens. ee | =e eee Principal Focus (Fy Fi) Poirt where parallel rays converge (convex) = oe as or diverge (concave) Se Ef SSS Focat Length (f) - Distance between the principal focus and optical j Spree center, Seo gens |S (OA rey of light from the object, = Yl + SEE peal ete einiet i ss aieen Is agen | Wont et (2) A ray of tg passing taigh y= eta nt Sgrentweg, , mute Salant ot tae oe Sogo eae (i) A ray of lght passing through the optical Uses of Concave Lens: Ses of Convex Lens: Semeet “kc z ; * overhead projector * camera * focus sunlight * simple telescope * projector microscope ‘+ magnifying glasses * spy holes in the doors * glasses * some telescopes Power of Lens: The ability of a fens to converge or diverge the | ray of light after refraction through itis called the power of the! lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length. * | SI unit = Dioptre (0) 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = tm, | power of a convex lens = positive power of concave lens = negative,Human eye And The Colorful World ‘Sense organ for vision, located in the ‘eye sockets of the skull it helps us ZERO s00 by detecting light and colors ‘Aqueous Humor: Clear fluid between cornea and lens; “"™" maintains eye pressure and nourishes cornea and lens. + Pupil: Small opening in the iris; controls light entry into the eye Iris: Ring-like, muscular tissue behind the cornea; determines eye color and adjusts pupil size. Lens: Fibrous, jelly-like, convex; focuses light on the creating a real, inverted image. Cornea: Outermost transparent part; provides mast light refraction Ciliary Muscles: Hold and adjust the lens curvature for focus. Retina: Delicate membrane with light-sensitive cells. + Rods: Detect light intensity. + Cones: Detect primary colors Vitreous Humor: Provides nutrients and maintains eye shape. 2, Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain, Sclera: Tough, white outer covering of the eye; provides protection. Power of Accommodation The ability of the human eye to focus on objects at different distances by changing the focal length of the eye lens, controlled by ciliary muscles. Defects of Vision & their Corrections [Tera 41. Myopia (Nearsightedress) + Cause: The eyeballs toe long or the cornea is too curved, causing light to fas in from of the retina + Effect: Ditart objects appear Blurry, wile close objects are clear. + Cerreston: Cencave (diverging) lenses spread out light rays 50 they focus on the retina 2. Hiperepia (Fersightedness) * Cause: The eyeballs too short or the cornea is too lat, causing Fight to focus behind the retin + Effect: Close objects appear blurry. while ditant objets are clear * Correction: Cenvex{eemverging lenses bend light to focus correctly on the retina 3. Astigmatism * Cause: The cornea or fens has an regular shape, leading to mulipe focus points, + Effect! Blurred or distorted vision ata distences {Correction Cytndrieal Tenses or torlecontaet lenses aust forthe uneven curvature 4, Presbyopia * Couse Aging causes the lens to love Meni, making it harder to focus on clue objet, + Effect Difficulty reading or sesing nearby objects * Correeton Bfceal ar progressive Tenses, and reading lasses. Advantages of having eyes in front of the face... * Gives a wider field of view. + Enhances the ability to detect faint objects. + Provides three dimensional view. Refraction through @ glass prism + Prism: Transparent refracting medium, Structure: Two triangular bases, three rectangular lateral surfaces. + Angle of Prism: Angle between two lateral faces. + Angle of Deviation: Angle between incident and emergent rays Near point: Minimum distance for clear (ew without strain, typically 25 cm for a normal eye. When looking at a nearby object, the ciliary muscles contract, making the lens thicker and decreasing its focal length. Far point: Maximum distance seen clearly, normally at infinity When looking at a distant object, the ciliary muscles relax, making the lens thin and increasing its focal length. Defects of Vision & their Correlation ie i thee ae cataract cloudy or blurry vision + Causes: age related condition, weakening of eye muscles treatment: surgery. Dispersion of White Light: Splitting of white light into seven colors when passing through a prism ‘Spectrum: The band of seven colors formed, Color Sequence: VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yeltow, Orange, Red). Causes: + Varying refraction indices of different colours. ‘+ wavelength of light when passing through transparent medium like prism, Newton's Experiment: Used a second inverted prism to recombine the spectrum into white light, proving sunlight is made up of seven colors. White Light: Any light producing similar spectrum to sunlight is called white light. Red is the least deviated colour as it has largest/longest wavelength. Violet is the most deviated colour as it has smallest wavelength in visible spectrum. Natural spectrum: Rainbow : Refraction of Sunlight -- Dispersion into Colors -- Internal = Reflection -- Refra: Rainbow: A natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower, caused by the dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets in the ‘atmosphere.Mechanism: Water droplets act like prisms, refracting and dispersing sunlight, reflecting it internally, and refracting it again Color Sequence: Red at the top, violet at the bottom, Formation Direction: Always opposite to the sun, ‘The refraction of light caused by the Earth's atmosphere (having air layers of varying optical densities) ‘Stars Twinkle Caused by atmospheric refraction; starlight bends as it enters Earth's atmosphere, causing stars to appear to change position and flicker. Advanced Sunrise & Delayed Suns Sun appears ~2 minutes before sunrise and after sunset due to atmospheric refraction. The Sun's disc also appears flattened at these times. Why Planets Don't Twinkle Planets are closer and seen as extended sources, averaging ‘out the light variations and reducing the twinkling effect. Scattering of Light Scattering of light occurs when light is absorbed by particles and then re-emitted in different directions. Red Sun at Sunrise/Sunset During sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels a fonger distance through the atmosphere. Blue light is scattered away, while red light, with a longer wavelength, reaches the observer's eyes, making the sun appear red. Blue Sky due to the scattering of sunlight by small air molecules and fine particles. Blue light, having a shorter wavelength, scatters more than red light, making the sky appear blue, ‘Tyndall Effect: + Light scatters when it strikes particles in a caloid, ‘making the light path visible. ‘Seen in sunlight passing through mist or a dense forest canopy ‘Smaller particles scatter blue light, while larger particles seatter red light.Electricity Electric Charge physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force | wher placed nan electromagnetic field. SZ, Unit Coulomb (C) | = Positive charge : Loss of electron | + Negative charge : Goin of electron i Properties 1. Addltity of Charge :Totalchargessum ofall chorges onthe body 2. Charge is Conserved : Charge canot be created or destroyed 3, Charge is Tivariont: Charge value remoins the sane, regardless o speed. 4° Quantization of Charge : Charge isa multiple of electron charge Conductors ‘Semiconductors Tasuletors: Allow Current | Medium Conductivity [Don't allow Current to to pass pass Electric Current Flow of electric charge through a conductor. Unit: Ampere (A) 1 A= 1 C/s. T= current, Q= charge, t = time. Ohm's Low 1 Ampere: When IC of charge flows in1 second |Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the then current is said fo be 1A potential difference across its ends, ata constant temperature Potential Difference ‘The work done to move a unit positive charge between two points. Unit: volt) v= 1 a/c, positive charge between two points = Electric Circuit A continuous path for current flow, consisting of a| Resistance: Factors Affecting Resistance: 1. tr source, conductor, and leo. | property of a conductor > Length! | thot resists the flow of + Area(A):R 7A charges. Unit: Ohm (0). * Material: Different materials have different resistivities (9) 2 Question Asked econ Seat i " ‘ 3 soni esking ond write ven, | never cra compnents re comectdin separate Step First check hat question i sing ard wien res nd exh conor ttm Ses athe ‘and youll have to find third one, Other information might also | PON®" S°uree EeesLitoet Be proved to fnd ether two waves. Ss Step 2 : Then finally use Ohm's Lav een? yResistance'ord eter see . Resistivityka | = Dorit forget to write units etree cies | Ca eer Cee es Baines: RESTSTIVAY ! aaa ‘Opposition to the flow of [Resistance of amaterial with unit || evil estan electric current in a substance] length and unit cross-sectional =f Depends on length and size of |erea. Independent of length or Pret ‘the conductor. Unit: chm (92). | size of the conductor Unit: chm- meter (Om). Series circuit Ina series circu't, Si components (like Pare eet een resistors, bulbs, or peers Heating effect of electric current batteries) are. caeearea) Joules Law ch Heating ; Heat is proportional to the square of the current, resistance, and time. connected end to end in [IP RMSt oats teense eae = For a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R with a assingle path for the electric current to flow. [Aina nail potential difference V, the work done to move a charge @ across the ML Tae ri resistor is VQ. The power input to the circuit ist fr) oe aa ans ‘The energy supplied by the source in time t is VI ceed This energy is dissipated as heat in the resistor, ees Tess ‘the heat produced is aretig Using Ohm's law, V=IR, the heat can also be expressed as: eeeApplications: Electric Bulb-has a tungsten filament inside a neutral gas or vaccum. When current passes through, the filament heats up ‘nd emits light, with most energy lost as heat. + Electric fuse- is a low melting point wire in a circuit. Tf current rises suddenly, the wire melts, breaking the circuit ond preventing damages. + Electric heater- Use a nichrome coil with high resistance to generate heat when current flows Electric Power Power (P}: Rate of energy consumption, Ca wa wae EDR rere reer remeaty eter cage tof eet 2 poste legen the nat (1000 watts), is used, Bcc Energy energy alte bea al arnt Tris the pred of poner and ine, mesied inwatt-hours (Wh). comerc! Unt of ter Groeten esd when matt of pveri Stnamed fre The eopmercl tof elec eergy the kilowatt-hour (kWh), also called a “unit. SCE enn EYER eco} = 36 x 10° joules () Question Based ‘Step 1: Read the question carefully. Identify the given values (V.T,R) and determine what needs to be found. Out of voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R), two values will be given, and you'll have to find the third, * Other information might be provided to colculate remaining values like power or heat. ‘Step 2: Use Ohm's Law: V=IR ‘© Ensure all units are correct before proceeding. ‘Step 3: For heat produced: re) Step + For power calculation: = a cee ceva a ra or os al Step 5: + Substitute the values into the appropriate formulas and calculate the required quantity. Always check your units at the end,Magnetic Effect of Electric Current Hans sia in Oersted (1820) i Z ee i Discovered that electric current deflects Magnet is any substance that atiracis iron er ron ike aouponssrarta, qvuylopvie bet Expats of nk between electricity and magnetism. ‘+ A freely suspended bar magnet aligns in the Earth's north- south direction. = Attractive and Repulsive Forces: Like poles repel, opposite poles attract, - ‘+ Dipole Nature: Always has two poles (north and south); cutting the magnet creates smaller magnets, each with two | Maxwell's Right Hand Thumb Rule I I Hans i Christian i I poles. The rule states that if a straight conductor + Creates a magnetic field around it where its effect can be | carrying current is held in the right hand such felt. | that the thumb is pointed in the direction of the + It retains its magnetic properties over time. | current, then the direction in which your fingers Magnetic Field: is the area around a magnet in which the encircle the wire gives the direction of the effect of magnetism is felt. magnetic lines of force around the wire Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines that show the Thumb = ds, curled fingers = tic field (clackwis Horas itd Kae ore sir ee Tums 7 yards cued Sar « mga Rl (cee), Properties of Magnetic Filed Lines: Thumb = downwards, curled fingers = magnetic field ‘= Magnetic field lines start at the north pole and end at antictockwise), the field direction = clockwise = the south pole, + Closer lines mean a stronger magnetic field (near poles). + Field lines never cross each other. + They form closed continuous curves. Magnetic field fines due to ‘Straight conductor + They show the destin of magnetic Fert ey circular pattern Ts \ (78 ‘around the arms WE U Cann i ‘center of the loop Horseshoe Bar magnet shaped. Magnetic field lines due to Solenoid hy, electromagnet. A coll of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder. Outside the solenoid: North to South Inside the solenoid: South to North Factors: number of turns in the coil, amount of current flowing through it, radius of coil, Material of core of the solen Fleminy’s Left Hand Rule When a current-carrying conductor is placed in aan external magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force which is mutually Perpendicular to both the Magnetic field and to pp the direction of the current flow. Stretch the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger ‘of your left hand perpendicular to each other. SSy * Forefinger = Magnetic field direction, Middle finger Current direction, Thumb Force/motion direction. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field Domestic Circuit \ 11100 second in India i.e. the Potential Difference in frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz India: 220V at 50H. [for on acurentearyingconductorln a mapnt fel ' ‘Masimum displacement Aneel stage Wola aaa. ‘AC can travel safely over long | OC cannot travel fong distances, distances, even between cities. it lores poner. Reveningcorenttrection-> Force crectionisrevened Seuss = Frequency is $0 or 60 Hz, depending on the country, Deihee eraitracrete. Current direction reverses Current faws steady in one periodically. direction. Pers Cheaper then DC generation | Expensive then AC generationMisineemesiceietis ec) io (ites eee Wears heretics Power sockets (15): For high-power appliances (geyser, fridge, AC). ‘Normal sockets (5A): For low-power appliances (TV, bulbs, fans). rt Circuit : occurs when a live wire and a neutral wire come into ect contact, causing a sudden and large ameunt of current to flow in circuit, asons: damage of insulation in power lines, fault in an electrical lanes. erloading: If the total current drawn through a wire by the appliances nected te it exceeds the safety limit for that wire, it gets overheated ctrical fuse is a low melting point copper or other metal wire that aks due > heat caused by overveltage or high load to avoid short circuit or ure to the °