Overview

Chapter 1: Basic principles of Geomorphology

Chapter 2: Geomorphic mapping- tools and techniques,
Chapter 3: Epigene/exogenic processes: degradation and aggradation.
Hypogene/endogenic processes.
 What is Geomorphology ?
Geomorphology: Geo + Morph + Ology

Earth ~ Land Shape or forms Study

“Study of Earth forms”

“Geomorphology” is the study of landforms, landscapes and the

processes that create them

Note: Landform is the fundamental geomorphic unit in the landscape of an area, while the landscape is the
sum total of all the landforms occurring in an area
What do you see on the Earth’s Surface

• We see various types of landforms on the Earths surface

which includes mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, deserts,
river valleys, river deltas, flood plains, cliffs, volcanoes etc.
• Landforms are natural physical features of the Earth's
surface.
• Landforms are the most visible features of the Earth and
occur everywhere.
• They range in size from small hills to mountains to major
tectonic plates, and their ‘lifespans’ range from days to
millions of years.
Chapter 1: Basic principles/Concepts of Geomorphology

• Given by W.D. Thornbury

• Popularly known as “Thornbury’s Ten
fundamental concepts of Geomorphology”
Thornbury’s ten fundamental concepts
1. The same physical processes and laws that operate today operated throughout geologic time as well, although not
necessarily with the same intensity as now (uniformitarianism)
2. Geologic structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of landforms and is reflected in them.
3. To a large degree the earth's surface possesses relief because the geomorphic processes operate at different rates.
4. Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprint upon landforms, and each geomorphic process develops its own
characteristic assemblage of landforms.
5. As the different erosional agents act upon the earth's surface an orderly sequence of landforms are produced
6. Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than simplicity
7. Little of the earth's topography is older than tertiary and most of it no older than Pleistocene.
8. Proper interpretation of present-day landscape is impossible without a full appreciation of the manifold influences of
the geologic and climatic changes during the Pleistocene.
9. An appreciation of world climate is necessary to a proper understanding of the varying importance of the different
geomorphic processes.
10. Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present day landscapes, attains its maximum usefulness by
historical extension.
1. The same physical processes and laws that operate today operated throughout
geologic time as well, although not necessarily with the same intensity as now

• This is known as Hutton’s principle of “Uniformitarianism” – The present is the Key to Past
• Accordingly, physical processes operating today, are also operated in the past, at roughly
comparable rates.

(a) mud cracks formed recently,

(b) mud cracks preserved in rocks are
millions years old.

Suggest that the ancient mud cracks formed

under the same conditions necessary for the
formation of the modern mud cracks
2. Geologic structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution
of landforms and is reflected in them.
• Major controlling factor in landform development is structure and process.
• Structure includes not only the folds, faults etc. but also other factors such as rock attitudes;
presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, faults, and folds; permeability and impermeability of
rocks; and various other ways by which the rocks of the earth crust differ from one another.
Common Geological structures:
3. To a large degree the earth's surface possesses relief because the geomorphic
processes operate at different rates

1. The term process applies to the many physical and chemical ways by which the
earth's surface undergoes modification
2. Includes processes such as Erosion, entrainment, Transport and Deposition
3. Geomorphic processes operate at different rates because:
• The rocks of the earth's crust vary in their lithology and structure and hence offer
varying degrees of resistance to the gradational processes.
• Local factors such as temperature, moisture, altitude, exposure, topographic
configuration, and the amount and type of vegetal cover also influence the rate of
geomorphic processes
4. Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprint upon landforms, and each geomorphic
process develops its own characteristic assemblage of landforms

For e.g.:
• V shaped valley, Floodplain, alluvial fans, and deltas
are products of fluvial action (River)
• Sink holes and caverns are produced by groundwater
process
• U shaped valley, End moraines and drumlins are
produced by Glacial process
5. As the different erosional agents act upon the earth's surface an
orderly sequence of landforms are produced

1. The erosional agents such as running Youth

water, groundwater, waves, wind,
glaciers etc, acting on the Earth’s Mature
surface over a period produce an
orderly sequence of landforms.
2. Give rise to the concept of Old
geomorphic cycles; characterised by 3
stages: Youth, Maturity and Old.
3. Partial cycles are more likely to occur
than completed ones
6. Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than
simplicity

• It is very rare to find an landscape that influenced by single geomorphic process or one
geomorphic cycle of development
• Usually, most of the geomorphic features of landscape have been produced during the current
cycle of erosion, but there may exist within and area remnants of features produced during prior
cycles.
• Thus, landscapes can be group in five major categories:
1. Simple 2. Compound 3. Monocyclic 4. Multicyclic, and 5. Exhumed or resurrected
landscapes
• Simple landscapes are those which are the product of a single dominant geomorphic process,
compound landscapes are those in which two or more geomorphic processes have played
major roles in the development of the existing topography.
7. Little of the earth's topography is older than tertiary and most of
it no older than Pleistocene

• As per the concept, most of the landscape of the Earth are of the Pleistocene age or younger. It has
been estimated that at least 90% of land surface has been developed post Tertiary.
• This is because various geomorphic agents have been continuously modifying the landscape
through geological time. As a consequence, it is rare to find landscapes which are geologically
ancient.
• Thus, it is generally accepted that majority of the Earth’s surface is sculpted or modified by
geomorphic processes that operated post Tertiary (Pleistocene). As a result, very little part of the
surface is of Tertiary age or older.
• Please add important points from IGNOU notes
Geomorphic Agents
• Geomorphic agent is a geological agent that is able to alter the surface of our
planet.
• It is powered by Sun, Earth’s gravity and climatic parameters. These agents may
be in any state of matter, e.g. solid like glaciers, liquid like rivers, lakes,
underground waters and oceans or gas like winds or even the combination of these
agents.
• responsible for eroding, transporting or depositing Earth materials to various
degrees.
• Each geological agent functions in its own way developing characteristic erosional
and depositional landforms. (From IGNOU Pdf_BGYCT-131)
3 major functions of Geomorphic agents
• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
Chapter 2: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN
GEOMORPHOLOGY / Geomorphic Mapping
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
1. Topographic Maps
2. Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs
3. Satellite Data
4. Digital Elevation Model
1. Topographic Maps

Topography is the physical and natural features of the

land surface; it accounts for the variation in elevation of
the land surface.

Maps are the 2D representation of Earth’s surface that are

made to scale. It depicting detailed surface features both
natural and man-made. Relief in this map is shown by
contours.
Topographic maps
 Topographic maps are detailed, accurate graphic representations of features that appear on the Earth's surface. These features
include:
Cultural: roads, buildings, urban development, railways, airports, names of places and geographic features, administrative
boundaries, state and international borders, reserves

Hydrography: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, coastal flats

Relief: mountains, valleys, contours and cliffs, depressions

Vegetation: wooded and cleared areas, vineyards and orchards.

 India are prepared in two series, i.e., India and Adjacent Countries Series and The International Map Series of the World.
 In India, the topographic maps are prepared and made available to users by the Survey of India
 The topographical maps of India are prepared on 1 : 10,00,000, 1 : 250,000, 1 : 1,25,000, 1 : 50,000 and 1: 25,000 scale

 Topographic maps form the base map for preparation of geomorphological maps
Scale
What is scale?

• Maps are made to scale.

• In each case, the scale represents the ratio of a distance on the map to the actual
distance on the ground.
2. Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs
• Stereoscopy is the science of using overlapping imagery acquired from different locations to produce a 3D model.
• The technique was developed to identify and accurately measure topography and ground features visible in aerial photographs.
• In Stereoscopy, an instrument known as stereoscope is used in conjunction with two aerial photographs taken from two
different positions of the same area, (known as a stereo-pair).
• Viewing the overlapped part in the 2 aerial photograph (Fig.) through a stereoscope (Fig.), provides 3-dimensional view of the
area
• A stereoscope (Fig.) consists of a double optical system (lenses, mirrors, prisms, etc.) mounted on a rigid frame supported on
legs.
• Study and interpretation of stereoscopic aerial photographs is based on attributes like tone, texture, pattern, shape, context and
scale
• The main applications of Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs are the identification, measurement, and manual digitization of 3D
features from aerial imagery, including the following:

- Buildings, infrastructure, forest stands, and other ground features

- Topography, slopes, landforms, elevation points, and break lines due to abrupt topographic discontinuities

Thus, Stereoscopic aerial photographs are found extremely useful for geomorphological studies as they capture several
geomorphic features like landforms and also subtle changes in slope
Now digital aerial photographs have gradually
become common. For e.g.: The stereo images
obtained by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER),
have proved useful for identification of landforms
and geomorphological mapping of the landscapes.
3. Satellite Data
• Satellite data are the product of space borne remote sensing obtained from sensors installed on
satellites.
• Such data are now available in large volumes for free (for eg: ISRO Bhuvan, Google Earth,
USGS), and is used extensively in various fields like geomorphology, geology, exploration of
natural resources and natural hazard studies.
• Interpretation of satellite data comprises identification and visualize of landform of different terrain
types and also associated cultural features with the help of several elements such as shape, size,
tone, texture, pattern, shadows, location and association.
• The main advantages of satellite data are large area coverage, less cost per unit area of coverage,
continuous or frequent coverage of an area of interest, automatic/ semiautomatic computerized
processing and analysis
 4. Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
• The term digital elevation model (DEM) refers to relief
models of Earth’s surface. In simple words, it is a digital
model or 3D representation of the surface of a terrain
generated from elevation data
• The elevation data incorporated in DEMs can be sourced from
remote sensing data collected by satellites, airplanes and
drones or from measurements in the field.
• Modern elevation databases used for generating DEMs
include images taken from satellites and aerial platforms such
as airplanes, besides elevation information generated from
contour lines, Digital Global Positioning System (DGPS) and
ground based surveys.
Why Geomorphology?
• To understand the surface processes
• Management and mitigation of natural hazards
• Mineral prospecting and exploration
• Terrain analysis for developmental projects
• Environmental studies

34
APPPLICATIONS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
• From IGNOU NOTES
Chapter 3: Geomorphic Process

Epigene/exogenic processes: degradation and

aggradation.

Hypogene/endogenic processes
 Geomorphic Process
The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical
actions on earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of
the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.

• The formation and deformation of landforms on the surface of the earth are a continuous process
which is due to the continuous influence of external and internal forces
• They are the processes responsible for formation and alteration of the Earth's surface
• The attributes of landforms are governed by driving forces and resisting materials in terms of
shape, size and overall configuration of landforms.
• Geomorphic agents: are natural agencies like running water, groundwater, ice, wind, waves,
currents, etc., which are responsible for eroding, transporting or depositing Earth materials to
various degrees.
 Exogenic
Endogenic or or External
Internal forces: forces:
originate in the originate
interior of the Earth on or above
the surface
of the Earth

(Epeirogeny or)

(or orogeny)
I. Endogenic process
• The endogenic processes are also called as constructional (or endogenetic or hypogenetic)
processes.
• Driving forces responsible for endogenic processes originate in the interior of the Earth.
• This energy is sourced by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from the
origin of the earth
• Endogenic forces can cause two types of movements in the Earth, viz. horizontal and vertical
movements
• Endogenic forces give rise to various types of vertical irregularities that cause many types of relief
features to develop on the Earth’s surface, such as plateaus, mountains, valleys, fold, faults, etc.
• These processes are classified on the basis of rate of movement of the crust into diastrophism
(Slow movement) and sudden endogenic processes (Fast movement).
I.A. Diastrophism
• Diastrophism is defined as geomorphic processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the
earth’s crust (NCERT).
• Occur at very slow rates; thus effects of diastrophic forces are visible after a long time period such as thousands or
millions of years
• Diastrophism involve both vertical and horizontal movements. These movements are caused due to forces deep
within the Earth.
• These forces affect large areas of globe and produce mesoscale reliefs, e.g. mountains, plateaus, lakes, plains, big
faults
• Two categories of diastrophism are recognized: orogeny and epeirogeny.
- Orogeny: oros’ (meaning mountain) and ‘geny/genesis’ (meaning origin or formation); means the genesis of
mountains as a result of folding or fracturing; characterised by horizontal movement of plates
- Epeirogeny: Epeiro means Land and ‘geny/genesis’ means origin; It is the upheaval or depression of large areas of
cratons without significant folding or fracture; characterised by vertical movements.
Orogeny is a Mountain building process
Epeirogeny is continental (Land) building process
Orogeny or Orogenic movements
• oros’ (meaning mountain) and ‘geny’ (meaning origin or formation)
• It is the process of the genesis of mountains as a result of folding or fracturing
• Orogenic movements are caused due to endogenic forces operating in a horizontal manner
• These orogenic forces can be Compressional or Tensional.
- Orogenic force is called ‘tensional force’ when it operates in opposite directions. Such forces results in rupture,
fracture, cracks and faults in the crustal parts of the Earth, and formational of ridge like features (as in case of Horst
and Graben structure)
- Orogenic force is called ‘compressional force’ The forces working towards each other face to face. Resulted in
the formation of folds, faults, and formation of high rise mountains.
The ultimate consequence of action of tensional and compressional forces is the phenomenon of faulting and folding,
respectively
Epeirogeny or Epeirogenic movement
• Derived from epiros* (meaning land) and ‘geny or genesis’ (meaning origin)
• Resulted in upliftment and subsidence of continental masses through vertical (upward and downward)
movements
• These movements affect larger parts of the continents and can be divided into two types:
(i) upward movement (ii) downward movement
• Upward movement causes upliftment of continental masses. It can be caused in two ways either the
upliftment of whole or part of the continent or it can be the upliftment of coastal land of continents. Such type
of upliftment is called emergence.
• Downward movement causes subsidence of continental masses in two ways: (i) subsidence of land area is a
type of downward movement, and (ii) submergence is the downward movement of the area near coast.
I.B Sudden Forces and Movements
• Caused by sudden endogenic forces dveloping deep within the Earth
• These forces work very quickly and their results are seen within minutes
• Results in sudden and rapid events leading to rapid changes at and below the surface of the
Earth
• Sudden endogenic processes include earthquakes, volcanism that occur in short periods.
• These phenomenon or events become disastrous hazards when they occur in densely populated
areas
• 2 major types of sudden movements are:
 Denudation: derived from word ‘denude’
II. Exogenic Processes means removal of material; denudation
includes processes like weathering, mass
• Geomorphic processes that take place at or near the Earth’s wasting movements, erosion
surface are called exogenic processes
Weathering is a static process which
• Also known as denudational (or destructional or exogenetic or includes breakdown and decomposition of
epigenetic) processes. rocks in situ.
• Driving forces responsible for endogenic processes originates
from atmosphere (solar energy, climate including Temperature Erosion is dynamic process which includes
and precipitation, wind) and gravity removal of materials and their transportation
• It involves processes like weathering, erosion, mass wasting to depositional basins.
caused by the action of action of ice, wind, water and
deposition.
• They mainly act upon the landforms formed due to endogenic
forces, and change their characteristics and physical
appearances
• The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down
(degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation)
of basins/ depressions, on the earth's surface.
1. Weathering
• It is in situ breakdown and/or decomposition by mechanical, biological and
chemical processes that create a regolith.
• Weathering is the breakdown of material, and does not involve any motion except
the falling down under the gravity. Thus it is a static process.
• Weathering products serve as source material for formation of soil and
sedimentary rocks.
Factors controlling weathering rate
• Climatic condition: Rainfall + Temperature Geology
(Hot and Humid)
• Geology: Mineral composition + Grain size
• Topography: Low to moderate slope
• Vegetation
Or Precipitation

Vegetation
Types of weathering
A. Subaerial weathering: On the earth’s
surface
- Subaerial weathering processes
• Physical weathering
• Chemical weathering
• Biological weathering

B. Submarine weathering: below the earth

surface i.e. in aqueous condition
Complete the notes from Unit III:
This section will contain same notes as
discussed in Unit III in weathering, erosion
and mass wasting topics
Other important sources for reference
• https://www.slideshare.net/venkateshvenky119/fundamental-
concepts-of-geomorphology

• https://shaileshchaure.com/Notes/GEOMCON.pdf