MODULE 2

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

RECTIFIERS:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC). The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.
The junction diode has the property of offering low resistance and allowing current to flow
through it in the forward biased condition. This property is used in the process of
rectification.
A PN junction diode can be used as:
 Half wave rectifier
 Full wave rectifier
 Bridge rectifier.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

Half Wave Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac signal to dc signal by employing a

single PN junction diode for rectification purpose. In half wave rectifier circuit, an alternating
voltage is applied to a single diode connected in series with a load resistor RL. An ac signal
full wave consists of half positive and half negative wave. PN junction diode conducts during
only one half cycle of the input ac cycle. During a positive half cycle, diode D is forward
biased hence conducts and transfers the half wave. Diode offers low resistance hence a large
current IL flows through the load resistor RL. Output voltage Vo develops across RL and
transfers the half wave.
During a negative half cycle, diode D is reverse biased hence does not conduct.
Therefore, IL=0 and hence gives no output (Vo=0). As the output contains only positive half
cycles i.e., unidirectional half waves, the circuit is called as half wave rectifier.
Average and RMS values of Half Wave Rectifier Output:

Let the instantaneous value of sinusoidal ac voltage at the secondary is

given by v = Vmsin𝜔t where Vm= Maximum value of secondary voltage.
The average or dc value of half wave rectified output voltage is given
by the relation
Vdc = = 0.318Vm
This indicates that average value of output voltage is 31.8% of the maximum value.
Similarly, the average or dc value of the load current is
Idc = =

Since Im =

we have Idc = = 0.318Im

Also rms value of output voltage is given by the relation
Vrms = = 0.5Vm

Similarly, rms value of load current is

Irms = = 0.5Im

Peak Inverse Voltage of a diode in half wave rectifier:

During the negative cycle of the input, the diode is reverse biased. There is no current flow through the
load and hence no output voltage. As a result, whole of the input voltage appears across the diode.
When the input voltage reaches its maximum value (Vm), in the negative half cycle, the voltage across
the diode is also maximum. This maximum reverse voltage is known as the Peak Inverse
voltage(PIV). It is the maximum voltage the diode must withstand during the reverse bias.
For a half wave rectifier, PIV = Vm

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac signal to dc signal by using two PN
junction diodes for rectification.
In full wave rectifier circuit, diodes conduct (One diode conduct during each half
cycle) during both the half cycles of input ac voltage.
A full wave ac signal input consists of half positive and half negative wave. It is
provided to the full wave rectifier from a transformer with a centre -tapped secondary
winding. During a positive half cycle of secondary voltage, diode D1 is forward biased hence
conducts and transfers the half wave. Current IL flows through diode D1, the load
resistor RL and the upper half-winding of the secondary. Output voltage Vo develops
across RL. D2 is reverse biased.
 During a negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased hence conducts and transfers
the half wave. Current IL flows through diode D2, the load resistor RL and the lower
half-winding of the secondary. Output voltage Vo develops across RL. D1 is reverse
biased. The direction of current flows through the load resistor RL in both cases is same.
During both half cycles, current IL passes through the load resistor RL and produces
output voltage Vo. Thus, in Full wave rectifier, both the half cycles are utilized to
produce the output.
As the output contains only positive continuous series of positive half cycles of
alternating voltage i.e., unidirectional waves for each input half wave, the circuit is
called as Full wave rectifier.
Peak Inverse Voltage of a diode in full wave rectifier:
PIV is the maximum voltage the diode can withstand during the reverse bias. In centre
tapped full wave rectifier, at positive half cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1, is
conducting while the diode D2 is open. Let Vm represents the maximum voltage across
each half of secondary winding. The whole of the voltage across the upper half
winding appears across the load resistor RL. Therefore, the reverse voltage across the
non-conducting diode D2, is the sum of the voltage across the lower half
winding and the voltage across the load RL. That is Vm + Vm = 2Vm
Hence, for a centre-tapped full wave rectifier, PIV = 2Vm

BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
The bridge rectifier is constructed by using four individual rectifying diodes
connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output. The single
secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load (RL) to
the other side. The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the
supply, diodes D1 and
D3 conduct in series
while diodes D2 and D4
are reverse biased and
the current IL flows
through the load RL.
During the negative half
cycle of the supply,
diodes D2 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D3 are switched “OFF” as they are
now reverse biased. The current IL flowing through the load (RL) is in the same direction as
before. As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional.
Peak Inverse Voltage of a diode in bridge rectifier:
The polarities of primary and secondary windings
during the positive half cycle are indi-cated. Under this
condition, diodes D1 and D2 are conducting and these
diodes are shown as shorted points in the figure. Also,
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and have a
maximum reverse voltage equal to the maximum
secondary voltage (Vm). Hence, PIV of a diode in a
ridge rectifier, PIV = Vm
Average and RMS values of Full Wave Rectifier:
Let the instantaneous value of sinusoidal ac voltage at the secondary is given by
v = Vm sin𝜔t where Vm = Maximum value of secondary voltage.
The average or dc value of the output voltage is given by the relation
Vdc =2 = 0.636Vm
This indicates that average value of output voltage is 63.6% of the maximum value.
Similarly, the average or dc value of the load current is
Idc = = = (⸪ 𝐼 = )

= 0.636 𝐼
Also rms value of output voltage is given by the relation
Vrms = = 0.707 Vm
√
Similarly, rms value of load current is
Irms = = 0.707 Im
√
Ripple factor:
The output voltage of a rectifier is not a pure dc. It contains dc component as well as ac
components. The ac components present in the output are called ripples. The ripple factor is
a measure of purity of the dc output of a rectifier and is given by,
𝛾= ( ) −1 or

𝛾= ( ) −1

Ripple Factor of a Half Wave Rectifier:

Irms = and Idc =

⸫𝛾 = ( ) −1 = ( ) −1 = 1.21

This shows that the amount of ac component present in the output of a half wave rectifier is
121% of dc output voltage. Hence the half wave rectifier is not very good in converting the
current from ac to dc.
Ripple Factor of a Full Wave Rectifier:
 Irms = and Idc =
√

𝛾= ( ) −1 = ( √
) − 1 = 0.482

It is much smaller than that of a half wave rectifier. Hence full wave rectifier is more commonly
used.
Efficiency of a rectifier:
Efficiency of a rectifier can be defined as the ratio of dc power delivered to the load to the ac
input power from the secondary winding of the transformer. Mathematically, the rectifier
efficiency,
η=

𝜂= ----------------------------------------------------------- (1)

We know P = I *R
P =I *(R + r ) where R is the load resistance
r =forward resistance of a diode
Substituting the values of P and P in (1)
∗
𝞰=
∗( )

Efficiency of Half wave rectifier:

∗
𝞰=
∗( )

For a half wave rectifier

Idc = and Irms =
Substituting the values of Idc and Irms in (1)
( ) ∗ .
𝞰= =
( ) ∗( )

The efficiency is maximum when R ≫ r . thus the maximum efficiency of a half

wave rectifier is 40.6%

Efficiency of full wave rectifier:

∗
𝞰=
∗( )

For a full wave rectifier

Idc = and Irms =
√
Substituting the values of Idc and Irms in (1)
( ) ∗ .
𝞰= =
( ) ∗( )
√

The efficiency is maximum when R ≫ r . Thus, the maximum efficiency of a full

wave rectifier is 81.2% which is twice that of a half wave rectifier.
ZENER DIODE:
 Zener diode is a specially designed ordinary P-N junction diode, which is heavily
doped to have a very sharp and almost vertical breakdown.
 They are exclusively operated under reverse bias conditions and designed to operate
in breakdown region without damage.

Fig: Symbolic representation of Zener diode

V-I CHARACTERSTICS AND WORKING OF ZENER DIODE:

 The Forward bias characteristics of Zener diode are same as that of normal PN Junction
diode.
 When the applied forward bias voltage ‘VF’ is less than the cut in voltage, the current is
negligibly small. When VF becomes greater than cut in voltage, current starts increasing
rapidly.
 In reverse bias mode, current is due to minority charge carriers.
 Since the P and N-regions are heavily doped, the depletion layer at the junction will be very
narrow.
 The reverse bias voltage sets up a strong electric field across the narrow depletion layer.
This field is strong enough to cause rupture of covalent bonds of atoms. Therefore, there is a
generation of a large number of electron-hole pairs, leading to a sharp increase in the reverse
current.
 When reverse bias is increased, up to a certain voltage called as breakdown voltage is
reached then the diode starts conducting heavily and the reverse current increases sharply.
This voltage is called Zener breakdown voltage(Vz).
 A Zener diode maintains a constant voltage across its terminals when the reverse bias
exceeds the breakdown voltage. Therefore, it is used as a voltage regulator.
 APPLICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE
 Zener diode is used as voltage regulator.


The unregulated dc voltage is connected to the Zener diode through a series resistance Rs such
that the Zener diode is reverse biased.
If input voltage increase, the current through Rs and Zener diode also increases. This increases
the voltage drop across Rs without any change in voltage across Zener diode. This is because in
the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the current through the Zener
diode changes.
Similarly, if input voltage decreases, the current through Rs and Zener diode also decreases. The
voltage drop across Rs decreases without any change in voltage across the Zener diode.
Thus any increase or decrease in the input voltage results in increase or decrease of voltage drop
across Rs without any change in voltage drop across the Zener diode. Thus, Zener diode acts as a
voltage regulator
 It is used as a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison.
 It is used for calibrating voltmeters.
 It is used for avoiding meter damage by accidental application of excessive voltage.

Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown:
Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown are two primary mechanisms by which a Zener
diode can conduct current in reverse bias.
Zener Breakdown:
Zener breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage, especially in heavily doped Zener diodes.
Zener breakdown occurs due to the strong electric field in the depletion region when a reverse
bias voltage is applied. This high electric field is strong enough to pull electrons from their
covalent bonds in the semiconductor material, generating electron-hole pairs through quantum
mechanical tunneling. This is a quantum effect known as Zener tunneling . The breakdown
voltage decreases with increasing temperature.

Avalanche Breakdown:

This typically occurs at higher reverse voltages, especially in lightly doped Zener diodes.
Avalanche breakdown occurs when the reverse bias voltage is high enough to impart enough
kinetic energy to free electrons. These electrons collide with atoms in the depletion region,
knocking more electrons free, which further accelerates and causes more collisions in a chain
reaction. This is known as impact ionization.
The breakdown voltage increases slightly with temperature.

Difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown:

Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

It will occur in the diodes that are lightly It will occur in the diodes that are highly
doped. doped.

The VI characteristics of an Avalanche The VI characteristics of a Zener breakdown

breakdown has not a very sharp curve. has a very sharp curve.
The increase in temperature increases the The increase in temperature decreases the
breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.

The process of applying the high voltage The process in which the electrons move
and increasing the free electrons or through the barrier from the valence band of
electric current in the semiconductor and the p type material into the conduction band
insulating materials are called avalanche of the n type material is known as Zener
breakdown. breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown occurs because of

Zener breakdown occurs only because of the
the collision of free electrons with the
high electric field in reverse bias condition.
atoms.
This is observed in Zener diodes having This is observed in Zener diodes having
Zener breakdown voltage Vz greater than Zener breakdown voltage Vz between -5 to -
-8 volts. 8 volts.

TUNNEL DIODE:-
It is a pn junction semiconductor diode in which the
concentration of impurity atoms is very large in p and n regions.
The width of the depletion region is very small. Since the
depletion region is narrow, electrons are capable of tunnelling
through from one side of the junction to the other at relatively
low forward bias voltage. This phenomenon is called tunnelling.
This type of diode is called Tunnel Diode.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNEL DIODE:

When forward voltage increases from zero, the

forward current quickly reaches the peak value
1p, (point A) at a particular low forward voltage
Vp. When the forward voltage exceeds the value
Vp, the forward current decreases and reaches a
minimum value called valley current Iv at the
valley voltage Vv (point B). The region between
the peak current Ip and the valley current Iv is
called negative resistance region. When the
forward voltage is further increased beyond the
valley point, the current increases again as in
ordinary pn junction diode.
Explanation:
Forward current in a tunnel diode is the sum of two components due to two different
mechanisms:

1. Normal injection current:

It arises from an external voltage which reduces the potential barrier across the
depletion region and allows current to flow due to majority carriers in the conduction
band.
2. Tunnel current:
In a tunnel diode due to heavy doping, the depletion region is very narrow. It results in
a very high electric field across the junction and allows carriers in the valence energy
band on one side of junction to tunnel through to the conduction energy band on the
other side of the junction without overcoming the potential barrier. The increase in
current from 0 to its peak value Ip (at A) at a forward voltage Vp is due to tunnelling
phenomenon. The normal injection current is negligible at this value of forward bias.
The application of the forward bias beyond Vp, reduces the electric field strength because the
depletion region becomes less well defined due to diffusion of carriers across the p-n
junction. Consequently, the tunnelling current decreases. Thus, current decreases with
increase in applied voltage between the peak point A and valley point B. It causes a negative
slope in the V-l curve and the tunnel diode exhibits a negative resistance property.
If forward voltage is increased beyond V, the tunnelling effect ceases and current rises
because of injection currents as in any ordinary junction diode.

Applications:
 Tunnel diode is used in different oscillators like relaxation, microwave, etc.
 It is used as a switching device with very high speed.
 It is used like a logic memory storage device.
 It is used as a microwave oscillator with high frequency
 This diode is used as an oscillator, amplifier & switch

SEMICONDUCTOR LASER:
A semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated P-N junction diode that emits a coherent
light when it is forward biased.

Construction:
The junction lies in the horizontal plane through the center. The top and bottom faces are
metallized and ohmic contacts are provided to pass current through the diode. The front and
rear faces are polished parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of junction.
The polished surface constitutes the resonator. The other two surfaces are roughened to
prevent lasing action in that direction. A simple way of achieving population inversion is to
use it in the form of heavily doped PN junction and to forward bias it.
Energy band diagram:

For an unbiased PN junction, fermi level of p and n type semiconductor coincides. For a
heavily doped n type semiconductor fermi level lies well within the conduction band. And for
P type it lies well within the valence band.
When forward bias is applied, the energy level shift and the new distribution takes place.
Electrons and holes are injected into the depletion region which as a result decreases in width.
The injected electrons and holes appear in high concentration in this transition region. At low
forward current, the electron hole recombination causes spontaneous emission of photons and
the junction acts as LED.
As the current is increased, the intensity of light increases linearly. When the current reaches
threshold value, the carrier concentration in the depletion region will reach very high value.
The upper levels in the depletion regions are having high population density of electrons
while lower levels in the same region are vacant. This is state of population inversion.
The narrow region where population inversion is achieved is called inversion or active
region. The forward bias plays the role of pumping agent.

Applications:

 Used in fiber optic communication

 Used in satellite communication
 Used in LASER printers, copiers
 Used in CD players, optical floppy disc

PHOTONIC DEVICES

PHOTODETECTORS:

Photodetectors are devices that absorb optical energy and converts it to electrical
energy. The operation of photoelectric detectors is based on the internal photoelectric effect.

When light is incident on an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons are excited from the
valence band to the conduction band. Such electrons leave behind holes in the valence band.
Thus free electrons and holes are generated in the material, but they do not leave the material.
Therefore, an increase of free charge carrier concentration occurs within the semiconductor.
This is known as internal photoelectric effect.
Essential requirements for a detector:

 High sensitivity
 High reliability
 Short response time
 Low bias voltage
 High electrical response

There are three main types of photodetectors, namely photodiodes, pin diodes and
avalanche photodiodes.

Junction photodiodes:

A junction photodiode is a reverse biased p-n junction. When a

reverse bias is applied across the junction the depletion region widens as
mobile carriers are swept to their respective majority sides. The motion of
minority carriers causes the reverse leakage current of the diode. Thus, even
when no light radiation is present (zero light), a small leakage
current exists. This leakage current is called
dark current.

When the diode is illuminated by light,

photons are absorbed mainly in the depletion
layer and in the neutral regions. A photon of
energy hv ≥ Eg incident in or near the depletion
layer of the diode will excite an electron from
the valence band to the conduction band. This
process generates a hole in the valence band.
Thus, an electron-hole pair is generated by the optical photon. These are known as
photocarriers. The electron-hole pairs generated in the depletion layer separate and drift in
opposite directions under the action of the electric field.
Such a transport process induces an electric current in the external circuit in excess of the
already existing dark current (reverse leakage current). The photocurrent created in the
external circuit is always in the reverse direction, i.e., from the n to the p region. Increasing
the level of illumination increases the reverse
current flowing. The light incident in the
neutral region, on either side of the depletion
layer, also produces electron-hole pairs.
Electrons and holes generated within a
diffusion length of the depletion layer will
move randomly and slowly diffuse into the
depletion region and are accelerated by the
bias, thereby contributing to the
photocurrent. Thus, optical excitation leads
to an increase in the reverse-biased current. It is desirable that the depletion region be
sufficiently wide so that a large fraction of incident light can be absorbed.
PIN Photodiodes:

It is a device that consists of p and n regions separated by a very lightly doped intrinsic
region. The first and most important feature of p-i-n photodiode is that its depletion region
extends well into the intrinsic region, as it is lightly doped. Under sufficiently large reverse
bias, the depletion region could extend through the intrinsic region, whereby the entire
intrinsic region could be made free of charge carriers. The intrinsic layer in effect widens the
depletion layer and therefore increases area available for capturing light. Thus, the p-i-n
structure of the photodiode enables us to increase the width of the depletion region to a value
far greater than what it could be in a simple p-n junction.
The p-i-n diode has a wide
intrinsic semiconductor
layer between p and n
regions. The
intrinsic layer has no free
charges, so its resistance is
high and most of the bias
voltage drops across it.
When an incident photon
has energy greater than or
equal to the band gap energy of the semiconductor material, the photon can give up its energy
and excite an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. This process generates
free electron-hole pairs. These carriers are mainly generated in the depletion(depleted
intrinsic) region where most of the incident light is absorbed. The high electric field present
in the depletion region causes the free carriers to separate and be collected across the reverse
biased junction. This gives rise to a current flow in the external circuit. As the intrinsic layer
is wide enough, most of the photons are absorbed and larger photocurrent is produced.
Therefore, p-i-n photodiode is more sensitive than p-n photodiode.
Solar cell:
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction that can generate electrical power,
when illuminated. Solar cells are usually large area devices typically
illuminated with sunlight and are intended to convert the solar energy into
electrical energy.
It consists of a p-type chip on which a thin layer of n-type material is
grown. When the solar radiation is incident on the cell, electron-hole pairs
are generated in the n and p regions. The majority of them cannot recombine in the regions.
They reach the depletion region at the junction where an electric field due to the space
charge separates them. Electrons in the p- region are drawn into the n-region and holes in the
n-region are drawn into the p-region. It results in accumulation of charge on the two sides of
the junction and produces a potential difference called photo emf.

The I-V characteristic of a solar cell is as shown below:

The open circuit voltage, 𝑉oc , is the voltage across the illuminated cell
at zero current. The short circuit current 𝐼SC ,is the current through the
illuminated cell if the voltage across the cell is zero.
The power equals the product of the diode voltage and current and
at first increases linearly with the diode voltage but then rapidly
goes to zero around the turn-on voltage of the diode. Applications
of solar cell:
• Solar cells provide power for space crafts, satellites etc.
• Solar cells are used for energising wrist watches, calculators etc.
• For electric power generation, streetlights etc we employ solar
cells.
• Solar cells are used to supply power for the electronic equipment on a satellite over a long
period.
• They are also used to supply power for certain household equipment.

Efficiency of a solar cell:

Stringing of solar cells to solar panel:

Solar cells are made up of multiple solar cells. We can connect the solar cells in series
or in parallel. If positive pole of one photovoltaic cell is connected to the negative pole of
next cell and so on until all the cells in the panel are connected together, it is called a series
string of the solar panel. In a series connection the voltages add up, the currents do not add
up. The total current in a string of solar cells is equal to the smallest current generated by one
single solar cell.

.
Fig: A series connection of three solar cells

If cells are connected in parallel, the voltage is the same over all solar cells, while the
currents of the solar cells add up. In parallel stringing positive terminal of the solar panel is
connected to the positive terminal of the next one and the negative terminal is connected to
the negative terminal. This results in a fixed voltage but increases the current of the circuit.

Fig: A parallel connection of three solar cells.

Several strings of series-connected solar cells can be connected in parallel, which is
sometimes done in PV modules for rural applications. Also, several groups of parallel-
connected cells can be connected in series. However, this is usually not done in reality as
cells connected in parallel, the currents become higher which increases resistivity losses in
the cables.

Fig: I-V curves of solar cells connected in series and parallel.

Light Emitting Diode:

LED is a specially made forward biased P-N junction diode, which emits light due to
electron-hole recombination, when energized.
 This works on the principle of electroluminescence, the process in which electrical energy
is converted into light energy.
 It is operated only in forward bias
Principle:

When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, the free electrons from N-side and the
holes from P-side move towards the junction.
 Like ordinary diode, the forward current is negligible up to a certain value of forward
applied voltage due to the potential barrier across the PN-junction.
 When free electrons reach the junction, they overcome the potential barrier and recombine
with the holes.
 In the similar way, holes from p-side recombine with electrons in the depletion region.
Because of the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region, the width of
depletion region decreases.
 The recombination of free electrons and holes leads to generation of light.
 The wavelength of light emitted and its color depends on Energy Gap(Eg) of material used
in making of LED.
 The wavelength of light emitted

Construction:
An n- type layer is grown on a substrate and a p- type layer is grown on it by the process of
diffusion. The p-layer is made very thin to prevent loss of photons due to absorption in the
layer. Metal connections are made at the edges of the p-layer in order to allow more central
surface for the light to escape. A metal film is deposited at the bottom of the substrate for
reflecting as much light as possible towards the surface of the device and also to provide
electrode connection.
The light generated at the junction may not emerge from the surface of the device as it is
likely to suffer total internal reflection at the semiconductor - air boundary. Therefore, the
device is encapsulated in a clear epoxy resin of suitable refractive index.

Working:
LED is always forward biased. The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater
than an ordinary diode. The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward current. The
amount of light emitted is directly proportional to the forward current.
Applications:
• Discrete LEDs are used as indicators.
• As light sources in fibre optic communications.
• A number of LEDs may be grouped to form a display to generate a decimal number
or alphabetical character
• They are used in digital meters & electronic clocks
• LEDs are used in Burglar alarms systems, Calculators, Picture phones, Traffic signals,
Digital computers, Microprocessors, Digital watches, Automotive heat lamps, Camera
flashes and Aviation lighting
ADVANTAGES OVER FILAMENT LAMPS
• Low operational voltage and less power is required to operate.
• Fast action and no warm-up time required.
• Long life.
• Fast on-off switching capacity.
• Emits monochromatic light.
• Smaller in size and lighter in weight.

Applications of photodiode:
• Photodiodes are commonly used in fiber-optic networks for high-speed data transmission.
• Photodetectors are used in systems that detect air and water quality through light-based
measurements.
• Used in light-controlled relays, optical reader, CD players, smoke detectors, remote
control devices.
• Photodiodes are widely used in medical field. It is used in instruments to analyse
samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.

Applications of PIN photodiode:

• PIN diodes are used in the RF and microwave switches and variable
• attenuators.
• PIN diodes are used in optical communication.
• PIN diodes are used to detect X-ray and gamma rays photons.
• PIN diodes are also used in solar cells, optical sensors, image sensors