The Capitalist Mode of Production

Marx’s materialist perspective provides insights into human history, but his primary focus
was on understanding the capitalist industry of his time. Most of his writings, especially his
famous work Capital, analyze the capitalist mode of production in detail. To understand
Marx’s ideas, it’s essential to focus on his explanation of capitalism, including its origins,
nature, functioning, and eventual destiny.

Capitalist Commodity Production

Humans produce goods to satisfy their needs, such as growing food to eat, making clothes
to wear, or writing books to learn and enjoy. Marx calls these useful goods “use-values.”
However, when goods are made not for personal use but for selling or exchanging, they
become commodities. These commodities have two key features:

1. Use-value: Their usefulness.

2. Exchange-value: Their worth in terms of trade. For example, in a barter system, a
dozen salmon could be exchanged for a chicken or two knives. These exchange ratios
reflect the exchange-value of goods.

Before capitalism, people traded goods directly (e.g., fish for fowl). If money was used, it
served as a medium to facilitate the exchange. Marx describes this traditional system as C-
M-C: Commodity-Money-Commodity. For example, a farmer might sell crops (C) for money
(M) and then use that money to buy tools or clothes (C). Here, the goal is to meet personal
needs—"selling in order to buy."

In capitalism, this process is reversed and transformed into M-C-M': Money-Commodity-

More Money. Here, money is used to buy goods that are then sold to generate even more
money (M'). The purpose of this system is not personal consumption but profit-making—
"buying in order to sell."

The differences between these systems create different dynamics. The traditional exchange
(C-M-C) is temporary and stops when needs are met. Capitalist exchange (M-C-M') is a
continuous cycle driven by the need for profit. Capitalists aim for endless profit, which gives
capitalism its restless and insatiable nature.

In a capitalist system, almost everything becomes a commodity, from the food we eat to the
clothes we wear and even the movies we watch. Although these products satisfy needs, their
usefulness is secondary. The main goal is to generate profit. Unlike earlier societies where
production aimed to meet human needs, capitalism shifts the focus to wealth accumulation.

The Labor Theory of Value

Commodities have different values. For instance, a car is more expensive than a bicycle, and
a bicycle costs more than a skateboard. Marx asks: What determines these differences in
value? He argues that the value of commodities comes from human labor, measured in units
of time. This is called abstract labor, which ignores the type of work (e.g., tailoring vs.
carpentry) and focuses only on the time required to complete it.

The value of a commodity is not based on the actual time a worker takes to make it but on
the socially necessary labor time—the average time required to produce the commodity
under normal conditions using common skills and technology. For example, a lazy worker
taking twice the usual time to make a skateboard doesn’t increase its value. Instead, value
depends on how long it typically takes for an average worker to make it.

This value includes both:

 Direct labor: The effort of the workers making the product.

 Indirect labor: The labor involved in creating tools, machinery, and raw materials.

Though market prices often fluctuate due to supply and demand, Marx argues that over time,
prices tend to align with the real value determined by labor. He emphasizes that market
forces don’t create value; instead, value (from labor) influences market prices. The ups and
downs of supply and demand explain temporary price changes, not the fundamental value
of a commodity.

Primitive Accumulation

For capitalism to exist, two main classes are required:

1. A capitalist class that owns the means of production.

2. A working class that has nothing to sell but their labor.

These class divisions didn’t exist naturally. Marx calls the historical process that created them
primitive accumulation, borrowing the term from Adam Smith. Using England as an
example, Marx describes how this process began in the 15th century, breaking down feudal
society and forming the foundations of capitalism.

 The rise of the capitalist class: Wealthy merchants and moneylenders invested in
manufacturing industries, replacing feudal economies. Over time, small artisans and
independent producers were absorbed into capitalist systems. This led to the
concentration of property and wealth in the hands of a few, transforming individual
small-scale ownership into large-scale capitalist ownership.
 The emergence of the working class: Feudal peasants and serfs were forcibly
removed from the land they had traditionally worked. Through violent evictions and
laws like the enclosure acts, communal lands were privatized. Peasants, deprived of
their livelihood, were forced to work for wages in capitalist industries. This transition
involved brutality, including laws against vagrancy that criminalized joblessness,
forcing workers to accept harsh conditions in the labor market.

Marx points out that this process created a new class of “free workers.” They were "free" in
two ways:

1. They were no longer tied to a specific land or master, unlike slaves or serfs.
2. They were “free” from owning any means of production, leaving them with no choice
but to sell their labor to survive.

While they could technically choose their employer, workers ultimately remained dependent
on capitalists, leading to a system where labor itself became a commodity.

Key Insights About Capitalism from Primitive Accumulation

1. Historically Specific: Capitalism is not a natural or eternal system but emerged

under specific historical conditions.
2. Labor Market: Capitalism requires a system where labor is bought and sold as a
commodity.
3. Central Role of Capital and Labor: The relationship between capital (owners) and
labor (workers) is the foundation of the capitalist system.

In summary, Marx explains that capitalism is driven by profit-making, with labor at the core
of commodity value. The historical process of primitive accumulation highlights how
capitalism emerged through the displacement of traditional systems and the creation of a
class-based society. This analysis sheds light on the unique characteristics of capitalism and
its impact on human relationships and production.

Labor Power: A Most Peculiar Commodity

Under capitalism, labor power (the ability of humans to work) is treated as a commodity,
just like sugar or other goods. However, as Marx emphasizes, it is not an ordinary
commodity—it is a very unique one. This uniqueness is at the core of his critique of
capitalism. Labor power differs from other commodities in five key ways:

1. Its value depends on society’s development and culture.

The value of labor power isn’t fixed like other goods—it depends on what a society
considers necessary for workers to live and work, which changes over time.
2. Capitalists don’t produce labor power.
While capitalists manufacture goods, they do not create labor power (workers). The
supply of labor power depends on the population, not capitalist production.
3. Labor power is “consumed” differently.
Capitalists extract work from laborers, often against resistance. This process is filled
with conflict, unlike the straightforward consumption of goods like food.
4. It produces surplus value.
Labor power is unique because it generates surplus value—the extra value that
workers produce beyond what they are paid, which becomes profit for the capitalists.
5. It belongs to human beings.
Labor power is tied to people, making it different from other commodities. Workers
are not just objects—they are sentient and have needs.

Determining the Value of Labor Power

The value of labor power, like other commodities, depends on the labor needed for its
production. In this case, this means what is necessary to maintain the worker. Workers need
enough wages to:

 Buy food, clothing, housing, and transportation.

 Receive education and training for their jobs.
 Raise families, ensuring a future workforce.

Wages must ensure that workers can return to work daily, perform their jobs well, and allow
for the reproduction of new workers over time.
Unlike other goods, however, the value of labor power has a “historical and moral
element.”

 Workers need more than just the basics to survive—they need a standard of living
appropriate for their society.
 What is considered necessary changes with society’s development. For example, in
modern capitalist societies, workers may require cars, phones, or computers to live
and work.
 Marx calls this a “variable magnitude” because it changes with societal habits and
expectations.

The Industrial Reserve Army

Another way labor power differs from other commodities is the lack of market forces to
regulate its price. Normally, supply and demand control commodity prices:

 If prices are too high, more goods are produced, lowering prices.
 If prices are too low, production decreases, raising prices.

This doesn’t work for labor power because capitalists can’t “produce” workers like they
make goods.

So, what keeps wages near the “subsistence level” (the minimum needed to survive)? The
answer lies in the industrial reserve army—the unemployed population.

 A large pool of jobless workers, desperate for jobs, prevents employed workers from
demanding higher wages.
 When wages rise, capitalists may react by cutting back investments or replacing
workers with machines. This creates more unemployment, which then drives wages
back down.

Marx explains that capitalism constantly produces two groups of workers:

1. Those unemployed or working too little.

2. Those overworked and exploited.

This ensures that wages stay low, profits remain high, and workers stay dependent on
capitalists for their survival.
The Hidden Abode of Production

For Marx, capitalism is a system where goods are produced to be sold for profit. Even labor
power is bought and sold as a commodity. However, to understand capitalism fully, we must
go beyond the surface of market exchange and explore what happens in production—the
factory and workplace.

While the market appears to be a place of freedom and equality, this changes after the
transaction is done.

 In the market, capitalists and workers seem equal: one sells labor power, and the other
buys it.
 But in the workplace, the capitalist consumes the labor power they’ve bought. This
is where the capital-labor relationship becomes clear.

Marx shifts focus to the sphere of production to expose the exploitative conditions of
workers. By studying what happens in the factory, Marx uncovers the secret of profit-
making:

 Profits come from extracting surplus value from workers.

 The workplace reveals the harsh realities of capitalism, far from the idealized
“freedom” of the market.

In summary, Marx’s critique of capitalism focuses on the exploitation of labor power, the
mechanisms that keep workers dependent on capitalists, and the true source of profits within
production.

The Consumption of Labor Power

Capitalists don’t just buy labor power; they buy the potential of workers to do work. What
they really want is the labor itself, the goods created by that labor, and the profit they can
earn from selling those goods. But turning this potential into profit is a challenging process.

To use labor power, capitalists must consume it, just like eating a banana or wearing a jacket.
However, labor power is different because it belongs to living, thinking, and feeling people.
Workers may resist giving up their labor under the conditions capitalists want. This makes
the process of extracting labor more complicated than using an object or tool.
The purchase of labor power happens in the market, but its real use happens in the workplace,
during the actual production process. Marx focuses on this workplace dynamic because it is
here that the true relationship between workers and capitalists becomes clear. In the
workplace, the capitalist has the upper hand because workers need wages to survive, and the
system’s rules favor those who own the means of production.

When workers sell their labor power to capitalists for a wage, they give up two things. First,
the capitalists gain control over how workers use their labor power during the workday.
Second, capitalists claim ownership of whatever workers produce. These goods are then sold
for profit. Marx highlights that capitalism is not just about economic exchanges but also a
system of power that privileges capitalists over workers.

Workers also lose something deeper—the ability to work freely for their own purposes.
Instead, they labor according to the capitalist’s demands. This loss is what Marx refers to as
the “alienation of labor,” where workers are disconnected from the true purpose of their
work.

The Secret of Profit Making

Why do capitalists go through all this trouble? The answer is simple: profit. Marx explains
this using the capitalist exchange circuit (M-C-M'):

1. A capitalist starts with money (M).

2. They use it to buy commodities like materials, machines, and labor power (C).

3. They produce goods, sell them in the market, and end up with more money than they
started with (M').

The extra money, called “surplus value,” is the source of profit. But where does this surplus
value come from?

Marx argues that profit isn’t created simply by selling goods for more than their value. If one
capitalist overcharges, another capitalist loses, and the total value in the economy stays the
same. Instead, Marx says profit comes from what happens in production.

Capitalists buy two types of commodities:

1. Means of production (e.g., machinery, raw materials).

2. Labor power (the ability of workers to create value).

When workers create goods, the value of the machinery and materials used is transferred to
the final product. However, machinery and raw materials do not create any new value—they
just pass on the value they already have. Marx calls this “constant capital.”

Labor power, on the other hand, is unique. It doesn’t just reproduce its own value (the cost
of the worker’s wages); it creates new value. Marx calls the capital used to purchase labor
power “variable capital.”

The Secret of Surplus Value

Marx reveals the core of profit-making: the value of workers’ labor power (what they’re paid)
is less than the value they create during the workday. This gap between what workers are
paid and the value they produce is surplus value, the foundation of profit.

Here’s how it works:

 Workers are paid wages that cover their basic needs (food, shelter, etc.). This wage
reflects the value of their labor power.

 However, the amount of work they do in a day produces more value than the wages
they are paid.

For example, imagine a worker’s daily wage is $100, and they work a 10-hour day. In the first
5 hours, the worker produces enough value to cover their $100 wage. Marx calls this part of
the day “necessary labor time.”

But the worker doesn’t stop there. They keep working for the remaining 5 hours. During this
time, they produce extra value—value that they

The Exploitation of Labor

For Marx, profit-making has a simple explanation: the capitalist class earns surplus value by
exploiting workers. Exploitation happens because workers are forced to do unpaid labor.
This force doesn't come through physical compulsion but through circumstances. Workers
don't own the means of production and must earn a living, so they have little choice but to
work for capitalists. While it may look like a voluntary agreement, Marx insists this is actually
“forced labor.” In this way, capitalism resembles slavery, but instead of legal coercion,
workers are compelled by their need to survive.

The driving purpose of capitalism, Marx states, is to maximize surplus value, which means
increasing the exploitation of labor. Surplus labor refers to the unpaid labor that benefits the
capitalist, while necessary labor covers what workers need to survive. Capitalists aim to
increase the time workers spend on surplus labor while reducing the time for necessary labor.
The higher the surplus labor, the more profit is made.

Capitalists increase surplus value in two main ways:

1. Extending the Working Day (Absolute Surplus Value): For example, if a 10-hour
day includes 5 hours of necessary labor, extending the workday to 12 hours increases
surplus labor from 5 to 7 hours.
2. Improving Productivity (Relative Surplus Value): By increasing efficiency,
capitalists reduce the time needed for necessary labor. For instance, if workers’
subsistence costs are met in 3 hours instead of 5, surplus labor in a 10-hour day
increases from 5 to 7 hours.

Time, for capitalists, equals money. To extract surplus labor, workers are organized under
strict discipline, with managers acting as overseers to ensure efficiency and prevent waste.
Machinery plays a major role here, as it controls the pace of work and limits workers’
freedom, making them feel like parts of an automated system.

When laws limit working hours, capitalists find other ways to exploit workers by intensifying
labor. They reengineer the labor process, speeding up work and leaving no idle time during
the working day. This insatiable demand for surplus labor harms workers’ physical and
mental health, stealing their time for rest, fresh air, and proper meals. Capitalism’s relentless
pursuit of profit, Marx says, surpasses all other systems in its ruthless drive for exploitation.

Capitalist Contradictions and Crises

Capitalism constantly reproduces the conditions for exploiting workers, making it seem like
a self-sustaining system. But Marx explains that this is not the case. While capitalism does
persist, it is always changing, expanding, and prone to crises. Workers face frequent
instability from market fluctuations and oppressive workplace conditions. Marx’s analysis
shows how capitalism not only functions but also fails to function.

Capitalists are under constant pressure to compete and increase efficiency. To cut costs, they
introduce labor-saving technologies. While this increases productivity, it also reduces the
amount of living labor (the work done by people) in production. Since profit comes from
living labor, this leads to a long-term tendency for the rate of profit to fall. This decline may
be temporarily offset by countermeasures, but it remains a significant threat to capitalism’s
survival.
When profit rates drop too much, an economic crisis follows. Less profitable businesses shut
down, production slows, and unemployment rises. These crises often follow a pattern:
overproduction leads to a saturated market, followed by reduced demand, which causes
stagnation. Although these crises temporarily restore conditions for profitability by cutting
wages and eliminating inefficient businesses, they become more frequent and severe over
time. This ongoing cycle of boom and bust threatens the stability of the system.

Capitalism’s survival depends on increasing profits, which requires extracting more surplus
value and producing more goods. However, selling these goods in the market is uncertain.
Most people in a capitalist system are workers with limited purchasing power, so they can
only afford a small portion of what they produce. Capitalists’ spending on luxury goods and
production materials doesn’t make up for this gap, leading to chronic issues in selling all
commodities.

Marx argues that capitalism’s crisis tendencies are built into the system. Its drive for endless
expansion and profit clashes with the limited purchasing power of the masses. These crises
are not caused by external factors or policy errors but by capitalism’s internal contradictions.
It produces more goods than consumers can afford to buy, leading to overproduction, with
idle factories, unsold goods, and unemployed workers.

At the same time, capitalism also suffers from underproduction when judged by human
needs. Goods stop being produced if they’re not profitable, even if people lack basic
necessities like food, clothing, and shelter. This shows the irrational nature of capitalism: its
goal is not to meet human needs but to generate profit. According to Marx, this
contradiction—producing too much for profit but too little for human welfare—reveals the
central problem of capitalism.

Modern Society and Its Challenges

Marx, Durkheim, and Weber experienced a period of rapid cultural, political, and economic
transformation in the Western world. Unlike those who resisted change and clung to
traditional ways, these three thinkers embraced the rise of modern industrial civilization. Yet,
they also spent much of their time analyzing and criticizing the contradictions and flaws of
the modern era. Their lasting contributions to sociology include their deep investigations into
the problems of modern life.

This chapter sets the foundation for the following discussions by comparing how each
theorist diagnosed the problems of modern society. Marx, Durkheim, and Weber differed in
identifying the main problems of modern life, interpreting those issues, proposing solutions,
and imagining the future. These differences also explain their varying perspectives on:
  The challenges faced by individuals in modern society (Chapter 6).
 The potential for democracy to thrive (Chapter 7).
 Their differing views on socialism (Chapter 8).

To fully grasp their arguments on topics like individualism, democracy, and socialism, it is
necessary to understand their assessments of modern society's problems. Similarly, their
views on modern society’s issues can only be understood by considering their thoughts on
individualism, democracy, and socialism. Together, these chapters provide a comprehensive
overview of how Marx, Durkheim, and Weber understood modernity and why they had such
different perspectives on the modern world.

Karl Marx: The Working Class Under Capitalism

Karl Marx was not only a scientist and philosopher, as described by his close collaborator
Friedrich Engels, but primarily a revolutionary. His main goal in life was to promote the
overthrow of capitalist society and liberate the working class. This revolutionary mission
shaped Marx’s critical examination of the modern world, which focused on the impact of
capitalism on workers’ lives, particularly their experiences in industrial workplaces.

The key question Marx explored was: What does capitalism mean for the working
class? By focusing on this perspective, Marx uncovered uncomfortable truths about
capitalism and raised issues often ignored in mainstream discussions about the free market
system. Ultimately, Marx concluded that capitalism is not only unstable and prone to crises
but also irrational and inhumane. Its normal functioning is built on the exploitation,
suffering, and alienation of workers.

Marx’s Critique of Capitalism

Marx’s analysis aimed to strip away the illusions surrounding capitalism and uncover the
“scientific truth” hidden beneath its surface. He sought to expose the ideological justifications
that made capitalism seem acceptable. Instead of the idealized view of capitalism as a system
of harmony and freedom, Marx revealed its darker realities:

1. Class Struggle: Marx saw capitalism as a system defined by conflict between two
opposing groups—the capitalist class (owners of production) and the working class
(laborers). He described this as a relationship of "oppressors and oppressed."
 2. Forced Labor: Contrary to the belief that capitalism ensures freedom, Marx argued
that workers are forced to sell their labor to survive, effectively turning them into
slaves of the wealthy.
3. Exploitation: Marx showed that capitalism thrives on exploitation. One class gains
wealth by taking the unpaid labor of another.
4. Profit Over Needs: Instead of meeting the needs of society, capitalism prioritizes
profit above all else.
5. Challenging the Idea of Capitalism as Eternal: Many saw capitalism as a
permanent and natural system for humanity. Marx disagreed. He believed that a
better, post-capitalist society—free of class domination and wage slavery—was
possible.

In conclusion, Marx’s critique of capitalism aimed to expose its contradictions and flaws
while imagining a future where humanity could move beyond its exploitative structures. His
ideas provide an in-depth perspective on the struggles of the working class and a vision of
hope for a society rooted in equality and human dignity.

The Developmental Tendencies of Capitalism

Unlike Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, who focused mainly on the transition from pre-
modern to modern society, Karl Marx paid close attention to how the modern economic
system evolves over time. For Marx, understanding capitalism’s constant changes is essential
to comprehending the problems and possibilities of modern society. He described capitalism
as “an organism constantly engaged in a process of change.”

Marx emphasized that capitalism, driven by its “unlimited mania for wealth,” is a unique
system that is always revolutionizing itself. The driving force behind this continuous
expansion is competition—among capitalists and between capitalists and workers. To
survive in the market, each capitalist must outdo others by modernizing production, speeding
up work processes, and reducing labor costs. This competitive pressure results in:

 Increased use of machinery

 Greater division of labor
 Larger-scale production
 Concentration and centralization of wealth and resources

However, while capitalism’s productive power grows, workers face worsening conditions.
Marx noted, “Accumulation of wealth at one pole is at the same time accumulation
of misery, labor torment, slavery, ignorance, and moral degradation at the opposite
pole.”

This section explores Marx’s analysis of capitalism’s dynamics in three parts:

1. The process of “valorization” (how capitalists profit from workers’ labor).

2. The historical shift from handcrafted production (manufacture) to machine-driven
industry.
3. The impact of capitalism’s development on workers’ lives.

The Process of Valorization

Labor—the process of humans transforming nature through work—is essential for human
survival. In all societies, people must produce life’s necessities. However, with the rise of
capitalism, labor took on a new form and purpose: it became a tool for generating profit.

Marx referred to this process as “valorization”—the way capitalists extract “surplus value”
(profit) from workers. He described capitalists as “vampire-like” figures who feed on
workers’ labor power. In their pursuit of profit, capitalists continually find ways to maximize
the production of surplus value. This includes introducing more efficient methods of
exploiting workers.

According to Marx, while capitalism contributes to the growth of society’s productive

capacity (its ability to produce more goods), this development comes with a cost. Capitalism
is fundamentally an exploitative system: wealth is created at the expense of workers’
humanity.

From Manufacture to Modern Industry

The Era of Manufacture

Capitalism began when owners of capital (wealth) took control of traditional handicraft
trades, transforming independent artisans into wage laborers. For example, tailors or
carpenters, who used to work independently, were now brought together in one workplace
under the control of an employer.
This shift marked the start of capitalism. The tools and skills of workers remained the same,
but their social status changed—they became dependent on wages and subject to the
authority of the capitalist. Workers were now forced to work according to a plan created by
someone else, which Marx called a “coercive relation.”

Between the mid-1500s and late 1700s, a major innovation occurred: the introduction of the
division of labor. Instead of one skilled worker producing an entire product, the production
process was broken down into smaller tasks. For example, in watchmaking, different workers
now focused on separate parts—the casing, hands, mainspring, or glass.

This approach increased productivity and gave capitalists more control over the workforce.
However, it also dehumanized workers. Their roles became repetitive, reducing them to
performing the same simple task over and over. Marx observed that workers lost the variety
in their work and became more like machines. Although this system benefited capitalists, it
did so by “crippling the individual worker.”

The Rise of Modern Industry

With the Industrial Revolution, science and technology advanced, leading to the use of
machines to automate production. This era, referred to as modern industry, introduced the
“machine system”, where machines became the primary tools of production.

Workers no longer controlled their tools; instead, the machines controlled the workers. Their
job was reduced to serving the machines. Marx described this as a shift from the “formal
subsumption of labor under capital” to the “real subsumption of labor under
capital.”

In the earlier manufacturing period, workers were controlled by the capitalist’s authority. But
in modern industry, workers were controlled by the mechanized labor process itself.
Machines dictated the pace and structure of work, reducing workers to mere “appendages
of the machine.”

This transformation had a profound impact on workers:

 They lost individuality in their work.

 Their jobs became monotonous and repetitive.
 Work became devoid of creativity and joy.
Marx concluded that capitalism’s drive for profit led to progress in technology and
productivity but at the expense of workers’ humanity. As machines replaced traditional tools,
workers became increasingly alienated from their labor, turning into mere cogs in the
industrial system.

The Immiseration of the Working Class

In Marx’s analysis of capitalism, exploitation is a core concept because it reveals how

profits are made. Capitalism thrives by extracting unpaid labor from workers. Beyond just
showing this exploitation, Marx also highlights the harmful effects of capitalism on workers’
overall well-being, presenting his idea of immiseration alongside his theory of exploitation.

What is immiseration?
Immiseration refers to the worsening conditions of the working class as capitalism evolves.
It includes a trend where workers’ wages decline, either in comparison to the capitalist class
or in absolute terms. This growing gap leads to class polarization, where wealthy capitalists
grow richer while workers face increasing poverty.

In an 1864 pamphlet, Marx observed that even during times of great industrial and
commercial growth (like 1848–1864), the misery of workers did not decrease. Even when
wages rise, the gap between what workers and capitalists enjoy continues to widen. While
some critics argued that improvements in workers’ living standards in the post-World War
II era disproved Marx’s ideas, the return of wage stagnation and rising inequality since the
1970s has brought the concept of immiseration back into focus.

However, Marx’s idea of immiseration goes beyond just wages. Joseph Fracchia highlights
the physical and mental suffering caused by capitalism. Workers suffer not only because
they are underpaid, but also because of how they are treated. For Marx, capitalism harms
workers in their bodies and minds, taking a toll on their humanity.

Capitalism’s Impact on Workers’ Lives

For capitalists, profit is an end in itself, and workers are mere tools for production. Once
workers are no longer useful, they are discarded. Marx describes this system as one where
the accumulation of wealth by capitalists is achieved by impoverishing workers. Over
time, the situation of workers worsens, regardless of their wages.

Marx argues that capitalism harms workers in several ways:

1. Exploitation of Physical and Mental Well-being

 o Workers face dangerous, unhealthy conditions in factories, described by Marx
as “mitigated jails.”
o The division of labor forces workers to specialize narrowly, turning them into
“fragments” of their former selves and stripping them of their individuality.
o Machines make things worse by removing workers’ freedom and forcing them
into monotonous, repetitive tasks.
2. Loss of Free Time
o Workers are overburdened with long hours, leaving no time for education,
personal growth, social interaction, or even proper rest.
3. Perpetual Dependence on Capitalism
o The capitalist system continuously forces workers back into labor, renewing
their dependence on jobs that exploit them.

Marx concludes that capitalism turns every tool of progress, like technology or industrial
growth, into instruments of domination and exploitation. It sacrifices human lives at the
altar of profit-making.

The Alienation of Labor

Marx identified another way capitalism harms workers: alienation. Workers are not only
exploited and immiserated; they are also alienated, meaning they are separated from
essential aspects of their humanity. Marx described four types of alienation, each showing
how capitalism affects workers’ lives:

1. Alienation from the Products of Labor

o Workers do not own or control the goods they produce. Instead, these
products belong to the capitalist and are used for profit.
o The goods made by workers are alien to them and often become symbols of
their own deprivation. For example, while workers produce luxury items for
the rich, they themselves live in poverty.
2. Alienation from Productive Activity (Work Itself)
o Work is not a fulfilling activity for workers under capitalism; it is forced labor,
performed only to survive.
o Instead of helping workers express their individuality or creativity, labor
becomes a source of physical and mental hardship. Workers feel free only
when they are not working, reducing their lives to mere animalistic functions
like eating, drinking, and sleeping.
 3. Alienation from Human Nature (Species-Being)
o Humans are unique because of their ability to create freely and purposefully.
However, under capitalism, work is controlled by the capitalist and does not
serve the worker’s own purpose.
o Workers are reduced to mere tools for production, treated as no better than
machines or animals, which dehumanizes them.
4. Alienation from Fellow Humans
o Capitalism transforms social relationships into competitive, economic
relationships. Instead of seeing others as collaborators, people see each other
as obstacles or tools for personal gain.
o This creates a society where selfishness and competition dominate, preventing
genuine community or cooperation.

Alienation Is a Social Condition, Not a Personal Problem

Marx emphasizes that alienation is not a mental state or a natural part of human existence—
it is a condition created by capitalism. It cannot be solved through therapy, drugs, or self-
help because it originates from the structure of capitalist production. The only way to
overcome alienation, Marx argues, is to abolish capitalism.

In summary, Marx’s critique of capitalism highlights how it exploits workers, worsens their
conditions (immiseration), and separates them from their humanity (alienation). For Marx,
these issues are deeply rooted in the capitalist system and can only be resolved through a
fundamental transformation of society.