Lecture1.

Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies

Environment is derived from the French word Environner, which mean encircle or surrounding.
Environment is a complex of many variables, which surrounds man as well as the living organisms.
Environmental studies describe the interrelationships among organisms, the environment and all the
factors, which influence life on earth, including atmospheric conditions, food chains, the water cycle,
etc. It is a basic science about our earth and its daily activities, and therefore, this science is important
for one and all.

Scope of environmental studies

Environmental studies discipline has multiple and multilevel scopes. This study is important
and necessary not only for children but also for everyone. The scopes are summarized as follows:

1. The study creates awareness among the people to know about various renewable and
nonrenewable resources of the region. The endowment or potential, patterns of utilization and
the balance of various resources available for future use in the state of a country are analysed in
the study.
2. It provides the knowledge about ecological systems and cause and effect relationships.
3. It provides necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential dangers to the
species of plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.
4. The study enables one to understand the causes and consequences due to natural and main
induced disasters (flood, earthquake, landslide, cyclones etc.,) and pollutions and measures to
minimize the effects.
5. It enables one to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues before deciding an
alternative course of action.
6. The study enables environmentally literate citizens (by knowing the environmental acts, rights,
rules, legislations, etc.) to make appropriate judgments and decisions for the protection and
improvement of the earth.
7. The study exposes the problems of over population, health, hygiene, etc. and the role of arts,
science and technology in eliminating/ minimizing the evils from the society.
8. The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly skills and
technologies to various environmental issues.
9. It teaches the citizens the need for sustainable utilization of resources as these resources are
inherited from our ancestors to the younger generating without deteriorating their quality.
10. The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of environment.

Importance of environmental study

Environmental study is based upon a comprehensive view of various environmental systems. It

aims to make the citizens competent to do scientific work and to find out practical solutions to current
environmental problems. The citizens acquire the ability to analyze the environmental parameters like

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the aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric systems and their interactions with the biosphere and
anthrosphere.

Importance

• World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing countries.

• The natural resources endowment in the earth is limited.
• The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources are advanced.
• The resources are over-exploited and there is no foresight of leaving the resources to the
future generations.
• The unplanned exploitation of natural resources lead to pollution of all types and at all levels.
• The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living things on earth ,
including man.
• The people should take a combined responsibility for the deteriorating environment and begin
to take appropriate actions to space the earth.
• Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction.
• The urban area, coupled with industries, is major sources of pollution.
• The number and area extinct under protected area should be increased so that the wild life is
protected at least in these sites.
• The study enables the people to understand the complexities of the environment and need for
the people to adapt appropriate activities and pursue sustainable development, which are
harmonious with the environment.
• The study motivates students to get involved in community action, and to participate in various
environmental and management projects.
• It is a high time to reorient educational systems and curricula towards these needs.
• Environmental studies take a multidisciplinary approach to the study of human interactions
with the natural environment. It integrates different approaches of the humanities , social
sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences and applies these approaches to investigate
environmental concerns.
• Environmental study is a key instrument for bringing about the changes in the knowledge,
values, behaviors and lifestyles required to achieve sustainability and stability within and among
countries.

Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on
its integrity. It is an applied science as it seeks practical answers to making human civilization sustainable
on the earth's finite resources. Its components include
1. Biology
2. Geology
3. Chemistry
4. Physics
5. Engineering

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 6. Sociology
7. Health
8. Anthropology
9. Economics
10. Statistics
11. Philosophy

Major environmental issues

Man and nature have lived together and as long as man’s wants were in conformity with nature,
there was no problem. But unfortunately, man’s ambition for limitless enjoyment and comfort has led
him towards the exploitation of nature’s wealth so indiscriminately as to reduce nature’s capacity for
self stabilization. The indiscriminate exploitation of nature over centuries has created numerous
environmental problems. Man’s voracious appetite for resources and his desire to conquer nature has
put him on collision course with environment. The demands of his explosive technological society
impose intense stress on the state of equilibrium with the environment. Major environmental issues
threatening mankind are Global warming, water pollution, pesticide pollution, Hazardous waste,
biomedical wastes, e waste, and loss of biodiversity

India today is one of the first ten industrialized countries of the world. Today we have a good
industrial infrastructure in core industries like metals, chemicals, fertilizers, petroleum, food etc. What
has come out of these?, Pesticides, detergents, plastics, solvents, paints, dyes, food additives etc. Due
to progress in atomic energy, there are also been an increase in radioactivity in the biosphere. Besides
these there are a number of industrial effluent and emissions particularly poisonous gases in the
atmosphere. Mining activities also added to this problem particularly as solid waste.

Such activities of man had adverse effect on all forms of living organisms in the biosphere. The
earth planet along with the atmosphere (air, land, water) that sustains life is called the Biosphere. Due
to lack of development of a culture of pollution control, there has resulted a heavy backlog of gaseous,
liquid and solid pollution in our country. The solid wastes which causes pollution are Hazardous waste,
pesticides, medical waste etc. they are become the major environmental issues in addition to
automobile pollution, climate change, water pollution, pesticide pollution and biodiversity loss in our
country and worldwide.

Industrial / Vehicular pollution

The coolest culprits of environmental degradation in metropolitan cities are vehicular and
industrial pollution. Since 1975 the Indian economy has grown 2.5 times, the industrial pollution load
has grown 3.47 times and the vehicular pollution load 7.5 times, in Delhi, for example 70% of air
pollution is caused by vehicular pollution. Thanks to the 3 million vehicles on its roads-while industries
account for 17%. The pollutants emitted by the vehicles could produce inflammatory effects on the
respiratory organs, could be toxic or even carcinogenic depending upon the fuel type, In India, vehicles
primarily run on diesel or petrol.

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 Air pollutants from automobiles

Climate Change

The rising concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) of anthropogenic origin in the

atmosphere such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) have increased, since
the late 19th century. According to the Third Assessment Report (TAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, because of the increase in concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
(for e.g., CO 2 by 29 per cent, CH 4 by 150 per cent and N 2 O by 15 per cent) in the last 100 years, the
mean surface temperature has risen by 0.4–0.8°C globally. The precipitation has become spatially
variable and the intensity and frequency of extreme events has increased. The sea level also has risen at
an average annual rate of 1–2 mm during this period. The continued increase in concentration of GHG in
the atmosphere is likely to lead to climate change resulting in large changes in ecosystems, leading to
possible catastrophic disruptions of livelihoods, economic activity, living conditions, and human health.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change requires the parties to protect the
climate system in accordance with their ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ and respective
capabilities. In the year 1990, the developed world (Australia, Canada, USA, Europe, former USSR and
Japan) emitted around 66 per cent of the total global GHG emissions, which though has reduced to 54
per cent in 2000, mainly offset by the rise in Chinese emissions. The South Asian region, including three-
fourths emission share of India, contributed only 3 per cent of the total global GHG emissions in 1990
and the share of emissions from South Asia has grown merely by 4 per cent in 2000.

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Water pollution

India has 12 major rivers with a total catchments area of 252.8 million hectare. The Indian
homes produce about 75 % of the wastewater, and sewage treatment facilities are inadequate in most
cities and almost absent in rural India. According to the Central pollution Control Board, of the 8,432
large and medium industries in the country, only 4,989 had installed appropriate measures to treat
wastewater before discharge. Of the over two million small scale industrial units, a number of which like
tanneries are extremely polluting, very few have any treatment facilities whatsoever and their untreated
wastes invariably find their way into country’s water systems.

Polluted tank Marine pollution Industrial pollution

Poisoned by Pesticides
Poisoning from pesticides affects 68,000 farmers and workers every day; annually, an estimated
25 million workers suffer from pesticide poisoning throughout the world. Farmers and agricultural
workers are exposed to pesticides directly when they are mixing and spraying these pesticides,
especially so in developing countries such as Asia. Every year, about 3 million people are poisoned
around the world and 200,000 die from pesticide use.

Beyond these reported acute cases of pesticide poisoning,

evermore worrying are the chronic long-term effects such
as cancers, adverse effects-not only on specific body
organs and systems but also on the endocrine system
which include reduction in male sperms count and
undecided testes as well as increasing incidences of breast
cancer. Communities and Consumers are insidiously
exposed to pesticides through contamination of the soil,
air and water. The chronic effects of pesticides are
particularly alarming when new studies link certain
pesticides to cancer, lowered fertility and disruption of the
endocrine system and to the suppression of immune
systems.

Important pesticide episodes are

• The struggles of common plantation workers in Malaysia against the impact of pesticides such as
Parquet as their assertion of their rights as workers.

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• The tale of ex-International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) workers in the Philippines poisoned by
pesticides used in the IRRI test fields and unfairly healed by IRRI. There were also details about the
fisher flock community in Kamukhaan, Philips, that been poisoned and their environment
devastated by Pesticides used in the neighboring banana plantation.

The communities living in Kasar code, Kerala

who have been poisoned by Endosulfan, which
was aerially sprayed by the plantation
corporation of Kerala, India,

• Farming and Agricultural Worker communities in Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, who have been
poisoned by Pesticides during spraying, Warangal is already in famous for the large number of
cotton farmer suicide deaths, one the main reasons during the farmers to suicide in the resistance
being developed by pests to pesticides.
Pesticides Action Network Asia and the Pacific (PANAD) first launched ‘No Pesticide Use Day’ in
1998 to protest the manufacture and use of pesticides worldwide. The day is held to commemorate the
thousand who dies, and the tens of thousand who still suffer and continue to dies, as a result of the
1984 Bhopal Disaster. The tragedy of Bhopal is a powerful and poignant example of chemical pesticide
contamination; the victims continue to suffer to this day.

Pescticides In Soft Drinks

Soft drinks are non-alcoholic water-based flavored drinks that are optionally sweetened,
acidulated and carbonated. Some carbonated soft drinks also contain caffeine; mainly the brown-
colored cola drinks. The two global majors PepsiCo and Coca-Cola dominate the soft drink market in
India.

Coco cola brands -Thumps Up, Limca, sprite, Pepsico brands - Pepsi-Cola Brands ,Frito-Lay
minute made, and Gold Spot from Parle Beverages Brands ,Tropicana Brands ,Quaker Brands
and soft drink brands Crush, Canada Dry and Sport ,Gatorade Brands
Cola from Cadbury

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Sample Analysis

A laboratory report prepared by CSE in 2003 detailed some astonishing facts about the extent of
pesticide contamination in soft drinks sold in India. CSE found high levels of toxic pesticides and
insecticides, high enough to cause cancer, damage to the nervous and reproductive systems, birth
defects and severe disruption of the immune system. Market leaders Coca-Cola and Pepsi had almost
similar concentrations of pesticide residues. At the same time CSE also tested two soft drink brands sold
in the US, to see if they contained pesticides. They didn’t. This only goes to show the companies were
following dual standards.

• Among the total pesticide found in 18 cities

in India, Kolkata is on the top and Guwahati is
in the bottom of that list. Kolkata has
pesticide content in cold drinks of about 51.7
ppb. The pesticides cause irreparable harm
to the human body.
• It has been shown time and again that these
pesticides can be used to kill bacteria in
bathrooms. The acidic content of these
drinks are harmful to the human body.

Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste may be liquid, solid or gas and all Release of Hazardous waste from industries
have one thing in common are dangerous and can
pose a substantial hazard to human health and
environment when not managed properly. In
India, generation of hazardous waste to the tune
of 6-7 million tonnes per year and may vary
depending on the nature and quantity of
hazardous waste generated in India. The major
hazardous waste in India is petrochemicals,
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, paints, dyes,
fertilizers, chlor-alkali and other different
industries
The lack of a preventative approach to waste management has led to generation of more and
more hazardous wastes and sadly, controlling hazardous waste has become a serious problem in India
and no special care is taken in their management. Implementation of the ban on the ground is very
negligent and hazardous waste is coming to our shores in regular phenomenon. Apart-from generating
their own hazardous wastes, India invites import to such waste in the name of reuse and recycling,
though there is lack of environmental friendly technology to reuse and recycle hazardous waste.

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 Thus indiscriminate generations, improper handling, storage and disposal of hazardous waste
are the main factors contributing to the environmental and human health impact. The pressing need is
to rethink the present approach of pollution control and end-of-the-pipe approaches and focus on
pollution prevention, waste minimization, cleaner production and toxics reduction.

Dumping of Tannery Sludge

Biomedical Waste
Biomedical waste includes both organic and inorganic wastes generated from hospitals. On an
average a hospital bed generates 1 kg of waste per day, out of which 10-15% is infectious, 5% is
hazardous and rest us general waste. Every day, country’s numerous hospitals and medical facilities
churn out tonnes of waste. A WHO report documents that Hepatitis – B Virus can survive in a spring for
8 days.

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 The disposable syringe one uses with a
sense of security may actually be giving a false
sense of security. It may actually be a used syringe
repacked by the mafia, which is involved in
medical waste trafficking.

Unmediated and unhealed syringe in the

municipal dump may come back in the hospitals
and may then be used on a patient, who may get
cross-infected.

The problem of Medical waste has acquired gargantuan proportions and complex dimensions.
While the health care establishments are trying to provide better medicare facility of the citizens, the
hospital waste disposal systems are undermining such efforts. The rules for management of this waste
exist, what is urgently needed now is training of all the health care staff and setting up waste
management system in the hospitals.

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 Plastics constitute a major chunk of medical waste. In fact, in India, the market for medical
disposable has grown from US$2.350 million (1979) to 4,000 million (1986). The use of plastics in
medical equipment is now growing at the rate of 6% per annum. Even though plastics reduce the
possibility of transmission of infection with in the hospital, there are many problems related to its use
and disposal.

Mercury is more poisonous and Dangerous than Lead and Arsenic.

Cracking down on crackers

Over the years, Diwali has turned into a festival of pollution by noise, crackers, artificially
coloured sweets and serious health hazards. On this day, cities turn into gas chambers increases toxic
fumes and gases like CO2, SO2, NO2, as well as suspended particulate matter (SPM), in the air. The worst
affected are children. Pregnant women and those suffering from respiratory problems. In addition, the
factories making crackers float safety norms and exploit child labour. These children work for 16-18 hrs
each day in unhygienic dingy, make-shift and suffocating factories-for only Rs.10-15 per day. They
handle chemical that cause deadly diseases of the lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes.
E Waste

• People discard computers every two to

four years on average.
• Cell phones have a life-cycle of less than
two years in industrialized countries.
• Each computer screen contains about 20%
lead by weight.
• A mobile phone, is 19 % copper and 8%
iron.

• Informal name for electronic products nearing end of their “useful life”.
• Large household appliances - Refrigerators Air conditioners, computers & Stereo systems,
Mobile phones.
• Its volume increases by 3-5% per annum.

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 • Major pollutants are Heavy metals – Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr (VI) and Flame retardants – Polybrominated
biphenyls (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs).

International Scenario

• 20-50 MT / yr of e waste are generated world-wide.

• USA accounts 1% to 3% of the total municipal waste generation.
• EU - 5 to 7 million tonnes per annum or about 14 to 15 kg per capita and is expected to grow at
a rate of 3% to 5% per year.
• In developed countries, currently it equals 1% of total solid waste generation and is expected to
grow to 2% by 2010.

Magnitude of the problem in India

• India – 1,46,000 tonnes to 4.7 lakh tonnes by 2011.

• India's e-waste generation is growing at the rate of 15per cent and is expected to cross 800,000
tonne by 2012.
• Sixty-five cities generate more than 60% of the total e-waste in India.
• Top cities (70%) – Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad,
Pune, Surat and Nagpur.
• 50,000 MT / yr illegally imported.

Loss of Biodiversity

The continuous loss of biodiversity due to over exploitation, habitat degradation, deforestation
and land pollution has posed serious threat to the very existence of the mankind. It has been calculated
that if this trend of biodepletion continues, about 1/4th of the world species may be extinct by the year
2050. The rate of destruction which has been of the order of one species per year over the past 600
million years is today feared to be dozens of species a day. Hence, the conservation of biodiversity has
become one of the most pressing environmental issues. The challenge is for nations, government
agencies, organizations and individuals to protect and enhance biological diversity, while continuing to
meet people’s need for natural resources.

We are at a major turning point in human history and for the first time, we now have the
resources, motivation, and knowledge to protect our environment and to build a sustainable future for
ourselves and our children. Until recently, we didn’t have these opportunities, or there was not enough
clear evidence to inspire people to change their behavior and invest in environmental protection; now
the need is obvious to nearly everyone. Unfortunately, this also may be the last opportunity to act
before our problems become irreversible.

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 Lecture1. Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies

1 Environment means the –------------------ and ---------------------- components surrounding man as

well as other living organisms.(Living , Non living)
2 Environmental Studies enables the people to adapt appropriate activities which are ----------------
----------- with the environment. ( Harmonious )
3 Which of the following Pollutant reduces O 2 carrying capacity of blood?
a)CO 2 b) CO c) NO d) NO 2
4 The Major Green House Gases are
a) carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) b) methane (CH 4 ) c) nitrous oxide (N 2 O) d) all the above
5 How much has the average temperature of the Earth risen in the last 100 years?
a) ~ 0.5°C , b) ~ 1.0°C , C). ~ 5.0°C , d) ~ 10.0°C
6 The communities living in KasarGao, Kerala who have been poisoned by
a) Endosulfan b) Biopesticides c) Parquet d) all the above
7 According to WHO report documents that Hepatitis – B Virus can survive in a syringe
a) 8 days. b) 3 Days c) 5 days d) 25 days
8 Approximately A dentist could generate around --------------- of mercury/month
a) 9 gms b) 80 gms c) 10 gms d) 60 gms
9 The major pollutants from crackers are
a) CO 2 , b) SO 2 and NO 2 ,, c) SPM d) all the above
10 The Major pollutant from e Waste is -----------
a) Aluminium b) Copper c) Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) d) Zinc
11 The continuous loss of biodiversity due to
a) Habitat degradation b) land Pollution c) Pesticide poisoning d)Poor rainfall
12 Darkening of Taj Mahal is due to
a) Water pollution b) Air pollution c) Soil Pollution d) Noise pollution
13 Centre for Environmental Education is located at
a) New Delhi b) Ahmadabad c) Bhopal d) Dehra Dun
14 The pesticide residues reported in Pepsi and Coke soft drinks are
a) Organisulfur b) Organochlorines c) Organic acids d)organic carbon
15 The loss of this inhibitor is responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy
a) HNO3 b) HCl c) MIC d) Phosgene.
Lecture 2 Natural resources: Renewable and Non renewable resources. Land and Water
resources

Natural Resources:

A resource is anything needed by an organism or group of organisms. The sum of all

physical, chemical, biological and social factors, which compose the surroundings of man, is referred as
environment and each element of these surroundings constitutes a resource on which man draws in
order to develop a better life. Resources which are not reproducible and are obtained from the fenite
non-living reserves are called non-renewable resources (eg.) Coal and metals.

Any material which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful can
be termed as a resource. Thus, only part of our natural environment, such as land, water, air, minerals,
forest, rangeland, wildlife, fish or even human population that man can utilize to promote his welfare
may be regarded as a natural resource. In the case of humans, a resource is any form of energy of
matter essential for the fulfillment of physiological, socio-economic and cultural needs, both at the
individual level and that of the community.

The five basic ecological variables - energy, matter, space, time and diversity are sometimes
combinedly called natural resources.

Classification of natural resources :

Based on quantity, mutability and reusability schematic representation of classification of

natural resources :

Inexhaustible Exhaustible
• Unlimited or unending • Limited.
• Both qualitative, and quantitative • Quality may be degraded,
degradation not quantity

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 Renewable Non-renewable
• Perpetual harvest • No-replacement
• Ex. Human power, fertility of soil • Ex. Species of wild life

Based on Continual Utility

• Renewable
• Non renewable
• Cyclic resource
Based on origin
• Biotic and
• Abiotic
Based on Utility
• some as raw materials
• some as energy resources

Renewable resources are those which are reproducible and are obtained from the biomass of living
organisms. (Eg.) Forests. Potentially renewable can become nonrenewable resources, if used for a
prolonged time at a faster rate than it is renewed by natural processes.

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Land

The land although appears to be available unlimited but, infact, its judicious use would limit the
availability of this indispensable life support system. In rural land use planning, concentration is chiefly
devoted to creating and developing more farmland by removing forests and natural grasslands,
channeling streams for irrigation and so on. Unfortunately, no effort is made to save existing prime
farmland from degradation by ill planned development.

A nation’s well-being is inextricably linked with the fertility and abundance of soil resources.
Productive land is since the source of human sustenance and security everywhere at all times, this
resource because of mounting demands of swelling population and long mismanagement would put in
jeopardy the very survival of man.

Deteriorating quality of urban and sub urban environment is to a great extent the result of
injudicious land use and is a threat to the whole socio economic system. Major problems emerging out
of abuse of land in cities include unsafe and unhygienic dwellings and those in rural areas are of erosion
of soil and loss of fertility. While urban problems can be prevented and cured by proper town planning
and municipal facilities, the problem relating to rural areas need long-term soil conservation
programme.

Soil consists of mineral and organic matter, air and water. The proportions vary, but the major
components remain the same. Minerals make up 50 per cent of an ideal soil while air and water make
up 25 per cent each. Every soil occupies space. Soil extends down into the planet as well as over its
surface. Soil has length, breadth, and depth. The concept that a soil occupies a segment of the earth is

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called the "soil body". a single soil in a soil body is referred to as a "pedon". The soil body is composed of
many pedons and thus called a "polypedon".

Every soil has a profile or a succession of layers (horizons) in a vertical section down into the
non-soil zone referred to as the parent material. Parent materials can be soft rock, glacial drift, wind
blown sediments, or alluvial materials. The nature of the soil profile is important for determining a soil's
potential for root growth, storage of water, and supply of plant nutrients.

Soil texture

Relative amounts of the different sizes and types of mineral particles

Soil porosity

A measure of the volume of pores or spaces per volume of soil and the average distances
between these pores

Soil permeability

Rate at which water and air move from upper to lower soil layers

Processes of soil formation – 2 stages

1) Weathering

2) Soil development or pedogenesis

• Weathering

• Physical – Wetting- drying, Heating – cooling, Freezing, Glaciations, solution,

sand blast

• Chemical - Hydration,Hydrolysis, O/R, Carbonation,Chelation

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Soil development

• Pedogenesis – lichens, bacteria, fungi, algae, microarthropods, mollusc – secretion of Organic

acids, enzymes,CO 2 , addition of Organic Matter – leads to soil formation – soil Profile

• Factors affecting soil formation

• Passive Factors – Parent material, topography, time

• Active Factors – Rainfall, Temp, humidity, Wind,

• Biosphere effect (Phytosphere, Zoosphere, MO)

Throughout history, the progress of civilizations has been marked by a trail of wind-blown or
water-washed soils that resulted in barren lands. Continuing to use the soil without appropriate soil

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conservation management is very destructive to the environment. Protecting the quality of our nation's
topsoil is largely within human control. To many soil scientists, saving our soil is much more important
than saving oil, coal, or natural gas resources.

Water Resources

Water is a vitally important substance in all parts of the environment. Water resources occupy a
unique place among other natural sources. It is the most abundant and most widely distributed element
in the world. It occupies about three fourths (70%) of the earth’s surface. It occurs in all spheres of the
environment – in the oceans as a vast reservoir of saltwater, on land as surface water in lakes and rivers,
underground as groundwater in the atmosphere as water vapor, and in the polar icecaps as solid ice. This
amounts to a staggering 1400 million cubic kilometer, which is enough to cover the earth with a layer
3000 meters deep. This apparent abundance is, however, misleading and hides an ironical fact which is
not always fully appreciated, a mammoth 97.5% of the amount, contained in the world’s oceans and
seas, being saline, is unfit for human consumption. We, like many creatures, require fresh water to
survive, and that constitute a miserly 2.5 % of the total amount. Of this, about 68.9% lies inaccessible in
ice fields and glaciers and another 29.9% is present as groundwater. In effect, only one – hundredth of
three per cent (0.03%) of the world’s total supply amounting to some 14 billion cubic meters is
considered easily available for human use on a regular basis. This water is found in decreasing order of
abundance in saline and freshwater lakes and reservoirs; as soil moisture; as water held in living
organisms, as vapor, droplets, and miniscule ice crystals in the atmosphere; in swamps and marshes;
and in rivers and streams. The problem would not have been so acute had freshwater been evenly
distributed around the globe, throughout the seasons or from year to year. It is not so. Two thirds of the
world’s population i.e around 4 billion people lives in areas receiving only one quarter of the world’s
annual rainfall.

Freshwater distribution

About three-quarters of annual rainfall come down in areas containing less than one-third of the
world’s population. As water –short societies have done for centuries, many countries attempt to move
water from where it occurs on nature to where the people want it, and also to store water for future
use. Worldwide, there are 40,000 dams higher than 15 mts, most of them built in the last 50 years.
Although dams help ensure a steady water supply, they often endanger aquatic systems by blocking
river channels, altering water flows of rivers, food plains, deltas, and other natural wetlands, as well as
imperiling plant and animal life.

How water is used?

The amount of water that people in a country actually use depends not only on minimum needs
and how much water is available for use but also on the level of economic development and the extent
of urbanization. Globally, of the three categories of freshwater use- for agriculture, industry and
domestic, agriculture dominates. On a worldwide basis, agriculture accounts for about 69% of the
annual water withdrawals; industry, about 23% and domestic use, about 8%.

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India’s Water Resources Potential

India receives an annual precipitation of about 4000 cu.km. About 1869 cu.km occurs as natural
run off in rivers. India has 12 major rivers with a total catchments area of 252.8 million hectare. Of
these, the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system is the biggest with a catchment area of about 110
m.ha. It also provides about 60% of the total amount of freshwater amongst other rivers. Others with
catchment areas of more than 10 m.ha are Indus (32.1 m.ha), Godavari (31.3 m.ha.), Krishna (25.9
m.ha.) and Mahanadi (14.2 m.ha.) The national annual per capita availability of water in the country is
about 2208 cu.m.

Groundwater

In India groundwater has been used for irrigation and domestic water supply since time
immemorial. At present, more than 70% of the population uses groundwater for its domestic needs and
more than half of the irrigation is provided from this source. The total replenishable ground water in
India is estimated to be about 43.18850 million hectare meter per year. About 7.1 m ha m/yr is used for
domestic and industrial use. It is estimated that about 32.47264 m ha m/yr is available for irrigation.
About 32% of available groundwater resources have so far been used. There is increasing extraction of
groundwater to meet the demands of the agriculture, especially for the cultivation of water intensive
crops, like sugarcane. Some 90% of the groundwater extracted is used for irrigation. Today, more than
8.5 million electric and diesel pumps are used to withdraw groundwater leading to falling water tables in
most states.

Water scarcity

Years of rapid population growth and increasing water consumption have strained the world’s
freshwater resources. In some areas the demand for water already exceeds nature’s supply, and a
growing number of countries are expected to face water shortages in the near future.The world’s
population, at 6.1 billion is growing by about 80 million people each year. This number implies an
increased demand for freshwater of about 64 billion cubic meters a year. A country is said to experience
water stress when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic meters per person. Below 1,000 cubic
meters per person, the country faces water scarcity. Once a country experiences water scarcity, it can
expect chronic shortages of freshwater that threaten food production, hinder economic growth and
development, and damage eco system.

In 1995, 31 countries containing 458 million people faced either water stress or scarcity. By
2025, according to projections made by Population Action International, more than 2.8 billion people in
48 countries will be facing water stress or scarcity. By 2050, the number of water short countries soars
to 54, affecting 4 billion people, or 40% of the projected global population. The worst hit areas are in the
Middle East, North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. Over 200 million Sub Saharan Africans already live in
water short countries. This figure balloons to 700 million by 2025, of whom over half will live in
countries facing severe shortages for most of the year.

World Water Demand/Year

7
 1940 1000 km3
1990 4130 km3
2000 5000 km3
2002 6650 km3
Water scarcity is now the single biggest threat to food production, as falling groundwater levels
and shrinking rivers make less water available for agriculture. According to UNEP, India will be water –
stressed before 2025-with average annual water availability limited to between 1000 cubic meters to
1700 cu. m per person.

Depletion of water resources

• Shrinking of rivers, lakes & ponds

• Water pollution – 70% of surface water polluted
• Ground water depletion - >10 cm/yr & pollution- NO 3
• Increase of sewage & industrial effluents
• India will be water stressed by 2025 (UNEP)
• Per capita water has decreased from 2208 to 1700cu.m in a decade

Water Pollution

The Indian homes produce about 75 % of the wastewater, and sewage treatment facilities are
inadequate in most cities and almost absent in rural India. According to the Central pollution Control
Board, of the 8,432 large and medium industries in the country, only 4,989 had installed appropriate
measures to treat wastewater before discharge. Of the over two million small scale industrial units, a
number of which like tanneries are extremely polluting, very few have any treatment facilities
whatsoever and their untreated wastes invariably find their way into country’s water systems.

8
 Management of water implies making the best use available water resources for human benefit
while not only preventing and controlling its depletion and degradation but also developing it in view of
the present and future needs. Floods, droughts, improper use, pollution, disease transmission are the
important problems related to water. Pollution of a body of water is detrimental not only to the human
society but also to regional ecology and the ecology of very aquatic system. It is therefore, essential that
the water should not be treated as a simple repository of waste disposal, and if inevitable, the water
only after proper treatment should be released in it under strict ecological considerations.

Drought

Drought may be caused due to variability of rainfall, delay in onset or early withdrawal of monsoon,
duration of break in the monsoon, area differences in persistence of monsoon and human activities.
Based on the physical characteristics, drought may be of meteorological drought, hydrological drought,
soil-moisture drought, agricultural drought, socio-economic drought, famine and ecological drought.

Combating drought

Planning for drought includes;

• Scientific use of rainfall, surface and underground water.

• Introduction of proper cropping pattern.
• Development of irrigation facilities.
• Development of existing irrigation potential.
• Lining of canals and distributaries to minimize water losses.
• Drip irrigation/Trickle irrigation mainly in saline areas.
• Expeditious completion of continuing projects should be given priority in planning.
• Construction of new irrigation projects.

9
 • Desilting of irrigation tanks.
• Technology of dry farming.

Dams: Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities that harness these water resources for their economic development. Current estimates
suggest that about 30-40 % of the irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. The world’s two most
populous countries China and India – have built around 57% of the world’s large dams. In India, of the
16-18 million people displaced by dams, 40-50% wee tribal people, who account only for 8% of our
nations one billion people.

Problems caused by Dams:

• Fragmentation and physical transformation caused by dams

• Serious impact on riverine ecosystems
• Social consequences of large dams due to the displacement of people
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting off their migratory routes
• Disruption of fishing and waterway traffic
• The emission of green house gases from reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and carbon inflows
from the catchment

10
Lecture 2 Natural resources: Renewable and Non renewable resources. Land and Water
resources

1 Which of the following is a highly exploited natural resource?

a) Water b) Soil
c) Air d) None of the above
2. What are called “Pastures of the sea”?
a) Estuaries b) Coastal water
c) Antarctic divergence d) All the above.
3. Which inhibits the native plant life on Antartica from flourishing?
a) Temperature b)Ice
c) Drought d) Volcanoes
4. Soil containing many single soil called
a)Pedons b) Poly pedons
c)Profile d) Regloith
5. Ground water is depleting at the rate of
a) 10 cm / Year` b) < 10 cm /year
c) >10 cm / year d) < 5 cm / year
6. India is going to be water stressed country in 2025 and the water availability is going to be
between 1000 to 1700 cu,m per person predicted by
a) UNEP b)UNESCO
c) EPA d) UNDP
7. Method which increases the amount of land used for cultivation on steep slope and
mountains and reduces erosion is
a)Gully control b) Terracing
c)Contour farming d) Zero tillage
8. Only ------------------ % of total water resources is available for human use
a)< 2% b) 2.5%
c)10 % d) 7%
9. Resources which are not reproducible are called
a)Renewable resources b)Non- Renewable Resources
c)Cyclic resources d)Reproducible resources
10. Soil fertility is an example for ------------------resource
a)Renewable resources b)Non- Renewable Resources
c) Cyclic resources d) Reproducible resources
11 Which one of the following is a passive factor affecting soil formation
a)Topography b)Time
c) Parent Material d)all the above
12 Drought is caused due to --------------------------------
a)Variability of Rainfall b)Delay in onset of Monsoon
c)Duration of break in the monsoon d)all the above
 Lecture 3 Natural resources: forest, wildlife, energy and food resources.

3.1. Forest:

It is a natural ecosystem having multispecies and multiage trees as dominant community. Forest
covers about 1/3rd of the earth’s land surface of which about 50% is occupied by tropical forest. Thus
forests are important in two ways ecologically and economically important.

Increased urbanization, industrialization and mining have entailed indiscriminate felling of trees
and denudation of forests. The depleted forest wealth would simply deprive the man of economic and
environmental values offered by forest Thus, forest ecology is a highly diverse and important branch of
ecological study. The presence of trees makes forest ecosystems and their study unique.

Causes of Deforestation

Deforestation is a consequence of over-exploitation of our natural ecosystems for space, energy

and materials. The basic reasons for such extensive deforestation are:

(1) Expansion of Agriculture:

Expanding agriculture is one of the most important causes of deforestation. As demands on

agricultural products rise more and more land is brought under cultivation for which forests are cleared,
grass-lands ploughed, uneven grounds leveled, marshes drained and even land under water is
reclaimed. However, this expansion is usually marked with more ecological destruction than rationality.
Governments often distribute land under forests to landless people, instead of redistributing already
established farm-lands, howsoever, wasteful, unequal and unjust the distribution of ownership of land
may be. During the process of clearing the land precious timber is simply burned. Ghana's 80% forests
have disappeared but only 15% timber was harvested. Similarly in Brazil, little timber was extracted
before the forests were burned for clearing the land.

(2) Extension of Cultivation on Hill Slopes:

Outside humid tropical zone, in most of the third world countries, major forests often occur on
hill tops and slopes. Though agriculture has nearly always been concentrated on plains and floors of
valleys, farming on narrow flat steps cut one after another across the slope or terrace farming is an age-
old practice. It has never been extensive because of the gruelling labour and low productivity. However,
the ever rising human numbers and their necessities have forced many to go up to mountain slopes for
cultivation. More and more slopes are cleared of plants, steps carved out and against many odds
cultivation is attempted. After a few crops the productivity declines and torrential sub-tropical rains
carry down massive quantities of precious top soils to streams and rivers. While denuding hill slopes, the
silt and sediments settle further down raising stream bottoms and river beds aggravating the flood
situation.

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(3) Shifting Cultivation:

Shifting cultivation or Jhum is often blamed for destruction of forests. In fact it is poor fertility of
soil which has given rise to such a pattern of farming. A small patch of tropical forest is cleared,
vegetation slashed, destroyed and burned. Crops are grown as long as the soil is productive, after which
the cultivation is abandoned and cultivators move on to fresh patch of land. The abandoned land was
allowed to lay fallow for long periods during which regrowth of vegetation took place and natural
ecosystem was restored. Shifting cultivators, therefore, worked in harmony with nature. However, the
demands of growing population have shortened the fallow periods drastically. The soil is unable to
regain its fertility before it is put to use again.

(4) Cattle Ranching:

Large areas of tropical forests in North Eastern States have been cleared for use as grazing land
to raise cattle and agricultural purpose. The soil degenerates within a short span of time due to over-
grazing and massive soil erosion occurs.

(5) Firewood Collection:

To majority of rural population and a large number of people living in small towns and cities of
developing countries, the only fuel is wood which is burned to cook food and to provide heat in chilly
winters. Firewood collection contributes much to the depletion of tree cover, especially in localities
which are lightly wooded. Denser forests usually produce a lot of combustible material in the form of
dead twigs, leaves etc. There is hardly any need of cutting down live trees in densely wooded localities.
However, in the case of lightly wooded forests, where the pressure of demand is usually higher, a slow
thinning of woodland occurs due to regular foraging of villagers. In Madhya Pradesh, India, a recent
observation revealed that felling of small trees for use as firewood and timber exceeds fresh plant
growth. In some places in the state, the Government! Allows people to collect head loads of dead wood
from forests for personal use.

(6) Timber Harvesting:

Timber resource is an important asset for a country's prosperity. Commercial wood finds ready
national as well as international markets. As a consequence of which natural forests are being
mercilessly exploited. Logging or felling of forest trees for obtaining timber is an important cause of
deforestation in third world countries. Live trees with thick and straight trunks are felled and
transported to commercial establishments elsewhere, to consumers who are ready to pay. In the
process large stretches of forests are damaged and the system which could have provided resources
worth much more to the local people is disrupted. Ironically the profits from timber trade are enjoyed
by Governments, large companies or affluent contractors. Local people get a tiny share in the benefits
while axing their own resource base.

2
 Commercial logging in tropical countries usually involves felling of trees of only selected species
which fetch better prices. This process of creaming or removing a few selected trees amidst dense
vegetation on rather a delicate soil causes much more destruction than the actual number of trees or
the volume of timber taken out would suggest. The selective harvesting practiced by loggers leave many
forests permanently deficient in valuable plant species. Much of the West Africa has become useless for
commercial logging as important plant species required by the loggers are not available. In Philippines,
the valuable groups of tall trees (Dipterocarpus sp.) have shrunk from original 16 million hectares in
1960, to about one million hectares left standing in remote regions.

The practice of cutting down larger trees, of the selected species, leaving behind younger ones
which can grow into fresh stock to be harvested later may appear rational. In theory such patch should
become ready for reharvesting within thirty to forty years. However, in practice none of the loggers
leaves the required number of younger trees and the notion that the woodland shall be ready for
another valuable timber harvest in forty years appears to be a wistful thinking at its best.

Consequences of Deforestation

3
Forest Management

Of various factors employed in forest management, restrained felling, block and selective
cutting, reforestation and recycling of forest products are most important practices.

3.2. Wild life

It was once customary to consider all undomesticated species of vertebrate animals as wildlife.
Birds and mammals still receive the greatest public interest and concern, consistently higher than those
expressed for reptiles and amphibians. Most concern over fishes results from interest in sport and
commercial value. The tendency in recent years has been to include more life-forms under the category
of wildlife. Thus, mollusks, insects, and plants are all now represented on national and international lists
of threatened and endangered species.

People find many reasons to value wildlife. Virtually everyone appreciates the aesthetic value of
natural beauty or artistic appeal present in animal life. Giant pandas, bald eagles, and infant harp seals
are familiar examples of wild-life with outstanding aesthetic value. Wild species offer recreational value,
the most common examples of which are sport hunting and bird watching.

Less obvious, perhaps, is ecological value, resulting from the role an individual species plays
within an ecosystem. Alligators, for example, create depressions in swamps and marshes. During
periods of droughts, these "alligator holes" offer critical refuge to water-dependent life-forms.
Educational and scientific values are those that serve in teaching and learning about biology and
scientific principles.

Wildlife also has utilitarian value which results from its practical uses. Examples of utilitarian
value range from genetic reservoirs for crop and livestock improvement to diverse biomedical and
pharmaceutical uses. A related category, commercial value, includes such familiar examples as the sale
of furs and hunting leases.

To define as the uncultivated flora and the undomesticated fauna amongst the plants and
animals or any form existing in natural surroundings, Provides aesthetic, recreations and economic
benefits. For maintaining the balance of nature, wildlife plays an integral part. In biodiversity of life
forms, India is the 2nd largest country in the world and Africa stands first.

Wildlife includes 350 spp of mammals, 1200 spp of birds and more than 20,000 spp insect and
countless number of plant species. Today wildlife species are gradually disappearing and number is
becoming reduced. Many species of wildlife have become the way of extinction.

Basic reasons for the extinction of wildlife:

i) Destruction of their natural habitat due to expanding agriculture, urbanization and
industrialization.
ii) Overgrazing by domestic animals that convert the area into deserts.
iii) Hunting/poaching on a large scale for meat, fur, ivory etc-commercial exploitation.

4
 iv) Export of some species.
v) An unbalanced sex ratio
vi) Some species are narrowly restricted to an area.
Vii) Natural processes are also cause a decline in the population. Low population may external
and new population colonizes, when death exceeds birth rate.
Data regarding all endangered plant and animal species are recorded in red data book.
According to RDB of IUCNNR (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)
more than 1000 creatures are threatened with extinction. Among these, most immediate danger are all
species of rhinoceros, Siberian tigers, Mexican gizzly bear, Red wolf, Mountain gorilla, Asiatic lion. In
plants, more than 450 plant species are identified as endangered and threatened.

Wildlife Management and Conservation:

The conservation is the practice of preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization,

restoration and enhancement of the natural environment. Conservation is judicious management of
resources towards their optimum utilization. Wild life management includes maintenance of habits
suitable to the different species. Both governmental and non-governmental and voluntary organizations
at state and central levels have been set up to protect wildlife. Ministry of Environment and Forest has
been entrusted with the task of environmental protection.

Wildlife Management:

• Protection of natural habitats through controlled, limited exploitation of species.

• Maintenance of the viable number of species in protected areas (National Park, Sanctuary,
Biosphere reserve etc.)
• Establishment of Biosphere Reserves for plants and animal species
• Protection through legislation.
• Improving the existing protected areas.
• Imposing restrictions on export of rare plant and animal species and their products.
• Educating public for environmental protection at all levels of education.

Governmental Organizations:

1. Indian Board of Wildlife (IBWC), 1952

2. Madras Wild Elephant Preservation Act, 1873
3. All-India Elephant Preservation Act, 1879
4. The Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912
5. Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1932
6. Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1954
7. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
8. Becoming a Part to CITES,1976
9. Committee for Biosphere Reserve, 1972.

5
 10. Projects to conserve endangered species

Project Tiger

The main objective of Project Tiger is to ensure a viable population of tiger in India for scientific ,
economic , aesthetic , cultural and ecological values and to preserve for all time, areas of biological
importance as a natural heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people. Initially, the
Project started with 9 tiger reserves, covering an area of 16,339 sq.km., with a population of 268 tigers.
At present there are 27 tiger reserves covering an area of 37761 sq.km., with a population of 1498
tigers. This amounts to almost 1.14% of the total geographical area of the country. The selection of
reserves was guided by representation of ecotypical wilderness areas across the biogeographic range of
tiger distribution in the country. Project Tiger is undisputedly a custodian of major gene pool. It is also a
repository of some of the most valuable ecosystem and habitats for wildlife.

Tiger Reserves are constituted on a 'core-buffer' strategy. The core area is kept free of biotic
disturbances and forestry operations, where collection of minor forest produce, grazing, human
disturbances are not allowed within. However, the buffer zone is managed as a ‘multiple use area’ with
twin objectives of providing habitat supplement to the spillover population of wild animals from the
core conservation unit, and to provide site specific ecodevelopmental inputs to surrounding villages for
relieving their impact on the core. Project Tiger has put the tiger on an assured course of recovery from
the brink of extinction, and has resurrected the floral and faunal genetic diversity in some of our unique
and endangered wilderness ecosystem. The population of tigers in the country has increased
significantly to about 4000 from less than 2000 at the time of launch of the project
The effective protection and concerted conservation measures inside the reserves have brought
about considerable intangible achievements also, viz. arresting erosion, enrichment of water regime
thereby improving the water table and overall habitat resurrection. Labour intensive activities in tiger
reserves have helped in poverty alleviation amongst the most backward sections, and their dependence
on forests has also reduced.

IX PLAN ACHIEVEMENT OF PROJECT TIGER DIVISION

• During the VIII plan period the budget outlay for Project Tiger Scheme was Rs. 40.00 Crores.
During the IX plan the budget outlay was substantially increased to rs. 75.00 Crores.
• During the IX Plan, Project Allowance to an extant of Rs. 3.95 Crores to field level
staff was funded under this scheme for the first time.
• During this Plan period funds to an extant of Rs. 2.49 Crores has been released for creation of
Strike Force to combat the growing insurgency and extremist situations within the Tiger
Reserves.
• During the Plan period four new Tiger Reserves were declared, namely

Year of Area(sq. Funds

No. Tiger Reserve State
Formation Kms.) released
1 Bhadra Karnataka 1998-99 492 318.459
2 Pench Maharashtra 1998-99 257 223.421

6
 Arunachal Pradesh /
3 Pakui-Nameri 1999-2000 1206 93.100
Assam
Bori-Satpura
4 Madhya Pradesh 1999-2000 1486 75.220
Panchmarhi
3441 710.200
• The effective protection and concerted conservation measures inside the reserves have
brought about considerable intangible achievements also viz. arresting erosion, enrichment
of water regime and thereby improving the water table and overall habitat resurrection.
Labour intensive activities in tiger reserves have helped in poverty alleviation of the most
backward sections and their dependence on forests has also reduced. The project has been
instrumental in mustering local support for conservation programme in general.
• During the X Plan, it is envisaged to carry out on the Project with further impetus on
people’s support for conservation of nature and natural resources.

India has taken several steps in recent times to protect the tiger and other wildlife species :

• Setting up the Subramanium Committee to look into the issue of prevention of illegal trade in
wildlife and wildlife products. The recommendations of this Committee are, however, yet to be
enforced.
• Setting up the J.J.Dutta Committee to review the management of the tiger project and suggest
the future course of action.
• Organising training of various enforcement agencies in the Wildlife Institute of India for species
conservation.
• Organising an enforcement training workshop in New Delhi, with the help of the US Fish and
Wildlife Service and CITES for the enforcement agencies like Customs, Revenue Intelligence,
Indo-Tibetan Border Police, Coast Gaurds, Border Security Force, State Police, Deputy Directors
of Wildlife Preservation and Scientific Organisation like BSI and ZSI.
• Setting up of a National Coordination Committee for the control of poaching and illegal trade in
wildlife with enforcement agencies mentioned above as well as the Army, the Postal
Department and so on.
• The eco-development programme has been taken up around the major protected areas for
winning over the support of the fringe dwellers to the cause of wildlife conservation including
tiger under national schemes.
• Initiating India's Eco-development Project under the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in seven
protected areas which include seven prime tiger habitats (five tiger reserves).
• Launching of a public awareness programme to involve NGOs and others for supporting the
government in its efforts at tiger conservation.
• Supporting programmes of some institutions and NGOs in exploring tiger trade routes and
developing a forensic identification reference manual for tiger parts and products.
• Taking initiatives with the Government of Nepal and Government of China to evolve an effective
strategy to control trafficking of tiger products across international borders.

Gir Lion Project

Asiatic Lion habitat, distribution and population

7
Asiatic Lion at Gir

The Asiatic Lions habitat is dry scrub land and open deciduous forest. These lions were once found
across northern Africa, south west Asia and northern Greece. Now there are only around 411 left in the
wild and all of them are in or around the Gir Forest National Park. The first modern day count of lions
was done by Mark Alexander Wynter-Blyth, the Principal of Rajkumar College, Rajkot sometime
between 1948 to 1963, probably early in his tenure as the Principal during that period. Even though the
Gir Forest is well protected, there are instances of Asiatic Lions being poached. They have also been
poisoned for attacking livestock. Some of the other threats include floods, fires and the possibility of
epidemics and natural calamities. Gir nonetheless remains the most promising long term preserve for
them.

The Lion Breeding Programme creates and maintains breeding centres. It also carries out studies of
the behaviour of the Asiatic lions and also practices artificial insemination. One such centre has been
established in the Sakkarbaug Zoo at the district headquarters of Junagadh, which has successfully bred
about 180 lions. 126 pure Asiatic lions have been given to zoos in India and abroad.

The census of lions takes place every five years. Previously indirect methods like using pugmarks of
the lion were adopted for the count. However, during the census of April 2005 (which originally was
scheduled for 2006, but was advanced following the reports and controversy over vanishing tigers in
India), "Block-Direct-Total Count" method was employed with the help of around 1,000 forest officials,
experts and volunteers. It means that only those lions were counted that were "spotted" visually. Use of
"live bait" (a prey that is alive and used as a bait) for the exercise, though thought to be a traditional
practice, was not used this time. The reason believed to be behind this is the Gujarat High Court ruling of
2000 against such a use of animals.

Gir National Park and Sanctuary does not have a designated area for tourists. However, to reduce
the tourism hazard to the wildlife and to promote nature education, an Interpretation Zone has been
created at Devalia within the sanctuary. Within its chained fences, it covers all habitat types and wildlife
of Gir with its feeding-cum-living cages for the carnivores and a double-gate entry system.

The Government of India, with all its political will, is endeavouring to reinforce tiger conservation
programmes in the country. The Ministry of Environment & Forests, has been convening regular
meetings of the Steering Committee of Project Tiger and the Tiger Crisis Cell to introduce additional
measures for the protection of the tiger and its habitat. The Union Home Minister has also issued a
letter to all the Chief Ministers to take appropriate steps for conserving wildlife. Further, acknowledging
the written request of the Ministry for according high priority to tiger conservation programmes in the
wake of the renewed tiger crisis, the Prime Minister during the Indian Board of Wildlife meeting held in

8
March, 1997 has assured full government support and also proposed to convene a meeting of chief
ministers in the near future to discuss wildlife issues.

However, in order to resolve the present tiger crisis the following issues need special attention:-

1. Since more than half of the tiger population of the country is found outside the tiger reserves,
there is an urgent need to introduce a special programme for protection: One of the measures
to counter the threat is to include more new areas into the fold of Project Tiger.
2. To curb poaching in tiger reserves, it is necessary to create a "Strike Force" in every reserve.
3. At least five tiger reserves, i.e. Palamau and Valmiki in Bihar, Manas (Assam), Indravati (M.P.)
and Nagarjunsagar (Andhra Pradesh) are facing serious problems due to the
insurgents/criminals seeking refuge in them. To bring about normalcy, deployment of central
armed forces is urgently needed.
4. In view of the large scale illegal trade of tiger parts in big cities, new strategies, based on
identification of bottlenecks, need to be introduced. This would inevitably involve an in situ
conservation mechanism, strengthening of Central Wildlife Enforcement Agencies and greater
financial assistance to the states.
5. In order to address all these issues, a substantial increase in the Project Tiger budget would be
essential during the Ninth Plan period. A proposal to this effect has already been sent by the
Ministry to the Planning Commission for allocating Rs.90 crores under the Project Tiger Scheme
for the current Plan.

Biosphere Reserves:

Biosphere reserves programme was launched by UNESCO with the following objectives:

1. Conserve representative samples of ecosystems

2. Provide long-term in-situ conservation of genetic diversity
3. Promote and facilitate basic and applied research and monitoring
4. Provide opportunities for education and training
5. Promote appropriate sustainable management of living resource
6. Disseminate the experience so as to promote sustainable development
7. Promote international co-operation

• It includes conservation, research, education and local involvement.

• Participation of local people in the management
o Research
o Monitoring
o Training and education through organizing environmental centers are among
the important features of the programme.
• World: 234 BSR in 65 countries - covering 115 million ha.
• BSR - include natural, minimally disturbed, man modified and degraded ecosystem.
 India first Biosphere Reserve came into being in 1986 - Nilgiri BSR - covering
5520 km

9
  Second: Nanda Devi Biosphere reserves - 1560 sq.m.
 Third: Nokrek 1988 - Great Nicobar in 1989
• Ecological development programmes in the areas surrounding biosphere reserves.

Location of biosphere reserve in the country:

Biosphere reserve States / U.T

1. Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh
2. Uttarakhand (Valley of flowers) Uttar Pradesh
3. Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
4. Sunderbans West Bengal
5. Thar Desert Rajasthan
6. Manas Assam
7. Little Rann of Kutch Gujarat
8. North Islands of Andamans Andaman and Nicobar
9. Nanda Devi Uttar Pradesh
10. Kaziranga Assam
11. Kanha Madhya Pradesh
12. Nokrek (Tura Range) Meghalaya
13. Nilgiris Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu

For management of endangered species especially, medicinal plants, programmes on biology

and tissue culture have to be initiated to conserve in situ and mass multiplication of species. The
programme includes identification and enumeration of eco-system on regional basis, systematic studies
on reproductive biology, gene pool conservation, artificial propagation in natural habitats, development
of tissue culture techniques for mass multiplication and domestication and cultivation of selected
threatened species.

Mangrove Forest

Mangroves (generally) are trees and shrubs that grow in saline (brackish) coastal habitats in
the tropics and subtropics. The word is used in at least three senses: (1) refers to the habitat and entire
plant assemblage or mangal, for which the terms mangrove swamp and mangrove forest are also used,
(2) refers to all trees and large shrubs in the mangal, and (3) refers to the mangrove family of plants,
the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora. Mangals
are found in depositional coastal environments where fine sediments, often with high organic content,
collect in areas protected from high energy wave action.

10
 Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal

About 110 species have been identified as belonging to the mangal. Each species has its own
capabilities and solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some
shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a
mangal may lead to greatly differing methods of coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of
species at any location within the intertidal zone is partly determined by the tolerances of individual
species to physical conditions, like tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other
factors such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs.

A cluster of mangroves on the banks of the Vellikeel River in Kannur District of Kerala,

Once established, roots of mangrove plants provide a habitat for oysters and help to impede
water flow, thereby enhancing the deposition of sediment in areas where it is already occurring. Usually,
the fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which are
scavenged from the overlying seawater by colloidal particles in the sediments. In areas of the world
where mangroves have been removed for development purposes, the disturbance of these underlying
sediments often creates problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota.

11
 Mangroves protect the coast from erosion, surge storms (especially during hurricanes), and
tsunamis. Their massive root system is efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down
tidal water enough that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in and is not re-suspended when the
tide leaves, except for fine particles. As a result, mangroves build their own environment. Because of the
uniqueness of the mangrove ecosystems and their protection against erosion, they are often the object
of conservation programs including national Biodiversity Action Plans.

Despite their benefits, the protective value of mangroves is sometimes overstated. Wave energy
is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured in the
long-term. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events like storm surges and
tsunamis. Erosion often still occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through
mangroves, just as new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment
is accreting.

Mangroves support unique ecosystems, especially on their intricate root systems. The mesh of
mangrove roots produces a quiet marine region for many young organisms. In areas where roots are
permanently submerged, they may host a wide variety of organisms,
including algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard substratum for
anchoring while they filter feed. In some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in
coastal food webs. The habitats also host several commercially important species of fish and
crustaceans. Despite replanting programs, over half of the world's mangroves have been lost in recent
times.

The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world, located in the Ganges delta
in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. There are major mangals in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat. Other significant mangals include the Bhitarkanika Mangroves
and Godavari-Krishna mangroves. The Pichavaram Mangrove Forest near Chidambaram, South India is
the second largest mangrove forest in the world. It is home to a large variety of birds—local resident,
migratory resident and the pure migratory birds—and is separated from the Bay of Bengal by a lovely
beach. It is one of those rare mangrove forests which has actually increased by 90% between 1986 and
2002.
3.3.Energy sources

12
 Fossil fuels such as coal, gas or oil represent the principal source of energy and supply about
eighty five per cent of the commercial energy requirement. Fossil fuels are types of sedimentary organic
materials, often loosely called bitumens, with asphalt, a solid, and petroleum, the liquid form. More
correctly bitumens are sedimentary organic materials that are soluble in carbon disulfide.

Petroleum consists largely of paraffins or simple alkanes, with smaller aromatic compounds such
as benzene present in most crude oils. Natural gas is an abundant fossil fuel that consists largely of
methane and ethane, although traces of higher alkanes are present. Coal, unlike petroleum, contains
only a little hydrogen. Fossil evidence shows that coal is mostly derived from the burial of terrestrial
vegetation with high proportion of lignin and cellulose.

Nuclear power is an attractive alternative to fossil fuels and considered as "the clear energy
alternative". Damming rivers to create hydroelectric power from spinning water turbines has the
attraction of providing a low-cost, renewable, air pollution-free energy source.

There are several sustainable, environmentally benign energy sources that should be developed.
Among these are wind power, biomass (burning renewable energy crops such as fast-growing trees or
shrubs), small-scale hydropower (low head or run-of the river turbines), passive-solar space heating,
active-solar water heaters, photovoltaic energy (direct conversion of sunlight to electricity), and ocean
tidal or wave power. A big disadvantage is that most of these alternative energy sources are diffuse and
not always available when or where we want to use energy.

Other possibilities include converting biomass into methane or methanol fuels or using
electricity to generate hydrogen gas through electrolysis of water. These fuels would be easily storable,
transportable, and used with current technology without great alterations of existing systems.

Conventional exhaustible energy sources:

a) Fire wood:

Man has been logging down the trees for various purposes including to get firewood as an
important one. This lead to thinning of woodland that had serious consideration from both ecological
and economic viewpoints. The only way out to the problem is making available to the village the
cheaper non-conventional energy sources, such as biogas and solar energy in usable form.

b) Fossil fuel :

Are the most extensively used sources of energy today. Increase in population and percapital
energy demand coupled with the industrialization at a faster rate are factors responsible for depletion of
fossil fuel. Petroleum and natural gas to-day fulfill 60% of the world’s total energy requirements. If the
exploitation and consumption of these resources continues at the present incredible rate, there supply
may lost only for a few more decades.

Non-conventional and in-exhaustible energy sources:

13
 The rapid depletion of conventional energy sources has promoted governments and people to
concentrate on finding and tapping some non-conventional energy sources that may last for long. The
in-exhaustible energy sources like solar, hydal, tidal, wind and atomic power, can only bring hope for the
sustained socio-economic development of humanity.

a) Solar energy:

Research and application in the field of solar energy have opened new vistas in the direction of
fulfilling world’s future energy requirements. It is especially drawn attention for its practically free
steady supply and pollution free use. This resource can especially be tapped more effectively in the
regions where there are long run shine hours. Department of non-conventional energy sources of
Government of India has prepared a prespective plan that envisages generation of energy through non-
conventional sources. Chiefly solar, to the extent of 250 million tons of coal replacement per annum

b) Wind Power:

The power of wind is being used in running mills, irrigation of fields and carrying out other farm
activities. According to DNES, Government of India, 20,000 MW electricity can be generated from the
wind alone.

14
c) Hydro power:

It is considered to be the cheapest source of electricity. The Brahmaputra basin has the highest
hydropower potential and nearly 30% of the country’s production. Next to it rank the Indus, Godavari
and Ganga basins respectively. Apart from economic consideration development of such projects is
beneficial for irrigation and other purposes.

d) Atomic power:
Atomic power appears to be the only hope for large-scale energy requirements when fossil fuels
are exhausted. Atomic energy has its application not only in generation of electricity but has successfully
been used in chemical and food processing industry. The important constraints in atomic energy
generation are cost of construction and maintenance of plants and also disposal of radioactive wastes.

e) Bio-energy:

Organic wastes provide an important renewable source of energy. It is considered to be

advantageous in view of its relatively cheaper supply, and are of organic wastes in its generation reduces
the impending threat of pollution due to their release in environment. As such, it serves two purposes;
fuel production and waste disposal. It has more practical applicability in villages where organic waste, in
the form of cattle dung, is available in plenty. Biogas so generated is thus economic and convenient to
use as compared to conventional practice of burning of dry dung cakes.

Since the total natural resources available are limited, the way-out to the problem seems only
through control of population and also the per capita consumption of resources. Because it is difficult to

15
bring down per capita consumption, the recycling and stringent conservation can bring hope for
sustained development without reducing per capita use of resources.

3.4. Food Resources

We have thousands of edible plants and animals over the world, out of which only about three
dozen types constitute the major food of humans. The main food resource include wheat, rice, maize,
potato, barely, oats, cassava, sugarcane, pulses, sorghum, millet, about 20 or 50 common fruits and
vegetables, milk, meat, fish and sea food. 76% of world food is produced from croplands and most it
produced grains. About 17% of world food is obtained from Rangeland (Meat etc). Seven % of world
food supplied by oceanic fisheries. About 30,000 plant species are eatable. 2/3 of the people used
traditional grains (rice, wheat etc.,). People consume more beef, pork, chicken; egg etc., Fish and sea
food are the important sources of food. Milk products are also widely used.
World Food Problems

• The world population increases and cultivable land area decreases.

• Due to the inadequate rainfall, the productivity of food is reduced by every year.
• Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity, affects
agricultural lands.
• Urbanization is another problem for the reduction of agricultural lands.

Indian Scenario

• India is the 3rd largest producer of crops, but 300 million Indians are still undernourished
• Land wise, India is only half as much of USA, but population wise three times higher.
• Food problem is directly related to population growth.

Under Nutrition and Malnutrition

To maintain good health and resistant disease, we need large amount of macronutrients such as
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as vitamins A,C and E and
minerals such as iron, calcium and iodine.

a) Under nutrition

• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nations estimated that on an average,
minimum calorie intake on a global scale is 2,500 calories per day.
• Peoples receiving less than 90% of these minimum dietary calories are called under nourished.
• If it is less than 80% that are said to be seriously undernourished.
• People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs (carbohydrates) suffer
from under nutrition.
Effects

16
 They are suffering from mental retardation and infectious diseases such as measles and diarrhea.

b) Malnutrition

• Besides, the minimum calorie intake, we also need proteins, minerals etc.,
• Deficiency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition.

Effects of malnutrition

S.No Deficiency of nutrient Effects

1 Proteins Growth
2 Iron Aneamia
3 Iodine Goitre, Cretinism
4 Vitamin A Blindness

• Thus chronically under nourished and malnourished people are diseases prone
and are too weak to work or think clearly.
• The world Food summit,1996 has set the target to reduce the number of under
nourished to just half by 2015 which still means 410 million undernourished people on the
earth.
Food Distribution around the World and Their Problems

1. During the last 50 years world grain production has increased almost three times. But, at the
same time, population growth increased at such a rate in LDCs (Less Developed Countries).
2. Every year 40 million people (50% of children (15 year ) die on undernourishment and
malnutrition. This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people were
killed by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II.
3. In countries like North America and Europe the daily average calorie intake is about 3500
cals, which is nearly one-third more than that required for healthy living.

Indian Scenario

Although India is the third largest producer of stable crops, an estimated 300 million Indians
are still undernourished. Indians has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three times
population to feed. Our food problems are directly related to population. The world Food summit,
1996 has set the target to reduce number of under nourished to just half by 2015, which still means
410 million undernourished people on the earth.

17
 Lecture 3 Natural resources: forest, energy and food resources.

1 The process of repeated eating and being eaten is called

a)Food Web b)Food Chain
c)Ecological pyramid d)Autotrophs
2. Project tiger was launched in
a)1973 b)1984
c) 1980 d)1970
3. Gir lion project started in the year
a)1972 b)1984
c) 1980 d)1970
4. The Natural , minimally disturbed man modified and degraded ecosystem
a)Botanical Garden b) Zoological Parks
c)Biosphere Reserve d) wildlife Sanctuaries
5. The BSR valley of Flowers is located at
a)West Bengal b)Uttar Pradesh
C) Bihar d) Jammu and Kas min
6. The fine anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for
a)Trace metals b)Organic nutrients
C) CO 2 d) Nitrate
7 The type of food chain in mangrove ecosystem is --------------------------
a)Grazing food chain b)Detritus food chain
C)Both a and b d)None of the above
8. The largest mangrove forest in India is
a)Pitchavaram b)Sundarbans
c)Godavari –Krishna d)Gulf of Kutch
9. ----------------- MW of electrical energy can be generated from Wind energy
a)10,000 b)20,000
c) 5,000 d)12,000
10. ___ _____________ are the predominate forests in the world.
a) Rain Forests b)Tropical forest
c)Temperate forest d)Mangrove fort
11 Forest covers about 1/3 rd of the earth’s land surface of which about ----------------- ia
occupied by tropical forest.
a)70 % b)50%
c)60 % d) 20 %
12 A small patch of tropical forest is cleared , vegetation slashed, destroyed and burned in -------
----------- cultivation
a)Shifting cultivation b)Modern Agriculture
c)Traditional cultivation d)all the above
13 The depressions in swamps and marches created by these species offer critical refuge to
water dependent life forms during periods of droughts
 a)Alligator b)Fox
c)Crocodiles d) Tortoise
14. ----------------------- basin ranks highest (upto 30 %) hydropower potential of the countrys
production
a)Ganges b)Godavari
c)Indus d) Brahmaputra
 India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral
Unit III resources due to its varied geological structure.
Chapter 7 Bulk of the valuable minerals are products of
pre-palaezoic age (Refer: Chapter 2 of Class XI,
Textbook: “Fundamentals of Physical
Geography” and are mainly associated with
metamorphic and igneous rocks of the
peninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract
of north India is devoid of minerals of economic
use. The mineral resources provide the country
with the necessary base for industrial
development. In this chapter, we shall discuss
the availability of various types of mineral and
energy resources in the country.
MINERAL AND
ENERGY A mineral is a natural substance of organic
or inorganic origin with definite chemical and
RESOURCES physical properties.

Types of Mineral R
Mineral esour
Resources
esources
On the basis of chemical and physical
properties, minerals may be grouped under two
main categories of metallics and non-metallics
which may further be classified as follows :

Fig. 7.1 : Classification of Minerals

2015-16
 As, it is clear from the Fig. 7.1 metallic crystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coal
minerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore, reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone,
copper, gold produce metal and are included Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum reserves
in this category. Metallic minerals are further are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam,
divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore region
minerals. Ferrous, as you know, refers to iron. in the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been
All those minerals which have iron content are located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri
ferrous such as iron ore itself and those which basins. Most of the major mineral resources
do not have iron content are non-ferrous such occur to the east of a line linking Mangaluru
as copper, bauxite, etc. and Kanpur.
Non-metallic minerals are either organic Minerals are generally concentrated in
in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral three broad belts in India. There may be some
fuels which are derived from the buried animal sporadic occurrences here and there in isolated
and plant life such as coal and petroleum. Other pockets. These belts are :
type of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in
origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc. The North-Eastern Plateau Region
Minerals have certain characteristics. These This belt covers Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand),
are unevenly distributed over space. There is Odisha Plateau, West Bengal and parts of
inverse relationship in quality and quantity of Chhattisgarh. Have you ever thought about the
minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in reason of major iron and steel industry being
quantity as compared to low quality minerals. located in this region? It has variety of minerals
The third main characteristic is that all minerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
are exhaustible over time. These take long to
develop geologically and they cannot be
replenished immediately at the time of need.
Thus, they have to be conserved and not Find out the specific region where these
misused as they do not have the second crop. minerals are being extracted.

The South-Western Plateau Region

Agencies involved in the This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and
exploration of minerals contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
In India, systematic surveying, prospecting This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.
and exploration for minerals is undertaken It also contains high grade iron ore, manganese
by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Oil and limestone. This belt packs in coal deposits
and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), except Neyveli lignite.
Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd. This belt does not have as diversified
(MECL), National Mineral Development mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium,
(IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML), bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.
Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), National
Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) and the The North-Western Region
Departments of Mining and Geology in This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and
various states. part of Gujarat and minerals are associated with
Dharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc have
been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in
Distribution of Minerals in India building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble.
Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also
Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw
the peninsular plateau region in the old materials for cement industry. Gujarat is known

Mineral and Energy Resources 73

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for its petroleum deposits. You may be knowing
that Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich
sources of salt.

Why and where Dandi March was

organised by Mahatma Gandhi?

The Himalayan belt is another mineral belt

where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten
are known to occur. They occur on both the
eastern and western parts. Assam valley has
mineral oil deposits. Besides oil resources are
also found in off-shore-areas near Mumbai
Coast (Mumbai High).
In the following pages you will find the
spatial pattern of some of the important
minerals.

Ferrous Mineral
Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese,
chromite, etc., provide a strong base for the Can you find out its reason?
development of metallurgical industries. Our
country is well-placed in respect of ferrous
minerals both in reserves and production. plants are located around them. Most of the
important mines such as Noamundi and Gua
Iron Ore are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi
Singhbhum districts. This belt further extends
India is endowed with fairly abundant
to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, and
resources of iron ore. It has the largest reserve
of iron ore in Asia. The two main types of ore Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of
iron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron ore
found in our country are haematite and
magnetite. It has great demand in international deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area of
market due to its superior quality. The iron ore B allari district, Baba Budan hills and
Kudremukh in Chikkamagaluru district and
mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields
in the north-eastern plateau region of the parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg and
country which adds to their advantage. Tumakuru districts. The districts of
The total reserves of iron ore in the country Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri in
were about 20 billion tonnes in the year 2004- Maharashtra, Karimnagar and Warangal
05. About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron district of Telangana, Kurnool, Cuddapah and
ore is located in the States of Odisha, Anantapur districts of Andhra Pradesh, Salem
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, and Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu are other
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. iron mining regions. Goa has also emerged as
In Odisha, iron ore occurs in a series of hill an important producer of iron ore.
ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar.
Manganese
The important mines are Gurumahisani,
Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu Manganese is an important raw material for
(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similar smelting of iron ore and also used for
hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest manufacturing ferro alloys. Manganese
iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel deposits are found in almost all geological

74 India : People and Economy

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Fig. 7.2 : India – Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)

Mineral and Energy Resources 75

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formations, however, it is mainly associated with Copper
Dharwar system.
Copper is an indispensable metal in the
Odisha is the leading producer of
electrical industry for making wires, electric
Manganese. Major mines in Odisha are located motors, transformers and generators. It is
in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, alloyable, malleable and ductile. It is also mixed
particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, with gold to provide strength to jewellery.
Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir. The Copper deposits mainly occur in
Karnataka is another major producer and Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat
here the mines are located in Dharwar, Ballari,
district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and
Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru,
Alwar districts in Rajasthan.
Shivamogga, Chitradurg and Tumkur.
Minor producers of Copper are Agnigundala
Maharashtra is also an important producer of
in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg
manganese which is mined in Nagpur,
Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts. The and Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot
district (Tamil Nadu).
disadvantage to these mines is that they are
located far from steel plants. The manganese Non-metallic Minerals
belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in
Among the non-metallic minerals produced in
Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and
Jhabua districts. India, mica is the important one. The other
Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are other minerals extracted for local consumption are
minor producers of manganese. limestone, dolomite and phosphate.

Mica
Non-Ferrous Minerals
Mica is mainly used in the electrical and
India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous electronic industries. It can be split into very thin
metallic minerals except bauxite.
sheets which are tough and flexible. Mica in
India is produced in Jharkhand, Andhra
Bauxite
Pradesh, Telanganga and Rajasthan followed by
Bauxite is the ore which is used in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
manufacturing of aluminium. Bauxite is found In Jharkhand high quality mica is obtained in a
mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated belt extending over a distance of about 150 km,
with laterite rocks occurring extensively either in length and about 22 km, in width in lower
on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India Hazaribagh plateau. In Andhra Pradesh. Nellore
and also in the coastal tracts of the country. district produces the best quality mica. In
Odisha happens to be the largest producer Rajasthan mica belt extends for about 320 kms
of Bauxite. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.
leading producers. The other two areas which Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Hasan
have been increasing their production are districts of Karanataka, Coimbatore,
Bolangir and Koraput. The patlands of Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanniyakumari in
Jharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits. Tamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in
Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in West
Maharashtra are other major producers. Bengal.
Bhavanagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat have the major
deposits. Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in Energy Resources
Amarkantak plateau while Katni-Jabalpur area
and Balaghat in M.P. have important deposits of Mineral fuels are essential for generation of power,
bauxite. Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune required by agriculture, industry, transport and
and Kolhapur in Maharashtra are important other sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels like
producers. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as fossil
minor producers of bauxite. fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the

76 India : People and Economy

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Fig. 7.3 : India – Minerals (Non-Ferrous)

Mineral and Energy Resources 77

2015-16
conventional sources of energy. These They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the
conventional sources are exhaustible resources. important coal fields in this region are Raniganj,
Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.
Coal
Jharia is the largest coal field followed by
Coal is a one of the important minerals which Raniganj. The other river valleys associated
is mainly used in the generation of thermal with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone.
power and smelting of iron ore. Coal occurs in The most important coal mining centres are
rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli
namely Gondwana and tertiary deposits. coal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), Korba in
About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Odisha,
India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and Bander in
grade. The most important Gondwana coal Maharashtra and Singareni in Telangana and
fields of India are located in Damodar Valley. Pandur in Andhra Pradesh.

At Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescue

Singareni collieries, the country’s premier coal production company, still uses canaries to detect the
presence of deadly carbon monoxide in underground mines. Miners collapse and often die even if
small quantities of the highly poisonous CO are present in the air. Though, miners speak lovingly of
the canaries, the underground experience is not at all pleasant for the birds. When lowered into
mines with CO presence, the birds show distress symptoms such as ruffling of feathers, pronounced
chirping and loss of life. These reactions occur even if 0.15 per cent of CO is present in the air. If the
content is 0.3 per cent the bird shows immediate distress and falls off its perch in two to three
minutes. A cage of birds is a good indicator in air containing more than 0.15 per cent CO, said a coal
miner.
The sophisticated hand held CO detectors introduced by the company can detect CO concentrations
from as low as 10 ppm to as high as 1,000 ppm. But despite this, the miners trust the birds, who
have saved the lives of several of their predecessors.
Deccan Chronicle, 26.08.2006

Fig.7.4 : Neyveli Coalfield

78 India : People and Economy

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Fig. 7.5 : India – Conventional Energy Resources

Mineral and Energy Resources 79

2015-16
 Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Lunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off
Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is extracted Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and
from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong and production commenced in 1976. Oil and
Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur and Nazira natural gas have been found in exploratory
in upper Assam, Namchik – Namphuk (Arunachal wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin
Pradesh) and Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir). on the east coast.
Besides, the brown coal or lignite occur in Oil extracted from the wells is crude oil
the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, and contains many impurities. It cannot be
Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir. used directly. It needs to be refined. There are
two types of refineries in India: (a) field based
Petroleum and (b) market based. Digboi is an example
Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of of field based and Barauni is an example of
liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical market based refinery.
composition, colour and specific gravity. It is an There are 21 refineries in India as on
essential source of energy for all internal June 2011 (Fig. 7.6). Identify the States in
combustion engines in automobiles, railways and which these are located.
aircraft. Its numerous by-products are processed
Natural Gas
in petrochemical industries such as fertiliser,
synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, The Gas Authority of India Limited was set
vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics. up in 1984 as a public sector undertaking to
transport and market natural gas. It is
obtained alongwith oil in all the oil fields but
exclusive reserves have been located along the
Petroleum is referred to as liquid gold eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Odisha
because of its scarcity and diversified uses. and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and
off-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)

According to a newspaper report (The Hindu, 05.09.2006) the Oil and Natural Gas Commission has
found potential zones of natural gas reserves in Ramanathapuram district. The survey is still in the
initial stages. The exact quantity of gas reserves will be known only after the completion of the
survey. But the results are encouraging.

Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary Non-Conventional Energy Sources

rocks of the tertiary period. Oil exploration
and production was systematically taken up Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum,
after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission was natural gas and nuclear energy use
set up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in Assam exhaustible raw materials. Sustainable
was the only oil producing region but the energy resources are only the renewable
scenario has changed after 1956. In recent energy sources like solar, wind, hydro-
years, new oil deposits have been found at the geothermal and biomass. These energy
extreme western and eastern parts of the sources are more equitably distributed and
country. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and environmental friendly. The non-conventional
Moran are important oil producing areas. The energy sources will provide more sustained,
major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, eco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial
Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and cost is taken care of.

80 India : People and Economy

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Fig. 7.6 : India – Oil Refineries

Mineral and Energy Resources 81

2015-16
 How are the developed
countries of the world
utilising non-conventional
energy resources? Discuss.

Nuclear Energy Resources Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam

(Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga
Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).
in recent times. Important minerals used for the
generation of nuclear energy are uranium and Solar Energy
thorium. Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar
rocks. Geographically, uranium ores are known Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be
to occur in several locations along the Singbhum converted into energy, known as solar energy.
Copper belt. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar The two effective processes considered to be
and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg very effective to tap solar energy are
district of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of photovoltaics and solar thermal technology.
Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Solar thermal technology has some relative
Pradesh. Thorium is mainly obtained from advantages over all other non-renewable
monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along energy sources. It is cost competitive,
the coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. World’s environment friendly and easy to construct.
richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than
and Kollam districts of Kerala, near coal or oil based plants and 10 per cent more
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and effective than nuclear plants. It is generally
Mahanadi river delta in Odisha. used more in appliances like heaters, crop
Atomic Energy Commission was dryers, cookers, etc. The western part of India
established in 1948, progress could be made has greater potential for the development of
only after the establishment of the Atomic solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was
renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Wind Energy
Centre in 1967. The important nuclear power Wind energy is absolutely pollution free,
projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra), inexhaustible source of energy. The mechanism

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of energy conversion from blowing wind is energy plant has been commissioned at
simple. The kinetic energy of wind, through Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
turbines is converted into electrical energy. The
permanent wind systems such the trade winds,
westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have The first successful (1890) attempt to tap
been used as source of energy. Besides these, the underground heat was made in the city
local winds, land and sea breezes can also be of Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot water
used to produce electricity. pipe network was built to give heat to the
India, already has started generating wind surrounding buildings. This plant is still
energy. It has an ambitious programme to install working.
250 wind-driven turbines with a total capacity
of 45 megawatts, spread over 12 suitable
locations, specially in coastal areas. The Ministry Bio-energy
of Non-conventional Sources of Energy is
Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological
developing wind energy in India to lessen the
products which includes agricultural residues,
burden of oil import bill. The country’s potential
municipal, industrial and other wastes. Bio-
of wind power generation exceeds 50,000 energy is a potential source of energy conversion.
megawatts, of which one fourth can be easily It can be converted into electrical energy, heat
harnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra energy or gas for cooking. It will also process the
and Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind waste and garbage and produce energy. This will
energy exist. improve economic life of rural areas in developing
Tidal and Wave Energy countries, reduce environmental pollution,
enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuel
Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite wood. One such project converting municipal
energy. Since the beginning of seventeenth and waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.
eighteenth century, persistent efforts were made
Conservation of Mineral Resources
to create a more efficient energy system from
the ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current. The challenge of sustainable development
Large tidal waves are known to occur requires integration of quest for economic
along the west coast of India. Hence, India has development with environmental concerns.
great potential for the development of tidal Traditional methods of resource use result into
energy along the coasts but so far these have generating enormous quantity of waste as well
not yet been utilised. as create other environmental problems. Hence,
for sustainable development calls for the
Geothermal Energy protection of resources for the future generations.
When the magma from the interior of earth, There is an urgent need to conserve the resources.
comes out on the surface, tremendous heat is The alternative energy sources like solar power,
wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustible
released. This heat energy can successfully be
resource. These should be developed to replace
tapped and converted to electrical energy. Apart
the exhaustible resources. In case of metallic
from this, the hot water that gushes out through
minerals, use of scrap metals will enable
the gyser wells is also used in the generation of recycling of metals. Use of scrap is specially
thermal energy. It is popularly known as significant in metals like copper, lead and zinc
Geothermal energy. This energy is now in which India’s reserves are meagre. Use of
considered to be one of the key energy sources substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce
which can be developed as an alternate source. their consumption. Export of strategic and scarce
The hot springs and geysers are being used minerals must be reduced, so that the existing
since medieval period. In India, a geothermal reserve may be used for a longer period.

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 EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) In which one of the following States are the major oil fields located?
(a) Assam (c) Rajasthan
(b) Bihar (d) Tamil Nadu
(ii) At which one of the following places was the first atomic power station
started?
(a) Kalpakkam (c) Rana Pratap Sagar
(b) Narora (d) Tarapur
(iii) Which one of the following minerals is known as brown diamond?
(a) Iron (c) Manganese
(b) Lignite (d) Mica
(iv) Which one of the following is non-renewable source of energy?
(a) Hydel (c) Thermal
(b) Solar (d) Wind power
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Give an account of the distribution of mica in India.
(ii) What is nuclear power? Mention the important nuclear power stations
in India.
(iii) Name non-ferrous metal. Discuss their spatial distribution.
(vi) What are non-conventional sources of energy?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Write a detailed note on the Petroleum resources of India.
(ii) Write an essay on hydel power in India.

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