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Unit I
Heat flow in welding
Heat flow
Heat flows in solids by conduction, which occurs when two objects in contact with each
other transfer heat between them. That happens because the molecules hit each other, and the
faster moving molecules in the hot object spread that energy into the cooler object.
Welding heat sources
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Heat flow in the solid is determined by:
- workpiece thickness
- edge, end effects
- thermal conductivity and specific heat
- heat source distribution
- convection in the weld pool
-latent heat absorption and release
Temperature Distribution
Temperature distribution during any welding process holds the key for
understanding and predicting several important welding attributes like heat
affected zone, microstructure of the weld, residual stress, and distortion during
welding
The accuracy of the analytical approaches for modeling temperature distribution
during welding has been constrained by oversimplified assumptions regarding
boundary conditions and material properties
Q= Heat distribution
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Cooling rate:
Thickness of the plate to be welded directly affects the cross sectional area available for the heat
flow from the weld which in turn governs cooling rate of a specific location. Accordingly, two
different empirical equations are used for calculating the cooling rate in HAZ for a) thin plates
and b) thick plates, depending upon the thickness of plate and welding conditions. There is no
clear demarcating thickness limit to define a plate thick or thin. However, two methods have
been proposed to take decision whether to use thick or thin plate equation for calculating the
cooling rates and these are based on
1) Number of passes required for completing the weld
2) Relative plate thickness
According to first method, if the number of passes required for welding of two plates is less than
6 then it is considered as thin plate else thick plate for selection of suitable equation to calculate
cooling rate. Since this method is not very clear as number of passes required for completing the
weld can vary with diameter of electrode and groove geometry being used for welding, therefore
a more logical second method based on relative plate thickness criterion is commonly used.
The relative plate thickness criteria is more logical as it considers all the relevant factors which
can affect the cooling rate such as thickness of the plate (h), heat input (Hnet), initial plate
temperature (T₀), temperature of interest at which cooling rate is desired (Ti) and physical
properties of plate like (specific heat C, density ρ). Relative plate thickness (τ) can be calculated
using following equation:
Cooling rate
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Cooling rate is calculated from temperature range is useful to phase transformation. It is
observed that when heat input is increased the cooling rate of weldment is reduced. Cooling rate
is calculated by the following equation. Heat input is calculated from welding parameters and
cooling rate is calculated from thermal histories.
Cooling rate = Time taken from phase transformation/ Time taken from phase transformation
during cooling
Heat input
In short, the welding heat input is defined as the amount of energy that is used by the welding
process to deposit a specific length of weld.
The usual practice is to express the energy in terms of "Joules". In the equations, it will be shown
as "J". Often this is changed to kilo Joules, (kJ) in which case the Joule value is divided by 1000.
The length can typically be inches (in) or millimetres (mm) or centimetres. (cm) The most
common usage is inches for those working in imperial units (e.g. USA) and millimetres for those
working in SI units. (Most of the rest of the world!)
The most common equation used for calculating the welding heat input is:
This equation is widely used, but it does have its limits. If the welding is being done with a
power source that delivers a varying (or pulsed) voltage or amperage, then it is difficult to use
that first equation. Under those circumstances, the energy is often measured as an
"instantaneous" measure. Some computerized power sources will give you this number, or you
can measure it using some welding parameter recording equipment.
These instantaneous measurements will typically be provided as the total energy used (in Joules)
to deposit a weld bead, or it could be provided as the Joules per second (J/s) or Watts (W) used
while depositing the weld bead. If that is the information you have, then you can use the
following welding heat input equations.
First, for using the "instantaneous energy" measurement:
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Next, for using the "instantaneous power" measurement:
Theoretically all of the equations given above will give you the same answer.
Now, let us just look at that first equation, and see what it is telling us. In summary, it is showing
us that we can keep a stable heat input (HI) while increasing the welding voltage or amperage, as
long as our welding travel speed is proportionately faster. This in turn suggests that we can end
up with the same weld microstructure and mechanical properties, even if we change the welding
parameters, as long as we just keep the welding heat input steady. A little later we will see that
that assumption is not entirely correct.
To control of the welding heat input is important for different reasons. Typical reasons are:
To reduce the probability of hydrogen assisted cold cracking (HACC) when welding
certain steels.
To ensure high enough toughness properties in ferritic materials.
To reduce the formation of constituents in the microstructure of stainless steels that can
reduce their corrosion resistance. (e.g. Sensitization of stainless steels, or formation of
inter-metallic phases in duplex stainless steels.)
To reduce the base metal temperatures, to reduce surface oxidation during welding
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Joint geometry:
Joint geometry is similar but refers to the dimensions of the weld joint itself, as opposed
to the completed weld.
When describing the weld joint geometry of a groove weld, for example, it is done so in
terms of joint type, included angle, depth of preparation, root face and root opening
Joint geometry is generally determined by a welding engineer or designer.
Preparation
The assembly design and the dimensions of a joint depend on the metal thickness and
shape and on the load requirements of the parts. The parts are prepared to ensure that the weld
will have adequate penetration. The joint geometry design also provides space for the welder
to reach near the bottom of the weld joint with the torch or electrode.
The edges of thick metal are prepared for welding by flame cutting, gouging, or machining.
Preparation allows the weld to penetrate as deep as required by the engineer or weld designer. A
groove joint allows the welder to reach the bottom of the weld joint.
The groove angle must be large enough to allow the torch tip or electrode to reach near
the bottom of the joint. However, if the groove angle is too large, filler metal and the welder's
time are wasted.
This increases the cost of making a weld. . A properly designed J-groove or U-groove
joint also decreases the groove dimensions while allowing adequate space for welding.
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Joint alignment
The alignment of a joint before welding is very important. In the shop, the alignment of
the weld joint is often referred to as “fit-up.” A ragged edge or an edge that is not cut straight is
hard to weld. . Edges to be welded must be straight and cut to exact size.
Parts of a weldment should be properly aligned and held in position during the welding
operation. Tack welding is usually adequate to hold parts during welding. A tack weld is a small
weld used to hold pieces in alignment. Parts may also be held mechanically during the welding
operation because the metal expands, bends, and changes shape when heated. Clamps or other
devices, such as jigs and fixtures, are used to hold weldments during welding. See
Figure Poorly prepared base metal edges. The edges in A are ragged. One edge in B is not cut
straight, which changes the width of the joint. Both joints would be difficult to weld.
Penetration
A completed weld joint must be at least as strong as the base metal. The weld must penetrate
deeply into the base metal to be strong. Penetration is the depth of fusion of the weld below the
surface. Total (100%) penetration occurs when a weld penetrates through the entire thickness of
the base metal. Generally, total penetration is required only on a butt joint. The edges of thick
metal may need to be machined or flame cut to achieve 100% penetration. Thick metal also may
have to be welded from both sides of the joint.
Plate Thickness
Measuring Base Metal Thickness
the main influence of the base metal thickness is tied to the quenching effect. Different weld
geometries do however result in different amounts of this quenching effect. In the case of a butt
weld, the heat is drawn out of the weld joint in two directions. (See left hand image below.) In
the case of a fillet weld configuration, the heat is drawn out in three directions. (See right hand
image below.)
Geometry Heat Sink Effect: The butt weld configuration has 2 heat paths, while the fillet weld
configuration has 3 heat paths.
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Extract From AS3992: Showing an extract of Table 5.6. These are examples of how the
material thickness is defined for different weld configurations.
Qualified Ranges For Base Metal Thickness
Every welding code will deal with the base metal thickness essential variable differently, so there
is no single qualified range. We will however discuss the typical approach that different welding
codes take to this essential variable.
Most welding codes have an upper qualified base metal thickness that is twice the thickness of
the qualification coupon. However, as we mentioned previously in the section on dilution effects
in weld overlay, once the base metal thickness goes above a certain value, then this heat sink
effect tends to stop increasing much. Many welding codes therefore allow the upper qualified
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base metal thickness to become almost unlimited if the coupon thickness is above this specific
thickness.
Base Metal Thickness Essential Variable Summary
The main effect of the base material thickness is that as the thickness increases, so the speed at
which heat is removed from the weld increases. This can lead to different amounts of fusion, as
well as different microstructures within the weld and heat affected zone.
Different welding codes define different qualified ranges, based on the base metal thickness
essential variable. This is further complicated by the fact that the thickness range qualified will
be different when impact properties are important for the particular component being welded.
Preheat:
Preheating in welding is used to help ensure weld quality and reduce the occurrence of
cracking and other problems that can result in costly rework. Welding preheat is commonly used
before welding steel or steel alloy pipes or plates that are 1 inch thick or more.
Preheating is often required in shop and field welding for oil and gas, transmission
pipelines, power plants, structural construction, mining, shipbuilding and heavy
equipment applications.
The process of preheating involves heating the area around the weld joint or the entire part to a
specified temperature before welding. This reduces the cooling rate of the weld and drives out
moisture, which in turn helps prevent hydrogen buildup and the potential for cracking.
Several methods can be used for welding preheat, including induction, open flame,
resistance heating and convection ovens. Each one has benefits and drawbacks depending on
the application. The best preheating method for a specific application often depends on the
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material thickness, the size of the weldment, the project timeline and budget, and available
personnel and expertise.
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When to use welding preheat
Determining if a welding application requires preheat depends on several factors, including the
type and thickness of the base material. It’s typically dictated by the welding code being used.
To meet the requirements of the code, the welding procedure specification (WPS) for the job will
outline the minimum and maximum preheat temperatures as well as the necessary duration of
preheating. Often, a part must be held within a specific temperature range for a certain amount of
time — such as between 250 degrees and 400 degrees Fahrenheit for 30 minutes — before
welding can start.
Welders typically must monitor the base metal’s temperature between weld passes to ensure the
material remains within the required range. Common temperature verification tools include
crayons, thermocouples, infrared thermometers and thermal imaging cameras.
Methods of preheating
In welding preheat, the heat can be applied directly around the area of the weld joint, or the
entire part can be heated. There are four common welding preheat methods:
Induction
How it works: Induction creates a magnetic field that generates eddy currents within the base
metal, heating it internally from within. Induction accessories, such as cables or blankets, are
placed on the part to generate the magnetic field.
Pros: Induction offers quick setup, often in less than five minutes, and a fast time to temperature.
Induction produces a uniform heated area — making it easy to achieve and stay within even a
strict temperature window. The process is also extremely efficient and does not require personnel
to watch it. Induction provides safety benefits, since the output coils don’t get hot or create an
uncomfortably hot environment for welders. The process also provides the flexibility to heat
many different sizes and shapes of parts, and delivers localized heating where the part is.
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Cons: Induction can have a higher initial cost and requires some operator training to ensure
proper wrapping techniques.
Open flame
How it works: Operators use a fuel gas and compressed air torch (sometimes called rosebuds) to
apply flame directly to the metal part.
Pros: If welding operations already have a torch, additional equipment doesn’t need to be
purchased for preheating. Flame preheating also requires little operator training.
Cons: Drawbacks of flame preheating include inconsistent temperature uniformity, a slower time
to temperature since the process is inefficient, and comfort and safety issues for operators
working near the soot, smoke and gases produced while using open flame. Flame preheating also
involves the extra expense of the gas storage and distribution to the welding cells and requires
personnel to be on fire watch during the process. Flame can cost $40 to $60 in consumable fuel
per hour.
Resistance heating
How it works: Resistance heating uses electrically heated ceramic pads placed on the base
metal. The heated tiles transfer heat to the part through radiant heat and conductive heat where
the pads are in contact with the part.
Pros: Preheating with resistance can deliver temperature consistency if the system is working
accurately and no pads are broken. It’s also a method that can be used for larger projects and
parts.
Cons: The cost of using resistance can be higher, especially since the method is often contracted
out to a third party who controls the schedule and timeline. It can also be time-consuming —
sometimes taking an hour or more to arrange and secure the heating pads to the part — and the
required cool-down time adds to the time for setup and removal. Resistance heating elements
also need insulation to help retain heat. The insulation and ceramic heating pads are costly
consumables that need to be replaced occasionally, and the work environment can be an issue for
these fragile components. Broken pads can cause hot and cold spots in the part. In addition,
resistance heating elements get extremely hot and can pose a safety hazard for operators as well
as affect operator comfort by adding to the ambient temperature. With resistance heating,
electricians and a costly electrical drop are also necessary. During the heating cycle, the power
source becomes a “spark generator” and require continued maintenance supervision from the
mechanical contactors.
Ovens
How it works: Ovens used for welding preheat use convection heating. The entire part is placed
inside the oven for preheating.
Pros: Uniform heating is possible since the entire part is inside the oven. It’s also a good option
when an entire large part must be heated, or when the operation needs to do batch heating of
many parts at once.
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Cons: Ovens can be quite large and require connection to an electrical outlet, so they are often
permanently installed in one location and don’t offer mobility. As a result, parts must be brought
to the oven for preheating, which can be difficult when very large parts are involved. These
systems also typically require a substantial electrical connection and system, which adds
expense. Also, the oven may have to be preheated for several hours before it’s used, and it can
put out enough heat to warm up the area around the oven, negatively affecting worker comfort.
Outsourcing oven preheating causes a loss of control over the schedule and timeline.
Options for welding preheat
Many welding applications — especially critical welds in industries such as structural
construction, oil and gas and shipbuilding — require preheat. Minimizing the temperature
difference between the arc and the base material slows the weld cooling rate and lowers
hydrogen, two factors that help reduce the risk of cracking and the potential for a failed weld.
Numerous welding preheat methods are available. Understanding the differences can help you
choose the method that best helps optimize efficiency, reduce costs and rework, and produce
high-quality welds in your application.
