LABORATORY MANUAL

FOR Strength of Materials

Subject Code: CEP 1301

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MIZORAM
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sr. No. Name of Experiment Page No.

1 To determine the Tensile strength of a specimen using UTM. 2-5

2 To determine spring constant for given springs 6-7

3 To study the Brinell hardness testing machine & perform the Brinell 8-9
hardness test.
4 To study the Rockwell hardness testing machine & perform the 10-11
Rockwell hardness test.
5 To study the Vickers hardness testing machine & perform the Vickers 12-13
hardness test.
6 To study the Impact testing machine and perform the Impact strength 14-15
tests (Izod Test)
7 To study the Impact testing machine and perform the Impact strength 16-17
tests (Charpy Test)
8 To conduct torsion test on mild steel specimen to find modulus of 18-19
rigidity or to find angle of twist of the materials.

1
 EXPERIMENT NO. 01

TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

AIM: To determine tensile behaviour of a given specimen using Universal Testing Machine
(UTM).

OBJECT: To conduct a tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following:

(i) Limit of proportionality

(ii) Elastic limit
(iii) Yield strength
(iv) Ultimate strength
(v) Young9s modulus of elasticity
(vi) Percentage elongation
(vii) Percentage reduction in area.

THEORY:

The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue
deformation or failure. This property is inherent in the material itself and must be
determined by experiments. As a result, several types of tests have been developed to
evaluate a material9s strength under loads that are static, cyclic, or impulsive. One of the
important tests to perform is the tension test. The tension test is used primarily to
determine the relationship between the average normal stress and the normal strain in
many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. To
perform this test, a specimen of the material is made into a <standard= shape and size,
which is used as the basis for calculating the average strain. Before testing, two small
marks are identified along the specimen9s length. The distance between the marks is
termed as the gauge length of the specimen. These marks are located away from the ends
of the specimen because the stress distribution at the ends is somewhat complex due to the
gripping at the connections where the load is applied.

The specimen is said to respond elastically if it returns to its original shape or length when
the load acting on it is removed. In elastic region the stress is proportional to strain and the
slope of the straight line in this region gives the Young9s modulus E. The upper stress limit
to this relationship is called the proportional limit. If the stress slightly exceeds the
proportional limit, the material may still respond elastically, however the curve tends to be
non-linear causing a greater increment of strain for corresponding increment of stress. This
continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. A slight increase in stress above the
elastic limit will cause the specimen to deform permanently. This behaviour is called
yielding and the stress at which yielding begins is called the yield stress and the permanent
deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. A further load beyond the yield
stress applied to the specimen, causes the force–deformation curve to rise continuously

2
with decreasing slope until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress.
The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening.

APPARATUS:

(i) Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

(ii) Mild steel specimens
(iii) Graph paper
(iv) Scale
(v) Vernier Caliper

Figure: Universal Testing Machine

Figure: Typical stress-strain curve of a material obtained from tensile testing

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen. The length may either be
length of gauge section which is marked on the specimen with a preset punch or the
total length of the specimen
2. Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach strain-measuring device

3
 to it
3. Begin the load application and record load versus elongation data.

4. Take readings more frequently as yield point is approached.

5. Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler.

6. Continue the test till Fracture occurs.

7. By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final length
and diameter of specimen.

OBSERVATIONS:

(a) Initial diameter of specimen d1 =

(b) Initial gauge length of specimen L1 =

(c) Initial cross-section area of specimen A1 =

(d) Load of yield point Ft =

(e) Ultimate load at fracture F=

(f) Final length after specimen breaking L2 =

(g) Diameter of specimen at breaking place d2 =

(h) Cross section area at breaking place A2 =

CALCULATION:

Stress (Ã) and strain (¸) are calculated using the formula given below:
à = Force/Area
¸ = Change in length/Original length

RESULTS:

• Ultimate tensile strength = N/mm2

• Elastic Limit = N/mm2
• Yield Strength = N/mm2
• Modulus of Elasticity = N/mm2

4
 • Percentage of Elongation = %
• Percentage Reduction in area = %
• Young9s Modulus (E) = N/mm2

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The specimen should be prepared in correct dimensions.

2. The specimen should be fixed properly between the jaws.

3. Take reading carefully.

QUESTIONS
1. What general information is obtained from tensile test regarding the properties of a
material?

2. Which stress have you calculated: nominal stress or true stress? What is the difference
between true stress and nominal stress?
3. What kind of fracture has occurred in the tensile specimen and why?

4. What does the typical stress-strain curve of mild steel look like?

5
 EXPERIMENT NO. 02

SPRING STIFFNESS TEST

AIM: Spring stiffness test to determine properties of the spring

OBJECT: To conduct an experiment on spring to find the spring constant for the given
spring and to compare the values with theoretical values.

THEORY:

Experimental determination of the force-deformation behaviour of a spring is simple and

straight forward. If the force-deformation behaviour is linear then one has a linear spring.
In such a case the amount of force required to produce a unit deflection is called the spring
constant of the spring. In other words,

F = k·

where F is the force in Newton, k is the spring constant or stiffness of the spring (N/mm)
and · is the spring deformation (elongation or compression in mm).

The spring constant of a spring can also be computed analytically. The geometric details of
the spring and the elastic properties of the material of the spring are needed to compute
this. However, the computational approach is not quite simple. When force is applied,
spring as a whole is compressed or elongated but this overall deformation comes about due
to torsional/bending deformation of the spring wire. Knowledge of torsion and bending is
essential to understand the analytical procedure.
When the diameter of the wire (r) is small in comparison with the radius of the coil (R), an
element of the spring between two closely adjoining sections through the wire can be
considered as a straight circular bar subjected to torsion for the external loading
configuration as shown. The spring stiffness is given by

�㔺�㕟 4
�㕘 =
4�㕛�㕅 3
where G is the shear modulus of the spring material (GPa), n is the number of active coils,
r isthe spring wire radius (mm) & R is the mean radius (mm) of the spring.

Figure: Spring loading apparatus and geometric details of the spring

6
APPARATUS:

1. Helical springs of different diameters

2. Spring loading apparatus

PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the dimensions of the spring radius R and r (wire radius) using the
verniercalipers.
2. Place the spring in the loading setup and then clamp it by tightening the screw.
3. Note down the vernier scale reading for no load condition.
4. Load the spring in steps of 0.5 kg of weight up to 2.5 kg, and note down the readings
fromthe vernier scale.
5. Remove the loads one by one when the loading is over and note down the deflection
wheneach load is removed.
6. Take the spring out of the setup and repeat experiment on the other two springs.
7. Calculate the spring stiffness using the above readings.

OBESRVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Spring No. _____________, Mean Radius (R)________________ Free

length___________

Wire radius (r)_______________, Number of coils (n) _______________

Initial reading of vernier _____________________, Least count of

vernier______________

Sl. Load Loading Unloading

No. kg N Vernier reading Deflection Vernier reading Deflection

RESULT: Draw a graph between load and deflection of the springs. Compare the stiffness
values with that of theoretical values for all the springs and provide your comments.

QUESTIONS:

1. How will the spring constant change with wire diameter?

2. How will the spring stiffness change if the spring diameter is halved?

7
 EXPERIMENT NO. 03

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness test.

OBJECT: To conduct a hardness test on a specimen and determine the hardness of the
material.

THEORY:

Hardness is defined as the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the

permanent depth of the indentation. The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine
Brinell hardness is defined in ASTM E10. Most commonly it is used to test materials that
have a structure that is too coarse or that have a surface that is too rough to be tested using
another test method, e.g., castings and forgings.

Brinell testing often use a very high-test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm diameter indenter so
that the resulting indentation averages out most surface and sub-surface inconsistencies.
The Brinell method applies a predetermined test load (F) to a carbide ball of fixed diameter
(D) which is held for a predetermined time period and then removed. The resulting
impression is measured with a specially designed Brinell microscope or optical system
across at least two diameters – usually at right angles to each other and these results are
averaged (d).

Figure: Brinell Hardness Testing apparatus

APPARATUS:

3. Brinell hardness testing machine,

4. Metallic specimen,
5. Ball indenter.

PROCEDURE:
1. Insert ball of diameter 8D9 in the ball holder of machine.

8
 2. Make the specimen surface clean by oil, grease, dust etc.

3. Make contact between the specimen surface and ball using jack adjusting wheel.
4. Push the required button for loading.
5. Pull the load release level and wait for 15 seconds.
6. Remove the specimen from the support table and locate the Indentation.
7. View the indentation through microscope and measure the diameter 8d9 of the
indentation using micrometer fixed on the microscope.
8. Repeat the procedure.

OBESRVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Test piece material =

Load application time =

S.No Ball Diameter Load applied F Indentation Average Diameter of

(D) in mm in kgf diameter indentation
d1 d2 (d=0.5*(d1+d2))

BHN = Load applied/spherical surface area of indentation

2�㔹
BHN =
�㔋�㔷(�㔷−√�㔷2 −�㕑2 )

RESULT AND CONCLUSIONS: Brinell hardness number (BHN) of the specimen is

____________

PRECAUTION:

1. Load should not be removed instantly

2. Clean the specimen surface before testing
3. Loding time of test load should be kept less than 15 seconds.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is hardness of a material?
2. What are advantages and disadvantages of Brinell Hardness Test?

9
 EXPERIMENT NO. 04

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the hardness of the given Specimen using Rockwell hardness test.

OBJECT: To conduct a hardness test on a specimen and determine the hardness of the
material.

THEORY:

Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and

cutting, hardness after gives clear indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a defined
force is mechanically applied on the piece, indenter varies in size and shape for different
tests. Common indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond.

In hardness testing according to Rockwell, the total test force is applied in two
steps. This is intended to eliminate effects from the roughness of the specimen surface
(e.g., grooves on the specimen) as well as measurement errors caused by the play of the
indentation depth measurement. Rockwell hardness tester presents direct reading of
hardness number on a dial provided with the machine. Although there are many scales
having different combinations of load and size of indenter but commonly 8C9 scale is used
and hardness is presented as HRC. Here the indenter has a diamond cone at the tip and
applied force is of 150kgf. Soft materials are often tested in 8B9 scale with a 1.58mm dia.
steel indenter at 100kgf.

Figure: Hardness testing in HRA & HRC scale

10
 Figure: Hardness testing in HRB scale

APPARATUS:

1. Rockwell hardness testing machine

2. specimen of mild steel or other material.

PROCEDURE:
1. Insert the indenter in the holder of the machine.
2. Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
3. Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack
adjusting wheel.
4. Push the required button for loading.
5. Wait for minimum 10 second. The load will automatically apply gradually.
6. Remove the specimen from support table and locate the indentation so made.
7. View the indentation through microscope and measure the hardness value.
8. Repeat the entire operation 3 times.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Sl.No. Load Applied H-V

RESULT AND CONCLUSION: Hardness of the material in Rockwell scale is

__________ HRA/HRB/HRC.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The specimens should be cleaned properly.

2. Take readings carefully and correctly.
3. Place the specimen properly.
4. Adjusting wheel should be moved slowly.
5. Measure diameter carefully.

QUESTIONS:
1. Define Hardness
2. Size of the Ball to be used in Ball Indenter of Rockwell Hardness Test.
3. Different Types of Hardness Testing Methods.
4. Applications of Rockwell Hardness scales – Scale A, Scale B, Scale C

11
 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To study the Vickers hardness testing machine & perform the Vickers hardness test.

OBJECT: To conduct a hardness test on a specimen and determine the hardness of the
material.

THEORY:

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined

as the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of
the indentation. More simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the
smaller the indentation, the harder the material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by
measuring the depth or the area of the indentation using one of over different test methods.

The Vickers hardness test method, also referred to as a micro hardness test method, is
mostly used for small parts, thin sections or case depth work. The Vickers method is based
on an optical measurement system. The Micro hardness test procedure, AS9I9M 15-384,
specifies a range of light loads using a diamond indenter to make an indentation which is
measured and converted to a hardness value. The indenter used in the Vickers test method
is a diamond pyramid with a square base, whose opposite sides meet at the apex at an
angle of ³ = 136°. It is applied to the specimen with a test force (to standard starting at 10
g) and held according to the holding time. The lengths of both diagonals of the residual test
indentation are optically measured. The Vickers hardness is then calculated from the
average of the diagonals and the test force applied.

Figure: Indentation made by a Vickers indenter

12
APPARATUS:

1. Vickers Hardness Testing Machine.

2. Diamond cone indenter.
3. Specimen.

PROCEDURE:

1. Insert the diamond indenter in the holder of the machine.

2. Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
3. Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack
adjusting wheel.
4. Push the required button for loading.
5. Wait for minimum 10 second. The load will automatically apply gradually.
6. Remove the specimen from support table and locate the indentation so made.
7. View the indentation through microscope and measure the hardness value.
8. Repeat the entire operation 3 times.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Sl.No. Load applied P Diagonal length Average diagonal VHN

in Kg-f (mm) length l (mm)
1 2

0.1891 P
Vickers Hardness Number (VHN) =
�㕙 2

RESULT AND CONCLUSION:

The hardness of the material in Vickers hardness scale is ________________

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The specimen should be cleaned properly.

2. Take reading carefully and correctly.
3. Place the specimen properly.
4. Adjusting wheel should be moved slowly.
5. Measure diameter carefully.

13
 EXPERIMENT NO. 06

IZOD IMPACT TEST

AIM: To determine impact test of a given specimen using Izod impact test.

OBJECT: To conduct an impact test on a specimen and determine the toughness of the
material.

THEORY:

The IZOD impact test is used to determine the impact resistance (toughness) of a material,
or the material9s tendency to resist breaking when subjected to a sudden force or impulse.
The IZOD impact test method, also known as the notched IZOD test, is standardized under
the ASTM International test procedure.

To determine impact resistance (toughness) using an IZOD impact test, a weighted

pendulum is dropped from a prescribed height and strikes a notched test specimen. When
the specimen breaks, the energy absorbed and the material9s impact resistance can be
related back to the potential energy of the pendulum before it is released. Impact testing
machine consists of a pendulum suspended from a short shaft that rotates in ball bearing
and swings midway between two rigid upright stands supported on a rigid base near the
bottom of which are the specimen supports anvils. The knife-edge or striking edge is
slightly rounded. The pendulum can be raised to any desired height and rested at that
position. It is supported in the starting position by a catch and can be released by a trigger.
The mechanism is so designed that the pendulum is not disturbed when the catch is
released. The test specimen is clamped into the specimen support in a position so that the
notched end of the specimen is facing the striking edge of the pendulum.

Figure: Impact testing machine and specimen for Izod Impact Test

14
APPARATUS:

1. Impact testing machine.

2. A steel specimen 75mm X 10mm X 10mm

PROCEDURE:

1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel
specimen in impact testing machine9s vice in such a way that the notch face the
hammer and is half inside and half above the top surface of the vice.
2. Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already there,
and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating
manual supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its
momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to
swing. At its topmost height after breaking the specimen. The indicator stops moving,
while the pendulum falls back. Note the indicator at the top most final position.
5. Again, bring back the hammer to its idle position and back.

OBSERVATION:

Impact value of Mild Steel = _____ N-m

RESULT:

Impact strength of the specimen is ______________.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.

2. Hold the specimen (Izod test) firmly.
3. Note down readings carefully.

QUESTIONS:
1. What are the factors that affect Impact strength?
2. What is the effect of temperature on the values of rupture energy and notch impact
strength?

15
 EXPERIMENT NO. 07

CHARPY IMPACT TEST

AIM: To determine impact test of a given specimen using Charpy Impact Test.

OBJECT: To conduct an impact test on a specimen using Charpy test and determine the
toughness of the material.

THEORY:

In a Charpy impact test to ISO 148-1, a notched metal specimen is severed using a pendulum
hammer. For the test, the metal specimen is centered on the supports in the pendulum impact
tester. The notch is exactly across from the point at which the pendulum hammer strikes the
specimen. This impact test is used to determine the absorbed impact energy.

The pendulums hammer strikes the specimen with a defined energy and fractures (destroys) it
with a single hit. As the specimen is fractured, the pendulum hammer transfer part of its
kinetic energy and is therefore unable to return to its original drop height. The measured
height difference is the value for the absorbed energy, the impact energy W in joules.

Since the impact energy on metals if often temperature dependent, a test temperature of 23 °C
is specified for Charpy impact tests at ambient temperature. Deviating test temperatures are
permitted under standard-compliant conditions.

Figure: Set up of Charpy test specimen and specimen after testing

APPARATUS:

1. Impact test machine

2. Test specimen

PROCEDURE:
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel
specimen in impact testing machine9s vice

16
 2. Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already there,
and lock it at that position.
3. Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating
manual supplied with the machine.
4. Release the hammer. It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its
momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to
swing. At its topmost height after breaking the specimen. The indicator stops moving,
while the pendulum falls back. Note the indicator at the top most final position.
5. Again, bring back the hammer to its idle position and back.

OBSERVATION AND RESULT: Impact value of mild steel specimen is ________ N-m

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.

2. Locate the specimen (Charpy test) in such a way that the hammer strikes it at the
middle.

3. Note down readings carefully.

RESULT: The Impact strength of material by Charpy test is _________________.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is the basic difference of Izod and Charpy impact test method?

17
 EXPERIMENT NO. 08

TORSION TEST

AIM: To conduct torsion test on mild steel specimen and verify the torsional formula

OBJECT: To conduct a torsion test on a specimen and evaluate modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus of the shaft material.

THEORY:

In many applications, such as axles, coil springs, and derives shafts; an engineering
material must have good resistance to stresses induced by twisting (TORSION). The stress
resulting from such torsion load can be determined by means of the torsion test. This test
resembles the tension test in that a load deflection curve is also developed (which is
transformed to a shear-strain curve). In a torsion test, a solid or hollow cylindrical
specimen is twisted and the resultant deformation, measured as the angle through which
the bar is twisted. The test then consists of measuring the angle of twist, § (rad) at selected
increments of torque, T (N.m). Expressing § as the angular deflection curve per unit gage
length, one is able to plot a T-§ curve that is analogous to the load deflection curve of the
torsion test. To be useful for engineering purpose, its necessary to convert this T-§ curve
to the shear stress Ä, and shear strain γ. Once the shear stress – strain curve is obtained, we
can easily evaluate several engineering properties such as modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus, modulus of resilience and modulus of rupture. For a circular shaft of constant
diameter transmitting a uniform torque, the torsion formula is

where, T is the twisting moment applied, Ip is the polar moment of inertia od cross section,
τ is the shear stress developed due to torsion, R is the radius of element being considered,
C is shear modulus of material, θ is angle of twist and L is length of the uniform shaft.

PROCEDURE:

1. Select the suitable grips to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine
by adjusting sliding jaw.
2. Measure the diameter at about the three places and take average value.

3. Choose the appropriate loading range depending upon specimen.

4. Set the maximum load pointer to zero

5. Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel or by switching on the motor.

6. Load the members in suitable increments, observe and record strain reading.

7. Continue till failure of the specimen.

18
 8. Calculate the modulus of rigidity C by using the torsion equation.

9. Plot the torque –twist graph (T vs θ)

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Gauge length L =
Polar moment of inertia �㔼�㕝 =

Modulus of rigidity C =

Sl. No Twisting Moment Angle of Twist Twist Modulus of

N-mm (Degrees) (Radians) rigidity (C)

RESULT: The modulus of rigidity C of the given test specimen material is ___________.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is torque? How is Torque related to shear stress?

2. What is modulus of rigidity or shear modulus? How is it calculated?

3. How is the mathematical relation of Young9s modulus and shear modulus?

19