Week 1 Reading

Primary Source: first hand accounts of events; original records; raw data (eg. songs, literature, letters)
●​ First hand accounts of an historic event allow you to form reasoned conclusions based on evidence

Secondary sources: works that discuss a subject; written after the time that the events occurred; discussions of past events
●​ Bring clarification and deeper understanding to a primary source.

Avoiding Fake News:

●​ Read news from a variety of sources to ensure that you get multiple perspectives; keeps biases in mind.
●​ Switch up search engines to avoid Googles algorithm in the results you see
●​ Be wary of emotional headlines as fake news are made to encourage strong reactions
●​ Do not take breaking news as fact because events conveyed as they are happenigng are likely to be misreported.
●​ Fake news can be in the form of podcasts, TV, prints and academic channels.

Week 2 Readings
Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food & Ideas:
●​ The Columbian exchange refers to the exchange of dieases, ideas, food crops, and populations between the New
(Americas) and Old World (Eastern Hemisphere), following Columbus’s 1492 voyage.

The Spread of Disease:

●​ Many diseases like smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, typhus and malaria were
brought from the Old World into the New World.
●​ Native populations had no immunity to these diseases, leading to catastrophic mortality.
○​ The impact was immense, with 80–95% of Native Americans dying in the first 100–150 years after 1492.
○​ Eg. estimates that typical societies lost 90% of their populations.
●​ Syphilis is one of the few diseases that spread from the New World to the Old World.
○​ The "Columbian hypothesis" suggests that syphilis was brought to Europe by Columbus and his crew.
○​ Syphilis spread rapidly across Europe, reaching different parts of the world by the 16th century.
○​ Early symptoms were severe and often fatal, evolving over time to become less deadly.
○​ The pre-Columbian hypothesis suggests syphilis existed in the Old World before Columbus, but was not
distinguished from other diseases.
○​ Recent phylogenetic studies support the Columbian hypothesis, showing that venereal syphilis likely
originated from a tropical disease in South America.

The Transfer of New World Foods to the Old World:

●​ Foods like potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize and cassava were introduced to the Old world and were nutrient &
calorie dense while foods like tomatoes, cacao and chilis were introduce to complement foods and improve taste.
●​ The Americas also allowed a lot of unpopulated land for cultivating crops.
○​ Sugar, coffee, soybeans, oranges and bananas were introduced to the New world.

Staple Crops - Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, Maize and Cassava:

●​ Potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize (corn), and cassava were introduced to the Old World and could grow in climates
unsuitable for Old World staples, utilizing soils previously considered non-arable.
●​ American crops complemented Old World crops, expanding the possibilities for agriculture by requiring different
conditions.
 ●​ Maize (corn): Widely adopted in countries like Lesotho, Malawi, and Zambia, with high caloric intake from maize
●​ Cassava: Top-consuming countries are all in the Old World. However, excess consumption of cassava without
proper processing can lead to konzo, a neurological disease.
●​ Sweet potatoes: Consumed heavily in places like the Solomon Islands, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, and China.
●​ The potato had the largest impact because they provide a high supply of calories and nutrients, enough to sustain
life with just the addition of milk or butter for vitamins A and D.
●​ Studies suggest the potato played a key role in population growth and urbanization, accounting for 12% of
population growth and 47% of the rise in urbanization post-adoption.

Capsicum Peppers:
●​ Capsicum peppers originated in present-day Bolivia and southern Brazil. By the time Europeans arrived, they had
spread to Mesoamerica and the Caribbean.
●​ Capsicum annuum (domesticated in Mesoamerica) is the ancestor of many common peppers, including cayenne, bell
peppers, and jalapeños.
●​ Capsicum frutescens (first cultivated in the Amazon) is the source of tabasco peppers.
●​ Central to hungarian dishes, used in base of south and southeast asian dishes, used heavily in china and korea.
●​ Highly nutritious with the most vitamin A, rich in vitamin B and C; lots of magnesium & iron.
●​ Capsaicin effects: Capsaicin, the alkaloid found in capsicums, aids digestion by increasing saliva flow and gastric
acids. It also has medicinal uses in treating pain, respiratory disorders, shingles, toothaches, and arthritis.

Tomatoes:
●​ Tomatoes originated in South America.
●​ First mentioned in European texts in 1544.
●​ Tomatoes were introduced to Asia by Spaniards who visited the Philippines in 1564. However, they were not
cultivated in China until the 20th century.
●​ Tomatoes spoil quickly in hot climates, which made them difficult to preserve. The canning process extended their
shelf life, but it wasn't cost-effective until the late 19th century when mechanization made canning more affordable.
●​ Tomatoes have become a global food staple, with most tomato-consuming countries being from the Old World.
●​ Tomatoes are not calorically rich but are an important source of vitamins, especially vitamins A and C.
○​ Lycopene: Cooked or canned tomatoes contain lycopene, a powerful antioxidant. Recent studies suggest
that lycopene may help reduce the risk of cancer.

Cacao:
●​ The Aztec records written after the Spanish conquest of Mexico mentions chocolate was being cultivated & traded.
●​ Columbus brought cacao pods back to Spain after his 2nd voyage to the New World, presenting them to the King
●​ In 1590, the Spanish began cultivating cacao outside the Americas, specifically on the island of Fernando Po, off the
coast of Africa.
●​ Initially, cacao was used to make luxurious chocolate drinks that were largely confined to aristocratic courts in
Europe; then chocolate became a popular luxury item.

Plain Vanilla:
●​ Vanilla was completely unknown to the Old World before 1492. It originates from the tropical forests of eastern
and southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.
●​ The vanilla plant (Vanilla planifolia) is the only species of the orchid family that produces edible fruit. After harvest,
the pods must be fermented to produce vanillin, the compound that gives vanilla its characteristic flavor and aroma.
●​ It was first introduced in Spain, and gained popularity (as flavouring for chocolate) and became a luxury item.
 ●​ By the 18th century, the French used vanilla widely in confectioneries, ice creams, perfumes, and tobacco.
●​ French colonial islands attempted to cultivate vanilla using cuttings from the Americas, but these efforts initially
failed due to a lack of proper insect pollinators.
○​ Successful cultivation began in 1836 when Belgian botanist Charles Morren discovered how to
hand-pollinate vanilla orchids.
●​ Today, significant vanilla producers include Madagascar, Indonesia, and China.
●​ Despite its lack of nutritional value, vanilla has become one of the most popular and widespread flavorings
worldwide.

Tobacco:
●​ Believed to have been used by Native Americans, but not recreationally, instead as a hallucinogen during religious
ceremonies and as a painkiller.
●​ Tobacco was initially viewed in Europe as a medicine and introduced to England in the 1580s by Sir John Hawkins
and his crew. By the early 17th century, tobacco use had spread across Europe.
●​ In colonial America, tobacco was frequently used as currency.
○​ Tobacco also served as collateral for American loans during the Revolutionary War and was used as
currency by Buddhist monks in Japan.
●​ Tobacco consumption surged during World War I, with cigarettes becoming known as "soldier's smoke." The rise in
smoking persisted throughout the 20th century.
○​ By the 1950s, medical research began to reveal the harmful health effects of smoking.
●​ Although smoking rates have decreased in many developed countries, tobacco consumption continues to rise in
less-developed nations.

Improved Cultivation of Old World Foods in the New World:

●​ Old World crops like wheat, sugarcane, coffee and soybeans thrived in New World soils and climates, often better
than in their native regions. The Americas, with their diverse climates, became ideal for growing these crops.
●​ The geographic isolation of the two regions meant that plants brought to the New World often thrived because
they escaped the pests and parasites that coevolved with them in their native habitats.
●​ Sugar cane originated from the Old World but now the Americas dominant global sugar cane production,
particularly in Latin America.
●​ Sugar production in the Americas led to a massive supply increase in Europe, making sugar affordable to common
people for the first time ⇨ per capital consumption of sugar increased ⇨ became essential calorie source for the
growing urban working class; increased English welfare.
●​ Supported the creation of an industrial working class by providing a cheap, energy-dense food source.

Indirect Consequences of the Columbian Exchange ndirect Consequences of the Columbian Exchange:
●​ Quinine, derived from the bark of cinchona trees native to the Andes, became the first treatment against Malaria.
○​ Malaria was a barrier of European colonization in tropical regions but this treatment allowed European
powers to expand more effectively into malaria-ridden regions.
●​ Rubber, another product from the Americas, became commercially viable due to the Hevea rubber tree.
○​ In the 19th century, the process of vulcanization (which stabilizes rubber) sparked an explosive demand for
rubber, used in industries ranging from electricity to automobiles.
○​ Hevea seeds were transported to Southeast Asia which now dominate global rubber production.
○​ But, rubber production in Congo was exploited due to forced labor, violence, disease & starvation leading to
a massive reduction in population.
 ●​ The forced migration of over 12 million Africans to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade was a direct
consequence of the Columbian Exchange.
○​ Old World diseases decimated Native American populations, creating a demand for labor that African
slaves were forced to fill.
○​ After slavery was abolished, indentured laborers from India & China filled labor needs.
●​ During this time, voluntary migrations from Europe to the Americas surged; 45 million people, mainly from Europe.

The New World provided soils that were very suitable for the cultivation of a variety of Old World products, like sugar and
coffee. The increased supply lowered the prices of these products significantly, making them affordable to the general
population for the first time in history. The production of these products also resulted in large inflows of profits back to
Europe, which some have argued fueled the Industrial Revolution and the rise of Europe.

●​ The Columbian exchange refers to the exchange of dieases, ideas, food crops, and populations between the New
(Americas) and Old World (Eastern Hemisphere), following Columbus’s 1492 voyage. It let to the globalization of
foods and resources which then fueled the Industrial revolution but also led to significant slave trade labour and
colonilism.

Week 3 Readings
Reading #1 - Empires of Food
Empire Marketing Board (1926-1933):
●​ Goal: promoted the idea that food from British colonies (like tea from India) was not foreign, but part of Britain’s
empire.
●​ By buying these goods, British consumers were essentially supporting their own empire, as if they were consuming
products from their own garden.
○​ But is is necessary? As consumers were already used to buying products from across the empire.

Historical Context of Food & Empire:

●​ Foods from Asia and the America were initially seen as exotic in Europe and were markers of elite statis.
●​ Over time, these foods became more common across social classes
●​ In contrast, people in colonized regions had foreign (European) foods imposed on them; shaping their diets in ways
tied to imperial dominance.

Long-Distance Trade & Technology:

●​ The development of long-distance trade and modern technologies led to the global spread of new types of food,
creating complex networks of production and distribution.
●​ Imperial powers controlled these food networks, which were part of a broader system of economic and cultural
exchange.

Modern Global Food Systems:

●​ Postcolonial Impact: Foods that were once local became integrated into global markets and imperial/postcolonial
systems.
 ●​ Global Food Corporations: Today, global food corporations dominate the market, continuing the legacy of
imperialism by controlling the production and distribution of food worldwide.

Domesticated Exotics and Colonial Passages

●​ Globalized Breakfast:
○​ By the 1920s, everyday foods like banana from central America, sugar from Cuba, and coffee from Brazil
were easily found in Europe, showing how global trade had become integrated into daily life.
○​ The roots of this globalized diet stretch back to European mercantilism and early capitalism, when colonie
powers began transforming global trade networks & bringing foods from distant lands into Europe.
●​ Spices as a Symbol of Wealth:
○​ In medievel Europe, spices from Asia (cinnamon, cloves & pepper) were highly valued for their flavour,
medicinal properties and their ability to symbolizes status.
■​ The scarcity and high cost made them a marker of elite consumption.
○​ As trade networks expanded, spices became cheaper and less affluent households began using them.
●​ Spanish Spice
○​ Spain’s early effort to transplant & cultivate spices like ginger in its Carabbean colonies were largely
unsuccessful, except for some crops like ginger.
○​ Despite limited success, these attempts to cultivating exotic plants in colonies were precursors to similar
projects by other European powers, which later used scientific knowledge and colonial powers to
domesticate and control the production of foods like sugar & coffee.
●​ Sugars Shift from Luxury to Necessity:
○​ Sugar, initially a rare and expensive luxury in Europe, became more accessible and commonplace as
Caribbean plantations ramped up production using enslaved labor.
○​ By the 18th century, sugar was no longer just a spice for the rich but an essential part of the European diet,
especially in combination with other new colonial goods like tea, coffee, and chocolate.
○​ It shifted from a status symbol to an everyday staple.
●​ New Foods and Medical Uses:
○​ Many new foods from the colonies, such as cocoa, coffee, tea, and tobacco, were initially introduced to
Europe as medicinal remedies.
○​ But they soon became popular in everyday life, first among elites and later among broader social classes.
○​ Cocoa, for example, was originally a bitter medicinal drink from the Americas, but it was transformed in
Europe when people began adding sugar and milk, creating the more familiar sweet version.
●​ Shifts in Consumption of Exotic Goods:
○​ As colonial trade networks grew, tea, coffee, sugar, & tobacco became widely consumed in Europe.
○​ Tea, originally associated with upper-class women, eventually became a common drink for people across
gender and class lines.
○​ By 1800, exotic products like tea, coffee, sugar, and spices made up a significant portion of European
imports, reflecting their growing importance in everyday European life.
●​ The Role of Imperialism in Food Circulation
○​ European imperialism brought exotic foods to Europe but also spread them across other colonies.
○​ Eg. potatoes, native to the Americas, was introduced into Europe by Spanish colonists; then became staple
in countries like Ireland.
●​ Labor Systems and Food Trade:
○​ European imperial slavery played a key role in shaping the diets of colonized peoples.
○​ Eg. the traansatlantic slave trade created a triangular trade system in which foods like salt cod from Canada
and molasses from the Caribbean were transported between Europe, Africa & the America.s
 ■​ These cheap, portable foods often became staples for enslaved people & poor communities.
●​ Resistance to Colonial Foods:
○​ Colonized populations often resisted the foods imposed by European colonists.
○​ Eg. Caribbean slaves resistaed attampts to replace their traditional diets with breadfruit (cheapter sub for
wheat flour).
■​ Slaves already had access to starchy foods like cassava and didnt need breadfruit.
●​ Cultural Fusion & New Dises
○​ Over time, colonized people adapted and transformed foreign foods into new hybrid dishes.
○​ Eg. enslaved Africans in the Caribbean created the dish saltfish and ackee.
○​ Foods that were once considered symbols of poverty or hardship, like breadfruit, later became important
parts of regional identities, celebrated in folklore & cuisine

Summary: This passage explores how European exploration and colonization transformed exotic foods into everyday
staples in Europe. Spices, sugar, tea, coffee, and other tropical products were initially expensive and symbols of wealth, but
as European empires grew and global trade networks expanded, these foods became more accessible to all classes.
Colonialism not only brought these foods to Europe but also reshaped the diets of colonized peoples, often through coercion
and resistance. Over time, these foods became cultural symbols, reflecting the power dynamics of European empires and
the complex relationships between food, labor, and trade.

Industrial Foods: Circulation, Plentidue & Hunger:

●​ 1909 reflects a period when imperial foods were becoming integral to Britains food supply, raising standards of
living in Britain and tying the colonies closer to the metropole through long-distance trade.
●​ Expansion of Intra-Imperial Food Trade:
○​ The circulation of imperial foods, particularly fruit, grew exponentially. For instance, Canadian apples first
entered the British market in the 1860s, a small speculative shipment that evolved into a major trade route
by the early 20th century. By 1908, Canada exported nearly 1.5 million barrels of apples to Britain alone.
○​ N.L. Doss, an Indian traveler, was struck by the variety and abundance of exotic fruits like bananas,
pineapples, and oranges available in London, compared to the limited local fruit selection in Calcutta.
Covent Garden Market in London became a hub where imperial foods transcended local constraints of
season and geography, especially for the elite who could afford expensive imports like pineapples.
●​ The Indistrialization of Pineapple Production (James Dole)
○​ James D. Dole’s arrival in Hawaii in 1901 marked the start of a transformation in the pineapple trade.
○​ With Hawaii’s annexation by the U.S., Dole established vast plantations and canning factories, exporting
pineapples globally.
○​ He spearheaded the industrial-scale production of this once-elite tropical fruit, making it accessible to
tAmerican middle class.
●​ Technological Innovations and Imperial Food Circuits
○​ Long-distance trade and innovations in food preservation (eg. canning, freezing, mechanization, retailing
and transport were central to the rise of agro-industrial foods.
○​ Canning industry began in the early 19th century and this method quickly spread across empires.
○​ Canned foods became a staple for European soldiers, explorers, and colonists in remote areas.
■​ In British India, for example, canned goods and luxury foods for European settlers constituted a
significant part of imports, which Indian nationalists criticized as an unjust economic drain on the
colony.
●​ Biscuits and Condensed Milk in the Colonial World:
 ○​ Industrial foods such as biscuits and condensed milk, initially produced for European travelers and colonial
officials, became visible and desirable to local populations.
○​ Despite religious and cultural barriers to consuming these "foreign" foods, the younger generation often
found ways to indulge in them, marking the early stages of cultural shifts in colonial societies.
○​ By the early 20th century, these once-expensive foods became more accessible, leading to the
establishment of local production, such as the Britannia biscuit factory in India.
●​ Revolution in Meat Trade:
○​ The introduction of refrigeration in the late 19th century revolutionized the global meat trade, making fresh
meat from distant colonies like Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina available year-round in Europe.
○​ Prior to this, the bulk of Britain’s meat imports were salted pork from the U.S., as fresh beef did not preserve
○​ The U.S. cattle industry contributed to the decline of the bison population, which had devastating ecological
and cultural impacts on Native American communities. T
■​ he U.S. government, after the near-extinction of bison, began supplying beef to Native American
reservations, which, along with other industrial foods like flour and sugar, drastically altered their
traditional diets.
●​ Industrial “Drug Foods” (Tea, Sugar, and Coffee):
○​ Foods like sugar, tea, and coffe; due to their addictive and stimulating properties, became staples for
Britain’s growing industrial workforce.
○​ Tea, in particular, became a symbol of British identity and a daily necessity across all social classes, thanks
to cheap supplies from India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
■​ its production relied on exploitative labor practices, making the consumption of these foods deeply
intertwined with colonial exploitation.
○​ In colonial India, tea-drinking, initially promoted by the British, gradually spread among the local
population. Its association with modernity and public sociability led to its incorporation into Indian daily life.
○​ Over time, tea became a social norm even in rural communities, where it started to replace older forms of
hospitality.

Summary: This section explores how technological innovations and imperial trade networks revolutionized global food
production and consumption during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Agro-industrial foods like canned goods,
biscuits, and refrigerated meat transformed diets across Europe and the colonies, making once-expensive or exotic foods
more accessible. However, these industrial foods were not only symbols of progress but also tools of empire, deeply
connected to systems of colonial labor, exploitation, and resource extraction. While imperial centers like London benefited
from the abundance of foodstuffs from across the empire, many colonized populations experienced hunger and hardship
due to the extraction of their resources for the imperial market

Local and Global Foods: Empires and Their Aftermath

●​ Imperial Influence on Food Globalization
○​ Food diffusion through empire: the spread of foods like indian curry to the west was driven by imperial
commections and migration. Indian-style dishes became global but were often modified in ways that
distorted their original form.
○​ Migration and Labor: The forced migration of laborers during periods of decolonization and political conflict
led to the movement of foods across the world. Migrants brought their home-style dishes with them, but
these foods were adapted in the new environments, often to suit local tastes.
●​ The Transformation of Curry
○​ Indian curry in Britain: curry became popular in Victorial Britain; using generic curry powder.
 ○​ Indian visitors were disappointed in British curry; an appropriation that didnt capture the authenticity of
Indian cuisine.
■​ Initially, Indians thought the British love for curry showed an appreciation for Indian food, but they
later realized it was a modified, less authentic version.
●​ Evolution of Curry Houses in Britain:
○​ The first curry restaurants in Britain were opened by Indian migrants in the early 20th century, catering to
both British working class and Indian people.
○​ After events like the 1947 Partition of India and the 1971 Bangladesh War, more South Asian migrants
came to Britain, setting up restaurants that popularized "British curry," a hybrid of Indian and British tastes.
●​ Impact of Empire on Colonized Regions
○​ Colonies like Senegal and India were forced to grow cash crops (e.g., groundnuts in Senegal) for export,
often at the expense of local food production. This led to a reliance on imported foods like rice, changing
local diets and causing food insecurity.
○​ British colonial policies also deindustrialized regions like India, shifting its economy from artisanal
production to agricultural exports, which worsened hunger and poverty.
●​ Global Food Industry in the 20th Century:
○​ By the late 20th century, global food corporations and supermarkets spread standardized food products
worldwide.
○​ In the Global North, consumers could buy similar foods across regions, while in the Global South, small
local producers faced exclusion due to the demands of global food safety standards.
○​ Migrant-run "ethnic" eateries in cities like London, New York, and Toronto showcased how local foods from
former colonies (e.g., samosas, empanadas) were adapted into the global food scene.
●​ Health and Industrial Diets:
○​ Industrialized food systems in the Global North provided cheap but often unhealthy food, leading to food
scares (eg. salmonella, mad cow disease) and public health concerns.
○​ Responses included the rise of organic and fair-trade markets, but these alternatives often had limited
accessibility, especially in the Global South.

Reading #2 - Global Migrants Foodways

●​ Many people want to eat “authentic” foods from local traditions, but the history of food makes this hard.
○​ Famous foods like Irish potatoes were actually introduced from other places through global exchanges, not
originally local.
●​ Food is always changing:
○​ Food naturally evolves and adapts due to people moving around, rather than staying the same over time
○​ For the past 500 years, people have traveled and shared ingredients, changing the way everyone eats
globally.
●​ Global Food Systems and Empires:
○​ The global food system (how food is produced and distributed around the world) began with European
empires, which used focrced labor to grow food and resources for their own countries.
○​ This system reduced the variety of plants grown worldwide nand increased reliance on a few key crops.
○​ Colonized & enslaved people also influenced food systems by adapting and using new crops & ingredients.
●​ Migrant Influence on Food:
○​ Migrants (people moving from one country to another) have played a big role in introducing new foods and
flvors wherever they settled, helping create more diverse food cultures.
○​ After WW2, many countries embraced different ethnic foods, moving away from the idea of a “melting pot”
(where everyone blends together) to a “salad bowl” (where different traditions coexist).
 ●​ Food & Cultural Indendity:
○​ The way people prepare and eat food helps define who they are as a community or group.
○​ For example, Jewish people have followed kosher food rules for thousands of years, but their dishes still
changed based on where they lived.
●​ Migrant Food Markets:​
○​ "migrant marketplaces," where migrants exchange foods that connect them to their heritage and help build
their identity in new places.
○​ These marketplaces can be physical places or part of a global network where migrants maintain ties to their
homeland.
●​ Migrants Shaped Modern Food Systems:
○​ Around 1850, as countries became more industrialized, free migration and mass-produced foods became
more common, although empires still controlled much of the trade.
○​ After World War II, technology and migrant labor helped create the fast-moving global food system we see
today.

Empire, Mobility, and an Extensive Food System:

●​ In the past, large empires like Britain, Span & Portugal moved people, plants and animals across the world to
produce food.
○​ Many workers were forced into labor, like millions of Africans enslaved to work on farms, producing goods
that were sent back to Europe.
○​ Colonizers also brought familiar plants and animals to new lands to try to grow food they were used to but
these foods often changed in the new environments.
●​ Sugar Plantations:
○​ Sugar was one of the most important crops, especially in places like Brazil and the Caribbean.
○​ The demand for sugar in Europe grew fast as it was used in drinks like coffee and tea.
○​ Large plantations needed many workers, so millions of enslaved Africans were brought to these places to
grow and harvest sugar.
●​ Urban Growth and Farming:
○​ As cities in Europe grew, people moved from the countryside to work in the cities. This led to more demand
for food, pushing farmers to grow more and commercialize agriculture.
○​ However, food prices went up, causing many people to struggle to feed their families. This led to food riots
in some areas.
●​ Food Preservation and Inventions:
○​ Empires also developed ways to preserve food for long voyages, like canned goods and alcohol (rum, gin),
which became popular with sailors and colonists.
○​ In tropical colonies, European settlers tried to eat European foods but often had to adapt to local
ingredients.
○​ Indigenous people and enslaved workers mixed their traditional foods with European ingredients, creating
new dishes.
●​ Blending of Food Cultures (Creolization):
○​ "Creolization" means combining different cultures. In the colonies, food became a blend of local, African,
and European ingredients.
○​ New dishes, such as rice and beans (combining African and American ingredients), became common. Even
in Europe, people began enjoying products like chocolate, coffee, and tea from other parts of the world.
●​ Global Food Chains:
 ○​ The early global food system, created by empires, was similar to modern industrial agriculture. It relied on
growing one main crop (like sugar or spices) and using harsh labor conditions, often involving enslaved
workers.
○​ As time passed, the abolition of slavery and new forms of labor reshaped the way food was grown and
traded, leading to the creation of new food traditions that mixed different cultures together.

Industrialization, Migration, and Changing Food Systems

●​ Between 1950 & 1950, industrialization, migration and nation-building transformed how people ate.
○​ Due to new tech & transportation, foods like rice, meat, which were formerly been luxuries for the rich were
commoditized and available for working classes of industrial societies.
○​ The industrial revolutions innovations often came from the margins, where migrants took a leading role, not
the British (eg. Hungarian rolling mills transformed the global wheat economy).
●​ As migrants moved to industrial cities, they brought their food traditions with them. This led to a mix of global
foods in urban areas, but it also caused tension with locals who saw foreign foods as "alien."
●​ Governments used scientific ideas about nutrition to influence what people ate. They promoted certain foods to
improve workers' health and productivity.
●​ At the same time, wealthy people sought out special foods (like Champagne or Roquefort cheese) to maintain social
status, while mass-produced foods became more common for everyone else
●​ Global Food Trade Expanded:
○​ New transportation technologies allowed foods from around the world to reach major cities. For example,
people in London or New York could buy bread made from Canadian wheat, beef from the Americas, and
bananas from the Caribbean.
○​ However, these mass-produced foods often lost some quality. For example, white bread was less nutritious
than brown bread, and bananas were chosen for durability rather than taste.
●​ The Role of Technology and Migrants in Agriculture:
○​ Technologies like mechanical plows, grain elevators, and improved irrigation helped expand agriculture
around the world. Large-scale farms (plantations) grew in places like Argentina and Southeast Asia.
○​ These changes often displaced indigenous people or relied on migrant workers who were hired seasonally
to harvest crops, like Italians in Argentina or Afro-Caribbean workers on banana plantations.
●​ Plant Breeding and Global Trade:
○​ Plant breeding (selecting the best crops to grow) relied on sharing seeds and knowledge globally.
Scientists and farmers worked together to improve food production.
○​ For example, the British established tea plantations in India, initially using Chinese tea plants, but
eventually preferring the local Indian varieties like Assam tea.
●​ Migrant Influence on Food Culture:
○​ Migrants brought their own food traditions, opening restaurants and grocery stores in their new
communities. These foods helped migrants stay connected to their homes and also introduced new tastes
to local populations.
○​ For example, Italian migrants spread pasta dishes, and Chinese migrants popularized their cuisine through
restaurants.
●​ Food and National Identity:
○​ Governments began to shape national cuisines to reflect their identity. They promoted certain foods as
"national dishes" to create a sense of shared culture, while sometimes rejecting foreign foods.
○​ For example, fascist Italy tried to become self-sufficient in food but ended up increasing malnutrition by
focusing too much on certain crops.
●​ Food and Social Mobility:
 ○​ Food industries became an important area for migrants to find work and start businesses. Many opened
restaurants, sold food products, or worked in food-related jobs like fruit peddling.
●​ Challenges of Globalization:
○​ While globalization allowed for the spread of food and ideas, it also led to problems. For example, a pest
called phylloxera nearly destroyed global vineyards, but it was solved by using a resistant type of grapevine
from America.
○​ Governments also imposed restrictions on food imports and migrants, trying to control the spread of foreign
goods and labor.

New Migrants, Multicultural Nations, and an Intensive Global Food System

●​ Changes in Migrant Demographics:
○​ Women and refugees became a larger proportion of migrants compared to earlier waves.
○​ Decolonization led to significant migrations from former colonies to imperial capitals (eg. Algerians to
France)
○​ Seasonal, long-distance agricultural labor migrations became more common, as seen with 19th century
workers like the golondrini.
●​ Impact on Global Foodways:
○​ Global food production and trade expanded with advances in technology and capitalism, allowing migrants
to cook traditional dishes without needing substitutes for ingredients.
○​ Migrant cuisines became symbols of multiculturalism, especially in countries promoting diversity, though
social acceptance of migrants themselves remained limited.
○​ Migrants often established markets and food stalls that became more personal and community-oriented,
bypassing corporate supply chains. Examples include taco trucks in the US after Mexican peasants lost
livelihoods due to NAFTA.
●​ Technological and Agricultural Changes:
○​ Military Technology in Food Production:
■​ The Haber-Bosch process (originally for making explosives in WWI) revolutionized fertilizer
production, boosting global agricultural yields.
■​ Tanks inspired the design of farm tractors, while chemical weapons like DDT and 2,4-D were
adapted into pesticides and herbicides.
■​ The logistical demands of war encouraged food processing innovations (e.g., Coca-Cola plants built
for US troops in WWII became the foundation of a global soft drink empire).
○​ Industrial Agriculture:
■​ By the 1950s, industrial feedlots and fish farms replaced traditional grazing and fishing methods,
using technologies originally designed for military purposes.
■​ These methods increased global meat and dairy production but introduced major health and
environmental risks (e.g., the spread of diseases like mad cow disease and E. coli).
■​ The Green Revolution of the 1960s exported these intensive farming practices to Cold War allies,
democratizing access to food but exacerbating environmental degradation and animal welfare
concerns.
●​ Rise of Corporate Power and Global Supply Chains:
○​ The late 20th century saw the rise of multinational corporations like McDonald's, which globalized
fast-food culture, imposing industrial efficiency on food preparation.
○​ Franchising systems spread, standardizing food products like hamburgers globally, but often tailoring them
to local tastes (e.g., the Maharaja Mac in India).
○​ Shipping and Trade:
 ■​ Standardized shipping containers (from the 1950s) and air freight (from the 1980s) allowed for
rapid, large-scale trade of bulk commodities and perishable items, such as fresh fruits from Chile to
the Northern Hemisphere.
■​ Seasonal farm workers and food industry employees, often migrants, worked in precarious
conditions, with limited labor protections and low pay.
●​ Cultural and Culinary Diplomacy:
○​ Governments of countries like Thailand, South Korea, and Peru launched gastrodiplomacy campaigns, using
national cuisine to promote tourism and safeguard culinary traditions on the global stage.
○​ The UNESCO recognition of foods like the Mediterranean diet and Mexican cuisine as intangible cultural
heritage raised the stakes for countries seeking international culinary recognition, while also sparking
internal debates over who controls these culinary traditions.
○​ Culinary tourism surged, with elite chefs often profiting by reinterpreting traditional dishes, which stirred
debates over cultural appropriation and the marginalization of indigenous or working-class food cultures.
●​ Conflicts Over Culinary Authenticity and Tourism:
○​ Growing demand for authentic regional foods created tensions within migrant communities, as younger
generations rejected hybrid dishes (e.g., chop suey, chili con carne) in favor of more "authentic" traditional
cuisines from their homeland.
○​ The late 20th century also saw a rise in fusion cuisine, where chefs blended culinary traditions from
different cultures, sparking controversies over authenticity and cultural appropriation.
■​ Claims of cultural appropriation were particularly heated when wealthy, often non-native chefs
profited from reinterpreting peasant dishes using European techniques.
●​ Global Industrial Food System Post-WWII:
○​ The global food system became highly industrialized and efficient post-WWII, but it came with significant
costs to labor, the environment, and health.
■​ Fast food and processed foods (e.g., burgers and chicken sandwiches) became staples for the
working classes in rich nations, providing cheap daily access to meat.
■​ However, the rise of just-in-time production extended to both inventory systems and low-wage
labor forces, often leaving workers (including grocery store and fast-food employees) without basic
benefits or job stability.
●​ The Covid-19 pandemic of 2020 exposed the vulnerabilities of this global food system, with supermarket shelves
emptying due to the reliance on just-in-time logistics rather than resilient, local food sources.

Week 4 Readings
Reading #1 - Oxford Companion to Food: Maize
●​ Corn (maize) originated in Central & South America from a wild ancestor (teosinte), which crossed with another
plant. It cannot self-propagate, relying on humans for cultivation.
●​ Ancient Cultivation: the earliest evidence of maize cultivation is in Mexico (pollen from 70,000 ya), with
domesticated maize dating back to 5500 BC in Tehuacan, Mexico.
●​ Physical characteristics:
○​ Large seed heads (cobs) with rows of grains
○​ Modern varieties have husks that prevent grains from falling
○​ Maize has separate male & female flowers, pollinated by wind.
●​ Types of Maize:
○​ Flint corn: Small, hard grains; preferred by Native Americans.
 ○​ Flour corn: Large, starchy grains, used in cornmeal.
○​ Dent corn: Large, starchy grains with a dimple; widely used for animal fodder and ethanol.
○​ Sweetcorn: Wrinkled kernels; consumed as “corn on the cob.”
●​ Nutritional Aspects: Maize lacks essential proteins but, when combined with beans, forms a balanced diet. The
nixtamalization process (treating with alkali), used by the Aztecs and Maya, improved protein quality.
●​ Global Spread: After being brought to Europe by Columbus in 1492, maize spread rapidly to Africa, Asia, and other
continents. Some theories suggest maize reached these regions before Columbus.
●​ Cultural Importance: Maize influenced myths, agricultural practices, and diets worldwide. In Africa, it promoted
plantation agriculture.
●​ Maize Products & Dishes: Cornmeal (used for breads, porridges), corn syrup, ethanol, and traditional dishes like
Kenkey in Ghana.

Reading #2 - Development of New World Crops by Indigenous Americans:

●​ Initially, America did not deliver the riches (gold, silver) expected by Spain. Early exports were limited to items like
dyewood & cotton, and the New World was largely dismissed.
●​ Aztec Conquest (1519): The arrival of treasure from Hernán Cortés' conquest of the Aztec Empire marked a turning
point, showing the New World’s value beyond just resources—its civilizations and agriculture were highly
developed.
●​ Three major civilizations—Aztec, Mayan, and Incan existed in the New World.
●​ Gold and silver from the New World financed European wars but eventually led to Spain’s decline. However, the
lasting impact was the introduction of New World crops, which revolutionized European agriculture and cuisine.
●​ Key New World Crops: Maize, potatoes, tomatoes, cacao, beans, and peppers were among the significant crops that
enriched global agriculture.

New World Crops:

●​ Grains and Pseudograins:
○​ Maize: most important grain worldwide; originally domesticated in Mesoamerica. Evolved from teosinte and
cultivated by the Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas.
■​ Key to the development of settled life and civilization in the New World.
■​ Used for animal feed, food products, sweeteners, and ethanol.
○​ Amaranth, wild rice, quinoa: Other grains domesticated in the New World.
○​ Maize rapidly spread to Europe (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Turkey) and Asia (China) after Columbus' voyages.
●​ Legumes:
○​ Common beans, lima beans, peanuts: Became crucial food crops worldwide.
○​ Peanut: Originated from Peru and spread globally, especially in Africa via European traders.
○​ Beans & maize: Complemented each other agronomically (beans provided nitrogen, maize supported beans)
and nutritionally (complete protein when combined).
○​ This combination formed the foundation of Aztec and Mayan diets, still central to Mexican cuisine.
●​ Cucurbits:
○​ Squashes and pumpkins (C. moschata, C. pepo, C. maxima): Important crops for New World populations.
○​ Represented in ancient ceramics and Renaissance art.
○​ Chayote: A minor cucurbit, spread to Europe soon after the Columbian exchange.
●​ Solanaceous Fruit Crops
○​ Capsicum peppers: Important in pre-Columbian America for food, ceremonial, and medicinal uses. Widely
accepted globally, especially in Asia and China, where they became key to their cuisine.
 ○​ Tomato: Initially treated with skepticism in Europe due to its resemblance to poisonous plants. Eventually
became integral to Italian cuisine and is now a major world vegetable.
●​ Root and Tuber Crops
○​ Cassava, potato, sweet potato: domesticated in the New World and have become major global crops.
○​ Potato: Significant in Incan culture; illustrated in early European texts (e.g., Gerard's 1597 Herball). Now
one of the top 10 food crops worldwide.
●​ Fruit Crops
○​ Blueberry/huckleberry: Native to North America, used by indigenous tribes in pemmican (meat and fruit
mixture).
○​ Brambles (blackberries, raspberries): Native to North America, but there is no evidence of indigenous
cultivation. Widely cultivated commercially.
○​ Cacao: Originated in the Amazon Basin. Valued by the Aztecs, who used cacao seeds as currency.
Introduced to Europe in 1544, where it became popular as chocolate.
○​ Cactus fruits: Include cactus pear and pitaya. Cacti were important for food, animal feed, and dye
(cochineal).
○​ Pineapple: Discovered by Columbus in 1493 in eastern Caribbean. Spread globally, reaching Africa, India,
and China by the late 16th century.
○​ Papaya: Now a common tropical fruit globally, exported from Brazil, Mexico, Hawaii, and Thailand.
○​ Strawberry: Modern large-fruited varieties originated from hybridization between species from Chile (F.
chiloensis) and North America (F. virginiana) in France.

Ornamentals
●​ The Americas contributed over 1,000 garden plants, including dahlia, fuchsia, helianthus (sunflower), and petunia,
which are now integral to global floriculture.
●​ Sunflower was used by Native Americans for food and medicine. It became an important ornamental and oilseed
crop in the 20th century, associated with the sun and symbolized in European art. Its first European illustration was
by Rembert Dodoens (1568).

Industrial Crops:
●​ Cotton: Two species of New World cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (Central America) and Gossypium barbadense
(Brazil), account for most world production. They have longer, stronger fibers than Old World varieties.
●​ Rubber: Hevea brasiliensis, a tree from the Amazon, provides latex for rubber production. The rubber industry is
now primarily in Southeast Asia.
●​ Tobacco: Domesticated by indigenous Americans, tobacco was used for medicinal, ritualistic, and possibly
hallucinogenic purposes. The addictive properties of nicotine led to global consumption. Today, tobacco is
recognized as a major health risk but remains widely legal.
●​ Quinine: Extracted from the Cinchona tree, it was an effective treatment for malaria. Though largely replaced by
modern drugs, quinine remains used in tonic water.

New World crops highlight the advanced state of indigenous American agriculture at the time of European contact and their
continuing global importance in agriculture, cuisine, and industry. These crops are a valuable contribution to humanity by
Native Americans.

Reading #3 - How of the Three Sisters; The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche
●​ The transition from foraging to agricultural food procurement strategies in Mesoamerica took place over thousands
of years and produced the trinity of maize, beans and squash.
 ●​ The relationship between these plants and humans was coevolutionary; both needed to change their behavior and
expand their ecological niche.

Agriculture:
●​ Cultivation vs. Domestication:
○​ Cultivation involves caring for plants, whether wild or domesticated, while domestication refers to the
process of selecting and breeding plants to thrive in human-created environments.
○​ Not all species are equally adaptable to human-controlled environments, which is why domestication is a
selective process.
●​ Agriculture and its Importance:
○​ Agriculture differs from low-level food production in that it demands more daily labor and a significant
portion of the diet (about 75%) comes from domesticated plants (Winterhalder & Kennet 2006).
○​ Agriculture is typically associated with settled societies where foraging becomes less essential.
●​ Centers of Domestication:
○​ There are at least six major centers where agriculture developed: Mesoamerica, the Andes, Southwest Asia,
Ethiopia and the Sahel, Southern China, and Southeast Asia (Gepts 2004). Each region domesticated both
carbohydrate and protein sources (such as grains and legumes).
●​ Theories on the Origins of Agriculture:
○​ Early theories suggested that humans brought agricultural knowledge when migrating from the Old World
to the New World, implying that they knew about seed planting and care for certain crops.
○​ The discussion shifted from "when" agriculture began to "why." He suggested agriculture was not an ideal
choice but a necessary one due to population pressures or environmental factors.
○​ Agriculture as a necessity due to overpopulation, with foragers needing to find new food sources after their
population outgrew available wild resources.
●​ Environmental and Social Factors:
○​ Geographic and environmental explanations, such as irrigation opportunities in Oaxaca and new swamps in
the Gulf of Mexico after the Pleistocene, which allowed for plant cultivation and settlement growth.
○​ Hayden (1990) proposed that agriculture emerged in fertile regions, driven by individuals seeking social
power through resource management and the accumulation of food surpluses.
●​ Ecological and Evolutionary Perspectives:
○​ Piperno and Pearsall (1998) argued that population pressures and climate changes at the end of the
Pleistocene forced humans to adapt by domesticating plants.
○​ The Ecological Niche Construction theory suggests that humans created environments conducive to the
growth of certain plants, which then became part of the human niche (Bleed 2006, Smith 2007).

The Three Sisters: Maize, Beans, and Squash:

●​ Mesoamerica, a cultural region covering Southern Mexico and parts of Central America, saw a gradual transition
from foraging to agriculture over 5,000 to 6,500 years.
●​ The domestication of the Three Sisters was a slow process, with squash being domesticated first, followed by
maize and beans later. The spread of Three Sisters agriculture across Mexico occurred around 3,500 years ago.
●​ Environmental and Ecological Context:
○​ Domestication of these plants likely began in the wetlands of Mesoamerica, where ecological conditions
were favorable. These regions provided the environmental conditions required for wild varieties of the three
○​ The cultivation of these crops spread to more arid regions, such as the Guerrero Lowlands, later on. Climate
change and ecological shifts also played a significant role in restricting or encouraging the domestication of
these plants.
 ●​ Social Complexity and Agriculture:
○​ The development of social complexity, as evidenced by the Maya, coincided with advancements in
agricultural techniques such as canal and ditch construction, which helped manage wetland fields.
○​ Agriculture appears to have been a response to environmental variability, particularly in areas prone to
natural disasters like the Jama Valley in Ecuador, where maize became a dominant crop after volcanic
eruptions.
●​ Domestication of Individual Plants:
○​ Squash, the earliest domesticate, appeared around 10,000 years ago, followed by maize around 6,300
years ago. Squash thrives in wetter climates, and its domestication involved morphological changes in
peduncles and seed size.
○​ Maize was domesticated from teosinte, a wild ancestor found in Central Mexico, and spread across
Mesoamerica after 9,000 years ago. Its domestication involved the selection of genetically diverse plants to
produce modern maize varieties.
○​ Beans, domesticated later (around 5,000 years ago), complemented maize in forming a complete protein.
Bean domestication altered plant characteristics like seed permeability, pod structure, and plant life cycle.
●​ Agriculture is seen as a symbiotic relationship where humans influence plant evolution, and in return, domesticated
plants became more productive and easily harvested
●​ This evolutionary relationship extended beyond food; plants were also used for medicinal, ritual, and craft
purposes, such as gourds for containers.

Ecology and Evolution:

●​ Climate Change and Plant Domestication:
○​ Between 11,000 and 4,000 years ago, Mexico underwent significant climate changes, which affected plant
ranges and availability. As plants shifted, humans exploited those that were available, leading to
domestication in some cases.
○​ Domestication led to significant changes in plant morphology and genetics, making them dependent on
humans for survival (e.g., the loss of seed dispersal mechanisms and bitter chemicals).
●​ Domestication Syndrome:
○​ Domesticated plants display characteristics such as larger sizes, reduced seed dormancy, and vulnerability
to pests, which are a result of inbreeding and human selection (e.g., maize, beans, squash).
○​ Plants went through genetic bottlenecks during domestication, and some domesticated species later
became less important as others (e.g., maize) were introduced.
●​ Human Behavioral Ecology (HBE) and Foraging Theory:
○​ HBE and foraging theory suggest that humans acted in ways that maximized resource availability and
minimized risks. These behaviors played a role in the shift from foraging to agriculture.
○​ Domestication didn't happen uniformly; each crop has its own domestication history based on the local
environment and cultural context.
●​ Coevolution and Symbiosis:
○​ The relationship between humans and plants is symbiotic, and domestication resulted from human
management of plants for food, medicine, rituals, and other uses.
○​ Humans, in turn, developed sedentary agricultural societies to maintain these crops, resulting in a
mutualistic relationship.
○​ Domestication often occurred in resource-rich areas near large bodies of water, supporting experimentation
with species and leading to more sedentary lifestyles.
●​ In Situ Plant Management:
 ○​ Modern practices of plant management (in situ) by indigenous populations in Mexico provide insights into
how early humans may have domesticated plants.
○​ These practices include selective gathering and promoting preferred plant traits, suggesting a gradual
process of domestication through human intervention.

Conclusions: The "How” of the Three Sisters:

●​ The Role of the Three Sisters:
○​ Maize, beans, and squash complement each other both nutritionally and agriculturally. The combination of
maize and beans, for instance, provides a complete protein, though early agriculturalists may not have been
aware of this. These crops were likely selected for multiple reasons, including ease of cultivation and
palatability.
○​ The symbiotic relationship between maize and beans, where beans fix nitrogen into the soil and maize
provides structural support for the beans to climb, demonstrates an ecological balance that benefits both
crops.
●​ Processing and Nutritional Adaptations:
○​ The processing of maize with lime, which releases niacin and makes maize more nutritious, was an
important step in the domestication process. This practice, evidenced in the archaeological record, suggests
that early agriculturalists learned to process their crops in ways that maximized nutritional value.
○​ Future research could explore the timing and development of this lime-processing technique, particularly in
relation to the domestication of maize.

Week 5 Readings
Reading #1 - The People of the Corn
●​ For Mexicans, especially indigenous and peasant communities, maize is not only a crop, its deeply embedded in
daily life, culture and tradition. It has been a central part of their existence for about 10000 ya, dating back to the
domestication of teosinte.
●​ Corn holds immense significance beyond its function as food. It influences the rhythm of life, from daily meals to the
timing of festivals, and has an important presence in architecture, crafts, and spiritualit
●​ Varities of Corn:
○​ There is a diversity of corn in Mexico, showcasing its significance and uniqueness compared to the common
yellow corn found in the U.S.
○​ Range in colour and size, from white, red, blue and black.
●​ Corn as Food Security:
○​ For indigenous people, corn has historically represented food security, helping them survive economic
hardships and natural disasters.
○​ Even during centuries of suffering, maize sustained them and allowed their people to survive.
●​ Threats from NAFTA and GMOs:
○​ NAFTA introduced problems, as Mexico became flooded with imported, genetically modified corn from the
U.S, disrupting local agriculture.
○​ The entry of multinational companies into the local maize market led to lower prices, reduced income for
small farmers, and less autonomy in food production.
○​ A growing presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) also contaminated native maize varieties,
with contamination estimates ranging from 3% to 60%.
○​ Local communities view the genetic modification of maize as a threat to their culture, seeing the loss of their
traditional maize as a potential loss of a cultural legacy passed down by their ancestors.
 ●​ Mother Seeds in Resistence Project:
○​ In response to the threat of GMOs, the Tzotzil people launched the Mother Seeds in Resistance project to
protect their native maize. This initiative aims to preserve traditional seeds by freezing them, ensuring they
remain viable for future generations.
●​ Cultural Legacy and Resistance:
○​ Leaders in the indigenous community, such as Aldo Gonzalez, view native maize seeds as an essential part
of their cultural legacy, akin to the pyramids in their historical importance. While physical monuments may
have been destroyed, maize seeds are seen as a living testament to their ancestors' achievements and
values.

Reading #2 - The People of the Corn: Food & The Making of Mexican Identity
Native American Cuisine:
●​ Canoes transported goods across Lake Texcoco to the island city of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire,
which was a bustling trade hub.
●​ These boats carried fish, game, maize, and other goods from surrounding villages and distant provinces like
Yucatan.
●​ The city was well-organized, with canals for transportation and a central square dominated by a massive pyramid
dedicated to the gods Tlaloc (rain) and Huitzilopochtli (war).
●​ The great market of Tlatelolco was a major commercial center where goods from all over Mesoamerica were
traded.
●​ The market offered a wide range of agricultural products: maize, beans, cotton, cacti, vegetables, and unique herbs
such as hoja santa and epazote.
○​ Vegetables included tomatoes, sweet potatoes, jicama, squash, and various chiles in a variety of colors.
Edible flowers, such as those from cacao and maguey plants, were also sold.
●​ Unlike European markets, Tlatelolco's meats included rabbits, dogs, salamanders, armadillos, iguanas, and venison.
○​ Fish and seafood from local and distant sources were prominent, including shrimp, crabs, clams, oysters,
lobsters, and white fish.
●​ The fruit section featured both familiar (apples, plums) and unique (avocados, cactus fruits) products. Other tropical
fruits included zapotes, mameys, and guavas.
●​ Beyond fruits and vegetables, vendors sold multicolored corn, beans (black, brown, white), amaranth, and squash
seeds, essential for the region's diet.
○​ Large quantities of salt and dried chiles were also available.
●​ The market showcased the unity of Native American cuisine while preserving regional differences.
○​ Social relationships were emphasized through the communal feeding of gods and people, highlighting the
cultural significance of food.
○​ Taste was an important aspect of pre-Columbian cooking, reflecting the rich variety of flavors available in
Mesoamerican cuisine.

“Dura pero Segura”

●​ Mesoamerican Cooking:
○​ Traditional Mesoamerican cooking, particularly for women, was labor-intensive and required grinding corn
for tortillas, which were a staple of everyday meals.
○​ Despite the effort, this cooking method provided reliable sustenance in an unpredictable environment
where crops were vulnerable to frost or hail.
●​ Corn as a Staple:
 ○​ Corn (maize) formed the basis of the diet, accompanied by beans, squash, and chiles. These ingredients
created a balanced diet, even though protein sources were limited.
○​ The tortilla, invented likely in the central highlands, became an essential food item, made using three tools:
the cazuela (pot), metate (grinding stone), and comal (griddle). Tortillas also served as utensils or plates.
●​ Tortillas and Tamales:
○​ Tortillas were quick to cook, efficient in using limited firewood, and could be rolled into tacos to preserve
heat.
○​ Tamales, a festive dish, were made by steaming corn dough with fillings like meat or beans inside corn
husks. They were served at banquets and sold in markets.
●​ Agriculture and Diet:
○​ Early Mesoamericans were mainly vegetarian, as large game animals became extinct due to climatic
changes. Agriculture slowly replaced hunting, with women leading the way in domesticating crops like
maize, beans, and squash.
○​ The combination of corn and beans provided essential nutrition. Beans, being rich in protein, complemented
the carbohydrate-heavy maize, ensuring a nutritionally sufficient diet.
●​ Regional Diversity:
○​ While corn, beans, and chiles were staples across Mesoamerica, regional climates produced variations in
cooking styles and ingredients. For example, coastal dwellers relied on fish, and highland communities
harvested maguey.
●​ Chinampas (Floating Gardens):
○​ Aztec agricultural innovations, like the chinampas (mounds of soil in swamps), provided a high yield of
crops with minimal fallow time. This system was complemented by tribute from various regions, which
brought diverse foods to the Aztec capital.
●​ Comparison with European Diets:
○​ Despite the vegetarian diet of Mesoamerican commoners, they were healthier in some respects than
European nobles, who faced issues like constipation and gout due to their heavy meat consumption.
○​ The commoners' diet was sufficient for survival, and their culture, evidenced by art and pottery, thrived
despite nutritional limitations.

Reading the Aztec Menu:

●​ Religious Significance: Food offerings (tamales, chocolate, human blood) were essential in rituals to appease gods
like Tlaloc, ensuring rain and crop success. Sacrifices maintained cosmic order, with human blood considered vital
for feeding gods.
●​ Social Dynamics: Food offerings structured social relations. Women’s role in feeding their families was central,
while nobles competed through lavish feasts to assert power. Festivals and banquets reinforced social and political
hierarchies.
●​ Gender and Labor: Women’s identity was tied to their ability to prepare food, especially maize-based dishes. Girls
were taught early about the labor involved in cooking, and wedding ceremonies emphasized women's duty to feed.
●​ Culinary Identity: Mexica cuisine, centered on fresh tortillas and seasoned foods, marked ethnic and cultural
superiority. Rival tribes like the Otomí or Tarascans were looked down upon for their perceived inferior culinary
practices.
●​ Food and Power: Nobles and priests reinforced their authority through the control of food, such as during festivals
or charity events, symbolizing their ability to sustain the community.
●​ Human Sacrifice: Rituals involving human sacrifice ensured the gods' favor. Only strong warriors were worthy
sacrifices, symbolizing a connection between human blood and agricultural fertility.
 ●​ Maize Reverence: Corn was seen as sacred, with elaborate rituals surrounding its preparation. The Mexica believed
maize was their flesh, and improper treatment of corn could result in misfortune. This reverence for maize persists in
modern Mexican traditions.

“Worse than the Epicureans”

●​ Moctezuma’s Dining: Daily feasts of up to 300 dishes for Moctezuma included a variety of meats, kept warm for his
selection. He symbolically “drank money” in the form of cacao-based chocolate, a drink of the elite.
●​ Moderation and Philosophy: Despite grand feasts, Mexica society valued moderation. Excessive indulgence was
criticized, and simplicity in cooking was highly regarded. Pre-Columbian cuisine focused on matching ingredients
and sauces harmoniously, balancing pleasure and restraint.
●​ Pre-Columbian Cuisine: Mexica and Mayan cooks showcased skillful simplicity. Dishes like papadzules used basic
ingredients, with techniques like extracting green oil from squash seeds, highlighting artistry in preparation.
●​ Corn Dough Versatility: Corn-based foods like tortillas, tamales, and antojitos (whimsical corn treats) were central.
Elaborate designs and artistic presentation, often inspired by religious rituals, reflected the aesthetic values of the
time.
●​ Mesoamerican Markets and Festivals: Village markets and public festivals played a key role in popularizing cuisine.
Markets were lively, fostering innovation, while festivals allowed even the poorest to participate, though often with
simple foods.
●​ Chiles in Cuisine: Chiles were not merely for heat but for flavor, comparable to the sophistication of fine wines.
Cooking techniques like toasting ingredients on a comal enhanced flavors through the Maillard reaction, making
even simple foods more palatable.
●​ Regional Cuisines: Difficult conditions and a lack of animal protein spurred culinary creativity, leading to diverse
regional cuisines united by corn and chile.

A Market in Ruins:
●​ Arrival of the Spanish: In 1519, Moctezuma received reports of the Spanish arrival, described as supernatural
beings with cannons, horses, and unfamiliar food. He was fearful, associating them with the return of the Toltec god
Quetzalcoatl.
●​ Moctezuma’s Response: Moctezuma tried to stop the Spanish invasion with magic, bribes, and threats, but they
advanced. Upon meeting Cortés, the Mexica offered gifts and food, but the Spanish demanded their gods be
renounced. Moctezuma was later taken hostage, and many nobles were killed.
●​ Fall of Tenochtitlan: In 1521, the Spanish besieged Tenochtitlan with the help of Indian allies and European
diseases like smallpox. The Mexica, led by Cuauhtemoc, fought back but were weakened by starvation as food
supplies were cut off.
●​ Destruction and Lamentation: A poem from Tlatelolco describes the destruction, starvation, and sorrow following
the siege. The Mexica were reduced to eating rats and worms, and on August 13, 1521, the Aztec empire fell.
Cuauhtemoc was captured and killed.
●​ Aftermath: The Spanish built their capital over the ruins of Tenochtitlan, replacing Aztec structures with Christian
cathedrals and European crops. Although the Aztec empire was destroyed, the cuisine of corn survived in markets
and villages.

Reading #3 - FolkTake
●​ Stories of origins: how the world, animals, and people came to be.
●​ Plants are seen as relatives of people, reflecting a deep connection to nature.
●​ Stories provide metaphors and cultural models that explain interactions between people and plants.
●​ Impact of the Mexican Revolution:
 ○​ Disrupted agriculture, with Rarámuri people raided for food and women forced into servitude.
○​ Many Rarámuri men fled to avoid military conscription.
●​ Rarámuri children experience conflicting histories at school (Mexican vs. their own cultural view).
○​ Western history focuses on heroes and domination, while Rarámuri history focuses on the land, plants, and
animals as heroes.
●​ Rarámuri Creation Story:
○​ The Creator (Onorúame) made the land and shaped it with the help of a bear.
○​ The first Rarámuri people were punished for neglecting their responsibilities, with only two children
surviving a flood.
○​ The children were given corn seeds to repopulate the land; people emerged from the corn, leading the
Rarámuri to view themselves as "children of corn."
●​ Worldview:
○​ The Rarámuri see the world outside their homeland as dangerous.
○​ Their directions (north, south, east, west) have meanings linked to their cultural beliefs and natural
observations.

Week 6 Readings
Reading #1 - The Three Sisters of Indigenous American Agriculture
●​ Crops: The Three Sisters are corn, beans, and squash planted together in one space. This intercropping method was
developed by Indigenous agricultural practices.
●​ Mutual Benefit: These crops protect and nourish each other as they grow, enhancing their growth and providing a
nutritious diet.
●​ Seneca Nation: The Seneca, an Iroquoian tribe, cultivated the Three Sisters for at least 500 years before European
contact. They referred to these crops as Diohe'ko ("these sustain us").
●​ Spiritual Role:
○​ The three sisters were important in Seneca tales, myths and ceremonies
○​ In the Green Corn Thanksgiving, thanks was given to these crops, seen as sustainers of life.
●​ Broader Haudenosaunee Context
○​ Haudenosaunee Confederacy: For the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), corn, beans, and squash were divine gifts,
essential both physically and spiritually.
○​ Legend: The Three Sisters were believed to have miraculously sprouted from the body of Sky Woman’s
daughter, granting the people agriculture.
○​ Ceremony: Women performed rituals to honor the spirits of these plants, believing them to be inseparable.
●​ Historical Impact
○​ The practice dates back to 1070 AD in North America
○​ Spread: The technique originated in Mesoamerica and spread throughout North America.
○​ Cultural Loss: European settlers displaced Indigenous nations, leading to the loss of agricultural diversity as
mainstream farming practices took over.
●​ Practical Aspects:
○​ Hill-Planting Method: Iroquois women planted corn by placing several kernels in a hole. As the seedlings
grew, they mounded the soil around them, forming hills about 1 foot high and 2 feet wide. These hills were
arranged in rows about a step apart.
○​ After 2–3 weeks, bean seeds were planted in the same hills. Beans fixed nitrogen into the soil, benefiting
the corn. Cornstalks served as poles for the beans to climb.
 ○​ Squash or pumpkins were planted between the rows to shade the soil, retain moisture, and prevent weeds.
●​ Systemic Benefits of The Three Sisters
○​ Corn: Provided structure for the beans to grow.
○​ Beans: Fertilized the soil by absorbing nitrogen from the air; N fixing rhizobium bacteria.
○​ Squash: Covered the ground, reducing weeds and preserving moisture.
●​ Colonial Disruption: The arrival of European settlers in 1619 marked the beginning of the displacement of
Indigenous food systems, including The Three Sisters method, and the intertwining of Native American and African
foodways due to colonization and enslavement.
●​ Intercropping: Growing two or more crops in close proximity for biological interaction, includes practices like mixed
cropping, companion planting, relay cropping, and using living mulch.
○​ Global Examples & Efficiency
■​ Milpa System (Guatemala): A similar intercropping system
that increases productivity by efficiently using light,
nutrients, and water.
●​ Maize and faba bean roots interact to boost growth,
making the system more efficient than
monocropping.
■​ Legume-Cereal Intercropping: Reduces nutrient depletion
from the soil compared to maize monocropping. Popular in
tropical agriculture.
■​ Maize/Soybean Intercropping: Improves land and nitrogen
fertilizer use efficiency, supporting sustainable development
and food security, particularly in smallholder and organic
farming systems.

Reading #2 - The Essential Cereal

●​ Corn was highly valued by Spanish colonists in Peru, recognized as essential and valuable.
○​ Mentioned by José Acosta in 1590 as one of Peru’s main resources alongside cattle.
●​ Native to Mexico and Central America; domesticated over 10,000 years ago.
○​ By European arrival, over 300 varieties of corn were cultivated across the Americas.
○​ Introduced to Europe in the 16th century by Spanish explorers.
●​ Today, corn has the highest global production of all cereals.
○​ Staple food worldwide, consumed fresh or dried (flakes, flours).
○​ Used in various foods (e.g., cornflakes, popcorn, polenta).
●​ Industrial applications include animal feed, biofuels, biodegradable plastics, and sweeteners (e.g., corn syrup).
●​ Certain varieties are used to make "chicha," a traditional drink.

Reading #3 - Podcast
Origins of the Potato
○​ Originates in the Andes, South America.
○​ Evidence of wild potato consumption extends to the Rocky Mountains in North America.
○​ Thousands of years of cultivation by local Andean communities.
●​ Nutritional and Agricultural Advantages
○​ High yield per area, efficient use of sunlight, soil, and water.
○​ Potatoes provide high calories and nutrients, especially when paired with dairy.
○​ Adaptable crop: can grow in diverse climates (e.g., subtropical varieties in India).
●​ Role in Andean Culture
○​ Integral to local Andean diets and traditions; accompanied by rituals to protect the crop.
○​ Inca State valued maize over potatoes, with maize central to state rituals and the production of corn beer.
●​ Introduction to Europe
○​ 1500s: Europeans, especially Spaniards, encounter potatoes and bring them to Europe.
○​ Notable appearances in European markets by late 1500s and early 1600s.
○​ No specific individual credited for introducing potatoes to Europe; likely spread by sailors and traders.
●​ Adaptation and Spread in Europe
○​ Peasant farmers adapted potatoes to European climates.
○​ Potatoes gained popularity due to their high yield and nutritional value.
●​ Myth of European Potato Resistance
○​ Common misconception that Europeans initially rejected potatoes.
○​ Evidence shows that people began cultivating and consuming potatoes relatively quickly.
●​ The Enlightenment and Potatoes' Social Impact
○​ 1700s: European thinkers promoted the potato as a solution to hunger and poverty.
○​ Enlightenment-era shift in political thought: Focus on the state’s role in ensuring food security for the public.
●​ Potato and Population Growth
○​ Scholars correlate potato cultivation with population growth since the 1500s.
○​ Some economists claim potatoes contributed to 25% of global population growth.
○​ Idea that potatoes fuel population growth emerged in the 1700s, with Ireland as a prime example.
●​ The Great Famine (1845-1848):
○​ Devastating potato blight (late blight) led to widespread crop failure and hunger.
○​ Estimated million deaths in Ireland due to reliance on potatoes as the primary food source.
○​ Comparison with Belgium, where diverse diets mitigated mortality.
●​ Impact of British Colonialism
○​ As British colonial policies expanded, Irish farmers were increasingly squeezed onto smaller plots of land,
forcing them to rely heavily on potatoes for sustenance.
○​ The British government's reaction to the famine was complex; while there was some concern for the
suffering, there was also a perception that the famine could help modernize agriculture by forcing people
into wage labor, which was seen as necessary for economic progress.
●​ Contradictory Views on Potatoes
○​ Initially seen as a nourishing crop promoting population growth.
○​ By the 1800s, however, potatoes were seen as an impediment to the development of a capitalist economy
because they allowed peasants to be self-sufficient and avoid wage labor, which some authorities viewed
as detrimental to economic modernization.
○​ Both capitalists and socialists criticized potatoes; some saw them as enabling exploitation by allowing the
poor to survive in oppressive conditions, while others argued that they kept people isolated and
disconnected from modern economic and political structures.
●​ Regulation of Food Markets
○​ The history of the potato reflects broader debates about food politics, illustrating how specific crops can be
viewed differently depending on social and economic contexts.
○​ The discussion of potatoes connects to contemporary issues surrounding food market regulations, such as
government bans on unhealthy foods (eg. sugary foods). This raises questions about the balance between
promoting public health and preserving individual freedoms, echoing the historical tension between state
control and personal choice.
●​ Backlash Against Food Regulation:
 ○​ Resistance to Dietary Restrictions: Public backlash against state intervention in food choices (e.g., sugar
bans) seen as infringement on personal rights.
○​ Philosophical Debate: Individuals feel entitled to make their own dietary choices, while simultaneously
believing others should eat better.
●​ Contradictory Views:
○​ State Regulation vs. Personal Freedom: Tension between promoting healthy eating and the belief in
individual freedom to make dietary choices.
○​ Questioning Dietary Choices: Individuals often believe they freely choose their diets, but external factors
(advertising, socioeconomic status) heavily influence these choices.
●​ Influence of Socioeconomic Status:
○​ Access and Affordability: Lower socioeconomic status limits access to healthy foods; cost, time, and cooking
facilities affect dietary choices.
○​ Historical Example: Industrial Revolution workers favored sweet tea due to limited cooking facilities and
time, leading to entrenched dietary preferences.
●​ Ambivalence Toward Food Regulation
○​ Mixed Attitudes: Public ambivalence toward food regulations; support for safety measures (e.g., against
scandals like horse meat contamination) but resistance to restrictions on unhealthy foods.
○​ Expectations of State Role: Expectation for the state to ensure food safety, dating back to ancient
obligations, while resistance to regulating specific food choices like sugar consumption.

Reading #3 - Truly Texas Mexican

●​ Directed by Aníbal Capoano that explores the culinary and cultural heritage of Native Mexican food in Texas.
●​ Highlights how food plays a crucial role in maintaining cultural identity, particularly for Native and Indigenous
Mexican Texans.
●​ It draws a strong connection between food and history, emphasizing the resilience of Indigenous culture despite
centuries of colonization and oppression.
●​ Key Themes:
○​ Culinary Traditions and Identity:
■​ The movie demonstrates how the preparation and consumption of traditional Native Mexican foods,
such as corn, beans, squash, and chili, keep Indigenous cultural practices alive in Texas.
■​ The film frames food as more than just sustenance, but a way to express identity, resist
assimilation, and maintain a connection to ancestral roots.
○​ Colonialism and Erasure:
■​ Truly Texas Mexican delves into how colonization, particularly Spanish and later Anglo-American
influence, tried to erase Indigenous food practices, replacing them with European cuisines.
■​ The film critiques how Tex-Mex food became the dominant cuisine associated with Texas, often
overshadowing Indigenous Mexican culinary traditions.
○​ Resistance Through Food:
■​ The film portrays food as an act of resistance. The preservation of traditional recipes, farming
methods, and ingredients represents a refusal to fully assimilate into dominant colonial cultures.
■​ It highlights the importance of memory, oral history, and intergenerational knowledge in keeping
these culinary practices alive.
○​ Land and Food Sovereignty:
■​ The connection between land and food is a major theme. Indigenous peoples' relationship with the
land is deeply spiritual and practical, but colonial practices disrupted this relationship by taking
away land and implementing industrial farming techniques.
 ■​ The film discusses the modern push toward food sovereignty, where Indigenous communities are
reclaiming their right to grow and cook their traditional foods on their ancestral lands.
●​ The film features various chefs, home cooks, historians, and food scholars who are working to preserve Texas
Mexican cuisine.
●​ Some individuals emphasize the spiritual and community-building aspects of food, while others focus on food as a
means of political and cultural activism.
●​ Reflections on Modern Food Culture:
○​ Truly Texas Mexican offers a critique of the commercialization of Tex-Mex food, which often simplifies or
erases the complexity of Indigenous Mexican cuisine.
○​ It poses important questions about authenticity and appropriation, encouraging viewers to think about the
origins of the food they eat and the stories behind them.
●​ Cultural Significance:
○​ The movie emphasizes the cultural and historical significance of traditional foods, viewing them as a bridge
between generations and as a method of cultural survival.
○​ By showcasing personal stories of chefs and families, it humanizes broader themes of colonization,
resistance, and identity, making the viewer reflect on their own relationship with food and heritage.
●​ Truly Texas Mexican is not just a documentary about food; it’s a story of survival, resistance, and cultural pride. It
invites viewers to appreciate Indigenous Mexican cuisine in Texas and recognize it as a crucial part of the region’s
history and future.
●​ They werent doing the food of the poor living in central and south texas
○​ Moljacete; put ingredients in and mash them.
○​ Chili queens

Week 7 Readings
Reading #1 - Oxford - Potato
●​ Origins and Early Cultivation:
○​ The potato (Solanum tuberosum) originated in the high altitudes of South America, with evidence of wild
potatoes dating back to around 11,000 BC in Chile.
○​ Early cultivation began around 5,000 BC in regions now known as Bolivia and Peru. Initial varieties were
small, knobbly, colorful, and bitter but could be made edible through processing techniques.
●​ Adaptations and Varieties:
○​ Wild potatoes are diverse, with some varieties growing at altitudes up to 3,960 m and others thriving in
warm or dry climates.
○​ Today, native potatoes in South America are known as papas criollas.
●​ Introduction to Europe:
○​ Spanish explorers first encountered potatoes in 1537 in now Colombia and brought to Europe (1550s)
○​ Initial reception was poor due to their bitter taste, small size, and climate requirements.
●​ Spread in Britain and France:
○​ Reached the British Isles in the 1590s, but acceptance was slow due to cultural and religious objections.
○​ In France, Antoine-Augustin Parmentier popularized the potato in the late 18th century, even persuading
the king and queen to support its use.
●​ The potato's adaptability allowed it to fill nutritional gaps, aiding population growth in regions like Italy, West
Africa, and Japan.
○​ It became vital in Ireland, leading to a dependency that resulted in disaster during the mid-19th century
potato famine.
 ●​ The potato spread slowly to India, Southeast Asia, and the Far East, gaining acceptance in some areas.
○​ Irish immigrants introduced it to North America in 1719, and it was later brought to Australasia, where it
became important to the Maori in New Zealand.
●​ Potato flour and starch are made through different processes for various uses, including instant mashed potatoes,
frozen products, and crisps.
○​ Traditional preservation methods in Peru include chuño and tunta.

The passage describes the history and development of the potato, from its early use in South America to its spread and
acceptance across the world. It highlights the potato's adaptability to various climates and its role in filling nutritional gaps
throughout history. The slow adoption in Europe is attributed to cultural, religious, and culinary resistance, but eventually, it
became a staple food worldwide. The passage also underscores the cultural significance and diverse uses of the potato,
which have shaped its role in different societies.

Potatoes in Cookery:
●​ The potato is a highly versatile ingredient, integrated into cuisines worldwide, with diverse preparation methods
and cultural preferences.
●​ Cooking Techniques and Preferences:
○​ Different regions have preferred methods: mashed potatoes with butter and milk, Irish-style boiled
potatoes, French fries, scalloped potatoes, Parisienne potatoes, rösti, roast potatoes, and jacket potatoes.
○​ Success depends on choosing the right cooking method and potato variety.
●​ Potato Varieties:
○​ Potatoes can be classified as "waxy" or "floury":
○​ Floury Potatoes: Ideal for baking, mashing, and frying but disintegrate when boiled.
○​ Waxy Potatoes: Hold their shape when boiled and are suitable for salads and dishes like gratin.
○​ Regional preferences differ, with Britain favoring floury types, while continental Europe often prefers waxy
potatoes.
●​ Diverse Potato Dishes:
○​ Potato dishes include a range of styles, such as Pan haggerty (Northumberland), Tatties 'n' herring
(Scottish), Hairy tatties (Scottish), aloo makalla (Baghdadi Jews in Calcutta), and Finnish
Imellettyperunasoselaatikka.
○​ Sweet dishes, like Northern Ireland's potato apple cake, also exist.
●​ Nutritional Advice:
○​ Cooking potatoes with the skin retains most of their vitamin C and flavor.
●​ Varieties are categorized as "early" (new potatoes) or "maincrop" (harvested later).
●​ Highlights how varieties cater to different culinary needs.

Reading #2 - How the Potato Changed the World’s History

●​ Origins and Domestication:
○​ Potatoes originated in the Andes, where they were domesticated by indigenous people over 3,000 years
ago (possibly earlier).
○​ They remain a staple food in the Andean region, crucial for sustaining early civilizations.
●​ Introduction to Europe:
○​ Brought to Europe by Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. Initially, potatoes were grown in botanical
gardens rather than used as a food source.
○​ By the late 18th century, potatoes became a staple in northern Europe, aiding in population growth and
economic expansion.
 ●​ Significance in the Altiplano (High Andes):
○​ Potatoes were vital for the Inca Empire and its predecessors due to their ability to thrive in high-altitude,
harsh climates where other crops struggled.
○​ Andean farmers developed preservation techniques, such as chuno (freeze-dried potatoes), allowing
storage and year-round consumption.
●​ Impact on Inca and Spanish Empires:
○​ Chuno enabled the mobilization of labor for building infrastructure and waging war in the Inca Empire.
○​ After the Spanish conquest, chuno fed miners at the rich silver mines of Potosi, indirectly fueling Spain’s
imperial ambitions.
●​ Economic and Social Consequences:
○​ The influx of silver from Potosi led to global monetary inflation, disrupting traditional social and economic
structures in Europe, China, and other regions.
○​ Potatoes helped sustain growing populations in Europe, supporting the rise of European powers that
dominated world politics between 1750 and 1950.
●​ Cultivation and Adaptability:
○​ Potatoes yield abundantly and can adapt to various climates, provided they are cool and moist.
○​ They do not store well due to susceptibility to sprouting and rot, unlike grain, which can be stored dry for
years.
●​ Comparison with Grain Cultivation:
○​ Grain storage enabled the development of urban civilizations in the Old World. In the Andes, however,
potatoes and chuno filled this role due to unsuitable conditions for grain.

1.​ Andean Region (Altiplano): Potatoes were essential for sustaining the Inca Empire and other high-altitude
civilizations due to their adaptability and preservation as chuno. This food source supported labor systems and
economic activities, including silver mining after the Spanish conquest.
2.​ Northern Europe: Potatoes helped feed rapidly growing populations, allowing European powers to expand and
dominate globally between the 18th and 20th centuries. The introduction of potatoes enabled economic growth
and changed agricultural practices, influencing Europe's social and political landscape.

Spread of Potatoes in Northern Europe:

1.​ Early Arrival in Europe:
○​ Potatoes likely arrived in Europe with Spanish ships returning from South America, stocked as food for long
voyages.
○​ Initially grown in Spain's moist Atlantic regions and some mountain areas but struggled in drier climates.
○​ Basque fishermen brought potatoes to western Ireland, where they spread locally before becoming a
survival crop during the Cromwellian wars (1649-52).
2.​ Introduction to Italy and Spread along the "Spanish Road":
○​ Potatoes reached Italy by around 1560, spreading from there to northern Europe along the "Spanish Road,"
a military supply route connecting Spain's Italian territories to the Low Countries.
○​ During the Dutch wars (1567-1609), the need for overland transport of supplies led to potatoes being
cultivated along the route.
○​ Villagers discovered that leaving potatoes in the ground made them less susceptible to military
requisitioning than grain.
3.​ Impact on Warfare and Survival:
○​ Potatoes helped reduce the devastating effects of warfare on rural populations by providing an alternative
food source when stored grain was confiscated by armies.
 ○​ The Thirty Years War (1618-48) marked the last major European conflict before potatoes were widespread
enough to mitigate rural starvation during military campaigns.
○​ Potato acreage increased after every military campaign from around 1560 through World War II, as
potatoes became recognized for their value in sustaining populations during conflicts.
4.​ Overcoming Initial Resistance:
○​ Early suspicions and rumors about potatoes, such as accusations of causing leprosy, led to bans in some
areas (e.g., Franche Compte and Burgundy in the 17th century).
○​ The practical benefits of potatoes in times of scarcity outweighed these fears, leading to widespread
adoption.
5.​ Botanical Recognition:
○​ Carolus Clusius documented potatoes in Europe in 1588 with a watercolor titled "Papas Peruanorum" and
later published a description in 1601, noting that potatoes were "common" in northern Italy by that time.

The passage highlights how the potato's introduction to Europe transformed local agricultural practices and had
far-reaching consequences. Initially used for sustenance on Spanish ships, the potato gradually spread across Europe,
especially along military supply routes. The crop's resilience to military requisitioning provided a survival advantage during
conflicts, helping alleviate the effects of starvation and supporting population growth.

The adoption of potatoes in response to warfare needs laid the foundation for their widespread cultivation and eventual
integration into European diets. As people recognized the crop's benefits for sustenance during crises, its spread was
accelerated, overcoming initial resistance and superstitions.

Spread of Potatoes and Their Impact in Ireland:

1.​ Early Introduction and Botanical Recognition:
○​ Francis Drake introduced potatoes to England in 1580. John Gerard's Herball (1597) contained the first
published description in England, although it mistakenly called them "potatoes of Virginia," confusing them
with sweet potatoes.
○​ The potato's initial popularity was limited to a few areas where peasants used it as a supplementary food
to safeguard against grain shortages.
2.​ Spread to Field Cultivation:
○​ In the 18th century, potatoes transitioned from garden plots to field crops in northern Europe, increasing the
food supply and influencing population growth.
○​ On the continent, government and noble support expanded potato fields, while in Ireland, landless laborers
played a key role in spreading potato cultivation.
3.​ Ireland’s Unique Dependence on Potatoes:
○​ Following Cromwell's conquest (1649-52), Irish peasants displaced to Connaught relied on potatoes and
milk for survival. This diet allowed them to sustain a growing population despite limited land.
○​ The potato, combined with cattle grazing, became a cheap subsistence strategy, supporting a vigorous but
impoverished rural population.
4.​ Reoccupation and Expansion:
○​ Catholic Irish laborers gradually reclaimed land in southern Ireland by working for English landowners who
needed a cheap labor force.
○​ Rising grain prices in the late 18th century led landowners to cultivate grain, increasing wage work, which
further encouraged population growth among the Irish.
5.​ The Collapse Post-1815 and the Great Famine:
○​ After 1815, grain prices fell, and landowners reverted to grazing, leaving surplus laborers to compete for
small patches to grow potatoes.
 ○​ The 1845-47 potato blight devastated the Irish population, resulting in over a million deaths and massive
emigration, particularly to the United States.
6.​ Long-term Consequences:
○​ The famine and mass emigration contributed to the "Irish Question" in British politics and shaped the Irish
Diaspora, impacting many countries, especially the U.S.
○​ Rural Ireland transformed over time, shifting from heavy dependence on potatoes to mixed farming with a
focus on grazing and dairying.

The passage provides an account of how the potato's introduction and cultivation in Europe, especially Ireland, led to
profound social and economic changes. In Ireland, the crop became a lifeline for displaced peasants, allowing for population
growth and economic survival despite poverty. However, this dependence also made the population vulnerable to the
catastrophic effects of the potato blight, which resulted in the Great Famine. The resulting mass emigration and
demographic shifts had lasting global impacts, including shaping the United States' population through the Irish Diaspora.
The potato's history in Ireland thus underscores its dual role as both a sustainer and a source of vulnerability.

Potatoes and Global Impact (1750-1950):

1.​ Expanded Food Supply and European Ascendancy:
○​ Between 1750 and 1950, a few northern European states achieved global dominance due to industrial,
political, and military transformations supported by an expanded food supply, largely from potato
cultivation.
○​ Potatoes played a modest role in England but were critical in other areas, providing a significant calorie
boost to northern European populations.
2.​ Adoption Across Northern Europe:
○​ Potatoes spread rapidly in northern Europe, particularly during and after the War of the Austrian Succession
(1740-48), when Frederick the Great promoted potato cultivation to sustain Prussia during war.
○​ The crop spread eastward across the European plain, becoming a vital field crop in regions like France,
Germany, Poland, and Russia, supported by official encouragement and practical benefits.
3.​ Agricultural Transformation and Increased Food Production:
○​ Potatoes' high calorie yield (2-4 times that of grain per acre) allowed cultivation on fallow fields, increasing
food supplies without reducing grain production.
○​ The transition to field cultivation required more labor for weeding, but the increased calorie supply
supported a larger population and more workers.
4.​ Demographic and Economic Effects:
○​ The expanded food supply contributed to rapid population growth across northern Europe, outstripping
growth rates in other regions.
○​ Population increases fueled industrialization, as surplus rural laborers migrated to cities, filling industrial
and military roles.
5.​ Potatoes and Health Improvements:
○​ East of the Elbe, where rye was a staple, potatoes reduced the risks of ergot poisoning and improved
health, boosting birth rates and labor availability.
6.​ Potatoes vs. Grain:
○​ Potatoes became the primary food for the poorer classes, especially in rural and urban areas across
Belgium, Germany, Poland, and Russia. However, grain remained important for shipping and storage.
7.​ Role in Industrialization and Military Expansion:
○​ The availability of cheap food allowed European nations to industrialize rapidly and maintain large armies,
facilitating global expansion, migration, and empire building.
 ○​ By providing subsistence-level wages, European industries attracted sufficient labor without needing
coercion, unlike the labor systems in earlier empires.
8.​ Global Implications and Population Movements:
○​ European imperialism, migration to the Americas, and the expansion of industries using fossil fuels
transformed the world.
○​ The Americas experienced population growth and resettlement from Europe and Africa, while European
agricultural expansion drove urban growth and productivity increases.
9.​ End of European Empires Post-1947:
○​ After dominating the world for two centuries, European empires collapsed rapidly post-1947, similar to the
fall of the Inca Empire.

The passage discusses how the cultivation of potatoes significantly influenced European history from 1750 to 1950 by
enhancing food production, supporting rapid population growth, and facilitating industrial and military expansion. The
potato's ability to yield more calories per acre than grain made it a valuable crop, especially in regions where traditional
grain farming was less efficient. This increase in food supply was crucial for sustaining large populations, which in turn
supported industrialization, urban growth, and imperial expansion.

The spread of potatoes contributed to significant demographic, economic, and social transformations, including improved
health, increased labor availability, and more efficient agricultural practices. These changes helped European nations assert
global dominance, leading to a period of extensive colonization and migration. The potato thus played a central role in
reshaping human societies during this era.

Reading #3 - Edible Plants From the Americas: Potato

●​ The potato originated in the Andes, where it was domesticated by indigenous people over 5,000 years ago.
○​ It remains a crucial part of Andean culture.
●​ Introduced to Spain by Spanish conquistadors, it initially faced resistance and was kept in botanical gardens.
○​ By the late 18th century, the potato became a staple food across northern Europe.
●​ Currently, the potato is the fourth most important food crop worldwide, grown in over 150 countries.
●​ The genus Solanum has about 1,400 species, with all cultivated potatoes derived from a single species.
○​ There are over 5,000 potato varieties in the Andes, adapted to diverse terrains and altitudes, but climate
change threatens this diversity.
○​ A study predicts that 22% of wild relatives of major crops (including potatoes) may be lost by 2055.
●​ Uses Beyond Food:
○​ Starch production: Food thickener, adhesive, paper making.
○​ Alcoholic drinks: Vodka and spirits.
○​ Traditional medicine: Treating ulcers, burns, and rashes

Reading #4 - Potatoes in China

●​ China faces increasing food demand due to population growth, rising per-capita income, and changing dietary
preferences.
○​ Agricultural sustainability is challenged by soil degradation, resource scarcity, and climate change.
○​ Fertilizer use in China has significantly increased, leading to nutrient loss and contamination of surface and
ground waters.
●​ Implemented the Potato-as-Staple-Food (PSF) policy in 2015, promoting potato as a staple food due to its
agronomic advantages (drought resistance, geographic adaptability) & nutritional benefits (high K and vitamin C).
○​ The policy aims to boost potato production to meet future food security needs.
 ○​ Potato could displace other staple crops, leading to land-use reallocation.
●​ Environmental Implications of PSF
○​ Integrating potato into staple diets and adopting high-yield breeds could reduce the carbon-land-water
impacts of crops by 17–25% by 2030.
○​ Successful implementation of the PSF policy hinges on closing the large potato yield gap with other
countries.
●​ Environmental Pressures of Staple Crops
○​ In 2015, China was a major producer of rice, wheat, maize, and potatoes, but these crops differed in their
land-use intensity and environmental impacts.
○​ Rice had the highest greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily due to methane (CH4) emissions from rice
paddies, while potato had relatively lower emissions and water demand per calorie.
○​ Regional variation in land-use, water-use, and GHG emissions exists due to factors like geography, weather,
and soil properties.
●​ Scenarios for 2030
○​ Two scenarios were developed:
■​ S1 (PSF policy): Successful integration of potatoes into staple diets, with yield improvements.
■​ S2 (Strategic crop siting): Crops are strategically planted in low-impact regions to further reduce
GHG emissions.
■​ S2 could reduce GHG emissions by 24.6%, land use by 17%, and water use by 17.3% by 2030.
○​ Without successful integration, the policy risks burden-shifting, where reduced domestic rice production
could lead to increased rice imports from countries like Vietnam and Thailand, offsetting GHG savings.
●​ Global Burden-Shifting: If dietary change is unsuccessful and rice imports rise, this could result in GHG leakage and
land-use and water-use burden-shifting to other countries, potentially negating the environmental benefits of the
PSF policy.

Conclusion
●​ The PSF policy can help China enhance food security and reduce environmental impacts, especially if yield gaps are
closed and potato production is strategically managed.
●​ Further policies are needed to promote potato consumption and ensure coordination between food security and
environmental sustainability efforts.

Reading #5 - Potatoes - Rebecca Earle

●​ A poster campaign in the UK and US after Brexit humorously highlighted that potatoes, considered quintessentially
British, are actually "immigrants" with Andean origins.
○​ The poster reminded people that potatoes, a key staple in many countries, originated far from where they
are now widely consumed.
●​ Global Spread of the Potato
○​ Potatoes, originally from the Andes, traveled globally due to colonization, trade, and conflict.
○​ Potatoes have been integrated into various local cultures worldwide. For instance, in India, potatoes are
considered local, while in Europe, they are seen as European.
○​ Sir Walter Raleigh is often mistakenly credited with introducing potatoes to the British Isles, even though
potatoes originate from South America.
●​ Potato's Role in the Andes
○​ In the Andes, potatoes have been a staple food for centuries, alongside maize and quinoa.
○​ Despite their importance, potatoes were considered a low-status food compared to maize in the Inca
Empire, which received more ceremonial attention.
 ○​ Potatoes were nurtured through village-level rituals and were linked to the veneration of Pachamama, the
Andean earth goddess, and her daughter, Axomamma, who oversaw fertility and potato growth.
●​ Potato Adoption in New Zealand
○​ European sailors introduced potatoes to New Zealand in the 1770s, and the Māori quickly adopted them.
○​ Potatoes were integrated into Māori agriculture, complementing local staples like sweet potatoes, and were
used both as a food and as a commodity for trade, particularly in exchanges with Europeans for iron goods
and muskets.
●​ Potatoes in Global Agriculture
○​ Today, potatoes are the fourth most important food crop worldwide.
○​ Potatoes offer high yields per hectare and require less water than other staple crops, making them
attractive to farmers, especially smallholders.
○​ However, the over-concentration on a few potato cultivars in modern commercial agriculture has led to
concerns about vulnerability to diseases like late blight, which caused the Irish Famine in the 1840s.
●​ The Importance of Andean Farmers
○​ Andean farmers, who domesticated potatoes over 10,000 years ago, continue to maintain the crop's genetic
diversity.
○​ To prevent future agricultural crises like the Irish Famine, experts advocate for diversifying potato cultivars,
a practice still actively managed by Andean farmers who maintain many different plots & exchange seeds.
○​ There are between 2,700 and 3,800 different potato varieties in the Andes, thanks to the farmers’ extensive
agronomic knowledge.
●​ Future of the Potato
○​ International organizations now recognize the potato's role in combating food insecurity, as seen in the
2008 United Nations' International Year of the Potato.
○​ With growing concerns over food security and sustainability, there may be increasing global interest in the
diverse Andean potato varieties in the future.
○​ These notes summarize the passage's discussion of the potato's cultural, historical, and agricultural
significance worldwide.

Week 9 Readings
Reading #1 - Oxford - Rice
●​ Scientific Name: Oryza sativa
●​ Staple Food: Feeds nearly half of the global population.
●​ Advantages: High yields, long storage life, easy transport, good flavor, and adaptability across climates.
●​ Origins and History
○​ Domestication: Believed to have originated from wild grass in the southern foothills of the Himalayas and
upper reaches of the Irrawaddy, Salween, and Mekong rivers.
○​ Oldest Cultivation: Found in South Korea, dating back to 15,000 years ago.
○​ Spread: Established in South Asia, China, and Southeast Asia by 2000 BC, reached the Middle East and
Japan by 300 BC, Europe by 13th century, and America by the 17th century.
●​ Types of Rice
○​ Dry/Upland Rice: Grown on hillsides; often slash-and-burn cultivation.
○​ Rain-fed Rice: Grown in shallow water, reliant on rainfall.
○​ Irrigated Rice: Grown in controlled shallow water systems.
○​ Deep-water Rice: Tolerant to flooding, grown in estuaries.
●​ Varieties Over 100,000 varieties, including both cultivated and wild types.
 ●​ Major classifications:
○​ By grain shape/size (e.g., long, medium, short).
○​ By stickiness (e.g., glutinous vs. non-glutinous).
○​ By aroma (e.g., Basmati, Jasmine).
○​ By processing (e.g., polished, parboiled).
●​ Nutritional Value
○​ Composition: ~80% starch; provides energy as it converts to glycogen.
○​ Protein: Supplies ~9% of daily protein needs but lacks some amino acids, often supplemented by
legumes/meat.
○​ Brown Rice: Contains fiber and B vitamins, often milled off in white rice.
●​ Cultural Importance
○​ Staple food: Revered in many Asian cultures; cooked plainly and served with flavorful dishes.
○​ Western Introduction: Initially rare and expensive, often used for desserts or medicinal purposes.
●​ Rice in Agriculture
○​ Traditional Methods: Small terraced fields, hand transplantation, manual harvesting.
○​ Modern Techniques: Mechanized farming with genetically modified (GM) varieties for higher yields and pest
resistance.
○​ Sustainability: Traditional methods preserved genetic diversity and ecological balance, supporting natural
ecosystems.
●​ Rice Products
○​ Derived Products: Rice flour, noodles, rice vinegar, sake, rice cakes, and fermented rice products.
○​ By-products: Rice bran used for animal feed or as a dietary supplement.

Reading #2 - Domestication: The birth of rice.

●​ Rice (Oryza sativa) is a crucial crop, serving as the primary food for half of the world’s population.
●​ It transitioned societies from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agricultural communities, contributing to
urbanization, empires, and dynasties.
●​ Origins of Asian Rice:
○​ Domestication history is complex and controversial, with competing claims across China, India, Southeast
Asia, and the Himalayas.
○​ Asian rice likely derived from the wild grass Oryza rufipogon, with domestication estimated to have begun
8,000-9,000 years ago.
●​ Two main types of Asian rice:
○​ Japonica (short-grained): Originated in China.
○​ Indica (long-grained): Originated in India.
●​ Genetic Evidence:
○​ Genetic research suggests two separate domestications, with japonica domesticated first in China and then
hybridized with local rice in India to create indica.
○​ Shared genetic mutations, like the sh4 gene (preventing grain shattering), point to a common ancestry
before further hybridization.
●​ Archaeological Discoveries:
○​ Earliest domestication sites proposed in the Yangtze River valley and Pearl River valley in China, though
evidence remains debatable.
○​ Archaeobotanist Dorian Fuller’s work in the Yangtze valley suggests early rice cultivation coexisted with
other foods (e.g., acorns), with full domestication being a slow, gradual process.
●​ Future Research and Genetic Diversity:
 ○​ Ancient DNA technologies aim to uncover more details about rice's domestication history.
○​ Concerns exist over modern rice’s genetic narrowing due to breeding for yield and pest resistance.
○​ Ancient cultivars could offer beneficial traits to enhance modern strains, aiding global food security.
●​ African Rice Domestication:
○​ Oryza glaberrima, or African rice, was domesticated independently near the Niger River in West Africa.
○​ Although less productive than Asian rice, it shares similar genetic mutations for traits like shattering,
showing parallel evolution.

Rice (Oryza sativa) was a transformative crop that shaped civilizations, turning hunter-gatherers into agricultural societies
and driving urban growth. Its domestication in Asia was complex, occurring in multiple regions and involving both genetic
adaptation and cultural significance. Advances in genetics reveal overlapping traits between major rice types, indicating
early hybridization. In Africa, rice domestication followed a similar genetic path, demonstrating parallel evolution.
Understanding rice's genetic history not only provides insight into early human societies but also holds potential for
addressing modern agricultural challenges.

Reading #3 - The Struggle to Save Heirloom Rice in India

●​ Indigenous rice varieties in South Asia are known as landraces. These possess unique medicinal, nutritional, and
adaptive properties.
○​ Some varieties have specific medicinal uses, like Bhutmuri for anemia and Paramai-sal for child growth,
reflecting traditional knowledge.
●​ Historically, over 110,000 rice landraces were cultivated in India before the Green Revolution, which reduced
diversity by introducing a few high-yielding varieties (HYVs).
○​ Genetic diversity is crucial for adapting to diverse climates, soils, and cultural needs but has decreased due
to modern agricultural practices.
○​ Today, fewer than 6,000 landraces exist in India, and around 720 in Bangladesh, showing a significant loss
of biodiversity.
●​ The Green Revolution promoted HYVs for increased yields, but these varieties require significant water, fertilizer,
and pesticides.
○​ This shift led to monocultures, increasing pest vulnerability and environmental degradation, while causing a
decline in traditional knowledge of rice cultivation.
●​ Monocultures can be disastrous, as demonstrated by the Irish Potato Famine, making crops susceptible to disease.
○​ Green Revolution varieties lack the resilience of landraces, making them vulnerable to climatic extremes like
droughts, floods, and salinity.
●​ Conservationists have established seed banks, like Vrihi in West Bengal, to preserve landraces and facilitate farmer
access.
●​ Landraces are grown without external inputs, ensuring resilience to environmental changes, pests, and diseases.
●​ Successes and Limitations:
○​ Landraces have shown to outperform HYVs in adverse conditions, such as droughts, floods, and salinity.
○​ Despite conservation efforts, some varieties like Agni-sal have gone extinct due to a lack of wider
cultivation and support from formal institutions.
●​ Social and Economic Impact:
○​ Modern agricultural practices have increased farmer debts due to rising costs of inputs, often leading to
distress sales and suicides.
○​ Conversely, traditional rice farmers have less financial distress and greater food security, attributed to the
self-reliance fostered by growing landraces.
●​ Medicinal, Nutritional, and Cultural Value:
 ○​ Many landraces contain higher levels of micronutrients (e.g., iron, antioxidants) and even have potential
medicinal properties, like silver accumulation in Garib-sal rice for fighting gut pathogens.
○​ Landraces also play an essential role in cultural rituals and food traditions, with specific varieties linked to
ceremonies and festivals.
●​ Conservation and Future Outlook:
○​ The conservation of landraces involves in situ seed banks, community seed exchanges, and agroecological
practices to ensure genetic adaptation continues.
○​ Restoration of traditional farming practices can ensure sustainable rice production, especially in marginal
farming conditions prone to climatic extremes.

Indigenous rice varieties (landraces) in South Asia are vital for agricultural resilience, nutritional diversity, and cultural
continuity. The shift to modern, high-yielding varieties under the Green Revolution caused a dramatic loss of genetic
diversity, making crops and farmers vulnerable to pests, diseases, and environmental fluctuations. Efforts to conserve and
revive traditional rice farming practices are crucial for long-term food security, sustainable agriculture, and the preservation
of associated cultural knowledge. By restoring biodiversity, traditional rice varieties offer a pathway toward sustainable
farming, supporting both ecological balance and farmer well-being.

Week 9 Readings
Reading #1 - Basmati Biopiracy
●​ Basmati (Oryza sativa), native to North India and Pakistan, is renowned for its aroma, flavor, and long grains.
●​ Basmati’s unique characteristics have been developed over centuries through farmer-driven informal breeding.
●​ It is a significant crop for the Indian economy, with 650,000 tonnes grown annually, representing 10-15% of total
rice cultivation.
●​ Basmati and Export Market:
○​ Main importers: Middle East (65%), Europe (20%), USA (10-15%).
○​ Basmati commands the highest export price due to its superior quality, selling for $850 per tonne in the EU
compared to lower-priced competitors.
●​ RiceTec Inc., a Texas-based corporation, patented a rice strain in 1997 (Patent No. 5663481), claiming it as a "new"
Basmati variety.
○​ RiceTec’s patent covers rice lines that mimic traditional Basmati characteristics, developed by crossbreeding
Indian Basmati with semi-dwarf varieties.
○​ The patent included a claim to classify trad basmati as an infringement.
●​ It allows RiceTec to market a "pseudo Basmati" globally, affecting Indian exports and farmer rights.
○​ Indian Basmati is protected as a geographical indicator, similar to how champagne is unique to France.
●​ The term "Basmati" was falsely claimed as generic, which contradicts Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPs), meant to protect geographic appellations.
●​ Patent on traditional Basmati strains could force Indian and Pakistani farmers to pay royalties to RiceTec for using
their own seeds. Harms farmer’s livelihoods and undermine years of informal breeding and innovation.
●​ Exports to the US, Middle East, and EU could suffer due to non-competitive trade barriers imposed by the patent.
●​ Indian exporters could lose significant market share, weakening the country's export positioning.
●​ Navdanya, led by Vandana Shiva, launched a campaign to challenge RiceTec’s patent, arguing it was an act of
biopiracy that appropriated traditional knowledge.
○​ Navdanya’s legal and social campaigns succeeded in having several of RiceTec’s claims struck down.
●​ The patent violates the ethics of agriculture by commodifying and patenting a traditional life form.
 ●​ It raises broader concerns about the effects of TRIPs and US-style patent laws on traditional agriculture, potentially
disadvantaging farmers globally.

The controversy surrounding the RiceTec patent on Basmati rice highlights the ethical, economic, and legal conflicts
between traditional agricultural knowledge and modern intellectual property laws. While traditional varieties of Basmati
were developed through farmer-led breeding over centuries, the patenting of these varieties by a transnational corporation
represents an act of biopiracy that undermines farmer rights and threatens their livelihoods. The case exemplifies broader
issues of genetic appropriation and the challenges of protecting indigenous crops in a globalized legal framework.

Reading #2 - Rice Journeys: Asian Cuisines, New Canadian Foodways

●​ Rice has been cultivated for 15,000 years, with 8,000 varieties globally.
●​ In South Asia, rice symbolizes health and well-being, commonly seen in greetings like, “Have you eaten rice today?”
●​ Rice was central to agriculture in fertile river valleys, with diverse preparations from boiled rice to sweet snacks.
●​ Asian migrants to Canada (late-19th to early-20th centuries) found rice mostly used for pantry shortages (e.g., rice
pudding).
○​ The late-20th century’s globalization of migration, capital, and trade introduced Canadians to a wider range
of rice-based dishes.
●​ Biryani/Pulao: Festive rice dishes with ancient roots, featuring ingredients like lentils, meats, and spices such as
ginger, saffron, and cinnamon.
○​ Migrants brought these dishes to Canada, where home-style cooking preserves their historical richness
more than commercial versions.
○​ Regional varieties like Hydrerabadi kacchi biryani
○​ Specific regional histories, cultures, and cooking techniques, contrasting with homogenized restaurant.
●​ Sri Lankan Lamprai: A banana-leaf wrapped dish with origins in Sri Lankan adaptation of Dutch culinary traditions.
○​ Features rice cooked in stock with meat, fish, or egg, baked in banana leaf, and accompanied by curry, pickle,
and boiled egg.
○​ Reflects Sri Lankan refugee migration to Canada, with adaptations to local ingredients and tastes.
●​ Asian migrants, often restricted to the food industry due to limited job opportunities, preserved and adapted
traditional rice dishes in Canada.
●​ Dishes like biryani and lamprai symbolize the global journeys of food, bridging historical trade routes, migration
patterns, and cultural exchanges.

Rice’s journey from South Asia to Canada embodies broader themes of migration, adaptation, and cultural exchange.
Migrants brought traditional rice dishes like biryani and lamprai, which carry rich historical, regional, and cultural identities.
These dishes, adapted to Canadian contexts, reflect the complexities of global foodways and the integration of Asian
culinary traditions into Canadian society. Rice serves as a tangible link between past and present, connecting diverse
histories through shared food traditions.

Reading #3 - In Search of Sustainability: Rice & the Story of Two Indian Farms
●​ Rice sustains 60% of India's population with 45 million hectares under cultivation.
●​ It is the crop that uses the most fertilizers (40%) and pesticides (17-18%), raising concerns about soil health,
genetic diversity, and food quality.
●​ Transitioning to organic farming offers benefits such as improved soil health, conserved genetic diversity, and
sustainable food production.
●​ Annapurna Farm (Tamil Nadu): Established in Auroville, covers 135 acres, producing rice, fruits, and dairy.
○​ Focuses on adaptable farming methods using both traditional and modern practices.
 ○​ Prioritizes ecological farming while balancing production needs with sustainable energy sources.
●​ OOO Farms (Gujarat):
○​ Works with tribal communities to revive indigenous crops since 2017.
○​ Distributes free seeds, sets up seed banks, and promotes traditional farming and community agriculture.
○​ Emphasizes the importance of a return to traditional practices for food security and sustainable livelihoods.
●​ Challenges of Organic Farming:
○​ Climate variability, limited access to accurate weather data, and market instability affect organic farming
efforts.
○​ High production costs and low profit margins make breaking even a distant goal for small farms.
○​ Consumers often avoid organic produce due to higher prices, creating a double-edged sword of affordability
and sustainability.
●​ Economic Realities:
○​ Industrial farming models prioritize corporate profit over food security, leaving farmers under-compensated.
○​ The Minimum Support Price (MSP) often fails to cover production costs, leaving farmers vulnerable.
○​ Organic farming struggles with the high costs of production, distribution, and consumer awareness.
●​ Adaptation and Scalability:
○​ Annapurna Farm prioritizes environmental and community needs, making it more adaptable but dependent
on community support.
○​ OOO Farms advocates for indigenous crop varieties that can withstand drought, floods, and harsh climates.
○​ Both models aim to encourage consumption patterns that support sustainability, with the hope of shifting
consumer and production systems.
●​ Community and Future Prospects:
○​ Annapurna Farm focuses on building a sustainable community that nurtures local agriculture, wildlife, and
eco-friendly systems.
○​ OOO Farms promotes tribal involvement in agriculture, aiming for an indigenous revival that could scale
across similar communities.
○​ Both farms acknowledge the need for training and education to engage younger generations and build
sustainable farming models.
●​ Consumer Role:
○​ Consumers must be more conscious of their choices, as changing consumption patterns can drive
sustainable production.
○​ Increased awareness of health issues, like diabetes and heart disease, has led to a growing interest in
organic foods like millet.
○​ The focus is on creating a connection between food choices, sustainability, and long-term health.

Rice cultivation in India is at a crossroads, balancing traditional practices and modern organic farming models to address
sustainability and climate change. Annapurna and OOO Farms illustrate two distinct yet complementary approaches: one
focusing on adaptable, community-driven farming, and the other on reviving indigenous practices among tribal communities.
Both highlight the challenges of shifting consumer patterns, economic viability, and environmental adaptability. Sustainable
agriculture in India depends not only on farm-level changes but also on broader consumer awareness, policy support, and
long-term commitment to organic and indigenous practices. The ultimate goal is a systemic shift towards sustainable,
community-centered, and resilient food systems.
Video #1 - Folk Rice Dr Debal Deb
●​ In the late 1960s and 70s, India cultivated around 100,000 varieties of rice. Today, less than 3,000 varieties remain.
●​ Important for economy & agriculture is mainly built around rice. Also a staple food in meals.
●​ Vrihi, founded by Dr. Debal Deb, is the largest non-government seed bank in Eastern India.
○​ Conserves rare and disappearing rice varieties, some of which are no longer cultivated by farmers due to a
shift toward HYVs and chemical farming.
○​ Protect rice's genetic diversity; prevents loss of traditional varieties via in situ cultivation (growing and
distributing seeds directly to farmers).
●​ Farmers receive seeds based on their land type (e.g., upland, lowland, saline land) and choose from a variety of
options, each suited to specific conditions.
○​ Each variety differs in traits like grain size, aroma, cooking time, and other properties.
○​ The seed exchange operates on a barter system: farmers exchange seeds with Vrihi, contributing to the
sustainability of seed diversity.
●​ Dr. Deb emphasizes that genetic diversity is crucial for food security, as modern rice varieties lack resilience to local
conditions (e.g., drought, floods, salinity).
○​ The loss of rice diversity in India; a 90% reduction in genetic diversity.
○​ Like potato famine where reliance on single potato variety led to famine.
●​ International corporations involvement in India’s agriculture is concerning because they care about profits not
sustainability.
●​ GM seeds like Roundup Ready crops, aim to control agriculture globally by making farmers dependent on
proprietary seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides.
○​ GM seeds prioritize monocultures and chemical inputs, undermining traditional farming and making farmers
vulnerable to corporate control.
●​ Vrihi operates as a zero-footprint sustainable farm: no chemical fertilizers, no external irrigation, and internal use of
manure from their farm and dry toilets.
●​ Modern agricultural practices prioritize industrial-scale production over local adaptation, leading to environmental
degradation, economic instability for farmers, and loss of traditional knowledge.
○​ Advocates for local seed sovereignty and decentralized farming systems to counter the adverse effects of
global market-driven agriculture.
●​ Dr. Deb envisions a model of community-based, sustainable agriculture that relies on local seed diversity, organic
practices, and cooperative networks.

Dr. Debal Deb’s interview underscores the urgent need to preserve folk rice varieties and promote seed sovereignty in India.
The Vrihi Seed Bank exemplifies a sustainable, community-driven model that challenges the dominance of global
agriculture corporations and GMOs. Dr. Deb's work stresses that preserving genetic diversity is vital for food security,
ecological balance, and farmer autonomy. The interview serves as a call to protect local seed systems, conserve traditional
knowledge, and promote a self-sufficient, resilient food system based on indigenous crops.

Video #2 - Myriad Hues of Rice

●​ Over 100000 varieties once grown in India with distinct traits like color, size, taste, aroma & cooking properties.
●​ Indigenous rice varieties are adapted to local climates, including drought-prone, flood-prone, and saline conditions.
●​ Many traditional rice varieties are rich in micronutrients like iron, zinc, and B vitamins, which are essential for health.
●​ Some varieties possess medicinal benefits, such as aiding digestion, boosting immunity, or managing specific health
conditions.
●​ Rice is deeply integrated into the cultural rituals, festivals, and traditional cuisine of various Indian communities.
 ○​ Folk rice varieties play an essential role in agricultural heritage and have been cultivated for generations,
reflecting a strong link to regional identities and traditions.
●​ The shift toward high-yielding varieties (HYVs) during the Green Revolution has caused the loss of traditional
varieties.
○​ Monoculture and the use of chemical inputs have led to genetic erosion, environmental damage, and
economic challenges for small farmers.
○​ The reduced diversity makes crops more vulnerable to diseases, pests, and climate change.
●​ Efforts to Preserve Folk Rice:
○​ Farmers, activists, and seed banks are working to preserve and promote traditional rice varieties through
seed exchanges, organic farming, and awareness campaigns.
○​ Emphasis is placed on supporting local seed sovereignty, empowering farmers, and protecting biodiversity.
●​ Traditional rice varieties contribute to climate resilience, sustainable agriculture, and long-term food security.
●​ Promoting the cultivation of these varieties can help create a more resilient and diversified food system that is less
dependent on external inputs.

Week 11 Readings
Reading #1 - Violent History of the Canadian Sugar Industry
●​ Sugar has a violent past, linked to the transatlantic slave trade where at least 15 million enslaved Africans were
forced to work on plantations.
●​ Modern sugar production still involves harsh working conditions, demonstrating a continuity of exploitation.
●​ Sugar became central to European wealth, leading to global-scale production that often relied on enslaved and
indentured labor.
●​ Canadians in the 1700s and 1800s were active participants in the sugar and slave trades, consuming products like
molasses and rum.
●​ Canadian investors and companies were deeply involved in this global sugar economy, profiting from exploitation.
○​ Eg. Imperial Bank of Commerce & Scotiabank have ties with Caribbean trade and slavery.
●​ Rogers Sugar, founded in 1889 by Benjamin Tingley Rogers, established a sugar refinery in Vancouver, situated on
unceded Indigenous lands.
○​ It sourced raw sugar cane internationally, exploiting labor in places like Fiji and the Dominican Republic.
○​ Sites of extreme labor abuse; low pay, physical abuse, starvation & harsh treatment similar to slavery.
●​ In Fiji, indentured workers, mostly from India, were forced into labor under brutal conditions, reflecting a global
pattern of sugar industry exploitation.
●​ The Canadian sugar industry’s history is intertwined with violence and exploitation, challenging the image of
sugar as merely a common commodity.
○​ Understanding this violent past can foster recognition for those who have been historically marginalized in
the sugar industry, both locally and globally.

Reading #2 - The Story of Sugar in 5 Objects:

●​ Sugar’s history is a blend of pleasure and pain, marked by both its role as a luxury item and its deep links to the
transatlantic slave trade.
○​ Despite its sweetness, sugar’s legacy is rooted in exploitation, wealth, and the exercise of power.
●​ Sugar was introduced to England in the 12th century, primarily as a spice and medicine, coming from the Middle
East, India, and Egypt.
○​ Early sugar was granular, evolving into the iconic sugar loaf form by the 1400s, a technology borrowed
from the Middle East that symbolized sugar's status as a prized commodity.
 ●​ Sugar as an Artistic Medium: In medieval England, sugar began to feature prominently in elaborate banquets,
initially through the 'ceremony of the void,' a ritual where desserts were consumed separately from main meals.
○​ In the Elizabethan era, sugar's artistic potential was realized through sculpted centerpieces, symbolizing
wealth and political messages, becoming both a culinary and political tool.
●​ Sugar and Slavery:
○​ Sugar production fueled the transatlantic slave trade from the 16th to the 19th centuries, with enslaved
Africans subjected to brutal conditions to meet European demand.
○​ The British abolition movement (1787-1838) marked the shift toward consumer choice as a form of
activism, promoting 'free-grown' East India sugar over Caribbean sugar produced by enslaved people,
emphasizing the early power of ethical consumption.
●​ Contemporary Sugar Politics:
○​ The shift from West India sugar to East India sugar in the 18th century reflects early consumer-driven
change, highlighting a relevance in modern consumer politics advocating for fair trade and ethical sourcing.
●​ Encouraging consumers to think critically about its origins and impact.

Reading #3 - Children’s Story on Sugar

●​ Honey was the earliest known sweetener until later sugar was discovered; 2000 years ago, Alexander the Great of
Greece sent soldiers out to many lands.
○​ In India, one soldier found sugar cane.
○​ Sugar became an exotic commodity brought back to Europe, reinforcing a colonial narrative.
●​ Then the Spaniards discovered that the soil & climate in the Indies were ideal for sugar cane leading to larger sugar
plantations cultivated by enslaved labor.
○​ Enslaved/indentured laborers are often shown in bent postures, downplaying the violence and coercion
associated with sugar production.
●​ Then brought sugar to the New World like in Mexico but with enslaved labor.
○​ Also brought into US, now New Orleans were monks received sugar cane from Mexico.
○​ Briefly mentions a black boy sent to help cultivate sugar cane, glossing over the realities of enslavement by
presenting the laborer as a mere addition to the plants.
●​ Then talks about the machines of sugar refineries.
○​ Broader narratives that equate technological progress with social progress, overlooking how advanced
manufacturing technologies coexisted with slavery and continue to impact labor conditions negatively.
●​ The child chewing sugar cane to make it appear that workers are well-fed and content, creating a misleading image
that ignores the historical suffering of enslaved laborers.
●​ This trope stems from proslavery literature, originally meant to contradict reports of starvation in cane fields. In the
context of the story, it subtly reinforces a sanitized, consumer-friendly narrative of sugar production.
●​ The book covers various sweeteners like honey, cane sugar, beet sugar, and maple syrup, presenting sugar’s journey
as a global yet Eurocentric achievement.
●​ While it acknowledges different sources of sweetness, the story’s focus remains on European "discovery" and
innovation, highlighting sugar’s journey through a lens of colonialism and technological development.

Reading #4 - Sugar, Slavery, and the Washington China

●​ Sugar production in the Caribbean and the Americas drove European colonization from the 15th to the 18th
centuries, displacing Indigenous populations to establish plantations.
●​ The demand for labor led to the transatlantic slave trade, with about 12.5 million Africans forcibly transported to
work on plantations under brutal conditions.
○​ The sugar bowl symbolizes not just luxury but the darker reality of sugar production.
 ●​ Sugar was initially a luxury but became more accessible to the general population by the 18th century. It
represented refinement and social status, becoming a staple at American dining tables.
●​ Enslaved workers prepared the sugar consumed by the Washingtons, who used the sugar bowl during meals.
Hercules, George Washington’s enslaved cook, played a key role in preparing sweet dishes, symbolizing how
enslaved labor underpinned the luxury of the American elite.
○​ Sugar bowl a symbol of systemic inequality.
●​ George Washington visited the Caribbean (1751), seeing the plantations firsthand. He later sold enslaved laborers
to the Caribbean as punishment, showing his involvement in the transatlantic slave trade.
○​ This part of Washington's history reveals the personal and economic connections to slavery, reinforcing the
link between American wealth and Caribbean sugar production.
●​ After the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in the early 19th century, the U.S. turned to Gulf Coast
plantations for domestic sugar production, continuing to rely on enslaved labor until American slavery ended (1865)
○​ This transition shows how sugar production adapted to changing labor laws but maintained exploitation,
reinforcing its role as a globally consumed but labor-intensive commodity.
●​ Martha Washington's sugar bowl became a historical artifact, preserved and displayed in various institutions like
Arlington House, the Smithsonian, and the White House. It was passed down through generations and symbolized
both American heritage and the complicated legacy of slavery.
○​ The sugar bowl’s preservation underscores how material culture is intertwined with national memory. It
embodies themes of wealth, race, and class across American history, making it more than just a decor.
●​ The sugar bowl tells a story beyond its physical appearance, reflecting the economic, political, and cultural
dynamics of its time, including the transatlantic slave trade, global commerce, and American identity-building.

Week 12 Readings
Reading #1 - Tea’s Global Mobilities and Immobilities:
●​ Tea has been consumed as a medicinal herb in ancient China, as a luxury drink among European elites, and as a
street brew (e.g., Indian roadside chai). It has also served as a plantation commodity during British colonial rule in
India and Sri Lanka, and as a connoisseur good in modern artisanal markets.
●​ Camellia sinensis: Originally cultivated in China, this species became central to Chinese culture, with early forms
like tea cakes and powdered tea consumed in Tang-era China.
●​ Camellia assamica: Initially foraged by Indigenous peoples of Assam and Myanmar, this species was transformed
into a plantation crop during the 19th century under British colonial rule.
●​ Colonial Impact on Tea Production
○​ The British East India Company expanded tea plantations in Assam, Darjeeling, and Ceylon, transforming it
from a locally foraged plant into a global commodity.
○​ Example: The British smuggled tea plants and seeds from China to India in the early 19th century,
attempting to establish a tea industry in Assam, bypassing Chinese monopolies.
●​ While tea reached the far corners of the world, including London, New York, and Hong Kong, the workers remained
restricted in their movement. For instance, indentured laborers in Assam’s plantations were often trapped in
exploitative conditions with little chance of upward mobility.
●​ In China, imperial tea producers thrived, while Indigenous people of Assam, who had initially foraged camellia
assamica, were pushed to the margins as colonial estates dominated production.
●​ Workers in tea plantations consumed only the cheapest forms of tea, like CTC (crush, tear, curl) blends, while the
elites enjoyed single-estate Darjeeling teas and rare Pu-er teas from Yunnan.
●​ Camellia sinensis was central to the Tang dynasty’s food culture, documented by Lù Yǔ in his treatise Chajing (The
Classic of Tea). It became a symbol of refinement and was consumed by scholars, monks, and nobility.
●​ Example: The ideogram "cha"茶 was adopted by the Japanese and integrated into kanji, as well as in Persian and
Arabic texts, indicating tea’s spread from China to Japan, Persia, and eventually Europe.
●​ Integration into Global Markets:
○​ Example: In 1610, Dutch VOC ships brought tea to Europe, first to Holland, then to France and England,
making it a fashionable commodity among aristocrats.
●​ Industrialization and Proletarianization of Tea
○​ Agro-Industrial Plantations: Examples - The Assam Tea Estates established by the British in the 1830s,
where large-scale plantations replaced smallholder farming, leading to a mass influx of indentured labor
from regions like Chotanagpur.
○​ Decline of Smallholder Tea Production: After the 1870s, the Assam, Darjeeling, and Ceylon plantations
began dominating the global tea market, reducing the share of Chinese smallholder teas.
■​ By the 20th century, Chinese black teas lost market share to Indian and Ceylonese teas, which were
cheaper and more readily available.
●​ Modern Tea Industry and Alternative Marketplaces
○​ Rise of Artisanal and Organic Tea - Example: The Camellia Sinensis tea firm in Montreal, founded in the
1990s, sources rare teas from craft producers in China, Taiwan, India, and Nepal. It promotes sustainable,
artisanal teas to connoisseurs worldwide.
○​ Challenges for Small Producers: Example: Tea Leaf Theory in Assam tried to promote organic, fair-trade tea
but struggled to maintain its market presence, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted
its supply chain and operations.
●​ Digital Marketplaces:
○​ Siam Tee, a German importer, sources small-batch teas from Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, marketing
them globally through its digital platform. It emphasizes sustainability with terms like "forest-friendly tea"
and "biodiversi teas."
●​ Concluding Thoughts on Tea’s Mobility and Inequality
○​ Class and Race Hierarchies: Examples: Upper-class consumers in London or Hong Kong enjoy blends like
Earl Grey and Darjeeling first flush, while lower-class consumers often drink cheap blends like builder’s tea
or masala chai in India.
●​ Future Possibilities: While artisanal markets offer hope for equitable practices, the long-term success of these
ventures depends on overcoming systemic barriers rooted in colonial and capitalist histories of tea production.