EE4545 Electrical

Power Systems of the

Future
Practicum 6 - Measurement
techniques
Group 3
06-06-2023
by

Sander Skogen (5829593),

Timo Broekman (4947924),
Julian Wuijts (5168538)
Introduction
This report presents a comprehensive investigation into the implementation of wide-area observability in
a microgrid using Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) technology, along with traditional Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition (SCADA) measurements. The primary objective of this study is to analyze the influence
of operational factors and system conditions on power system stability performance. Additionally, the chal-
lenge of maintaining self-sustainability within the microgrid is addressed.

The experimental setup involves several key tasks. Firstly, a phasor domain simulation is applied to the sys-
tem, where generators are represented by electromechanical models. This simulation enables the evaluation
of system behaviour under various operational scenarios.

Furthermore, the study focuses on the implementation of current, voltage, and apparent power measuring
devices, which emulate the measurement characteristics of both PMU devices (with a measurement update
rate of 60 frames per second) and traditional SCADA measurements (with a measurement update rate of every
3 seconds). The performance of each measurement type is thoroughly investigated and compared, providing
insights into their effectiveness in capturing grid dynamics accurately.

To address the challenge of self-sustainability in the microgrid, a battery controller is designed and integrated
into the system. This controller manages the storage and release of excess energy, ensuring efficient energy
utilization in response to the energy demand within the microgrid.

The outcomes of this research will contribute to a deeper understanding of wide-area observability tech-
niques, their impact on power system stability, and the role of PMUs and SCADA measurements in moni-
toring and controlling microgrid operations. The findings will aid in developing strategies to enhance the
performance, reliability, and resilience of future power systems.

1
Measurement technologies
This section examines the comparison of three distinct measurement technologies and their impact on the
system. The technologies under consideration are Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), Pha-
sor Measurement Unit (PMU), and Continuous Technology (cont). One fundamental distinction among these
technologies lies in their sampling time intervals. SCADA systems update measurements every 3 seconds,
PMUs update at a rate of 60 frames per second, while continuous technology provides uninterrupted mea-
surements. As the integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid continues to grow, the grid
faces challenges such as reduced inertia and an increasing number of generation units. Consequently, the
grid becomes more time-sensitive, necessitating the adoption of responsive measurement technologies to
ensure optimal operation.

The first scenario analyzed in this study focuses on a grid presented in [1]. This grid comprises two distinct
areas, each with two synchronous generators, and these areas are interconnected by two parallel lines. To
facilitate comparison, the power transfer between the two areas is measured using the aforementioned three
technologies, and the results are illustrated in Figure 1.

The simulation results demonstrate similar outcomes across all scenarios, albeit with different initialization.
In the continuous technology simulations, the real power measurements are immediately reflected, whereas
both PMU and SCADA start from an initial value of zero. The PMU quickly converges to the actual power lev-
els, while the SCADA system reveals its vulnerability due to the 3-second time delay. Consequently, the grid
transfers power for three seconds before the system becomes aware of it when relying on SCADA measure-
ments. Although this delay has not posed significant issues for older, slower grids, it could potentially lead to
problems in the more dynamic grids of the future, as discussed earlier.

Scada Power Measurement

250
Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 2

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s]

(a) Power measurements scada technology

PMU Power Measurement Cont Power Measurement

250 208
Total load power [MW]

Total load power [MW]

Line 1 Line 1
Line 2 Line 2

200 206

204
150
202
100
200
50 198

0 196
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(b) Power measurements PMU technology (c) Power measurements continuous technology

Figure 1: Basecase power simulations for different measurement technologies line 1 and 2

The subsequent scenario examines the same system, but with a short circuit occurring 12 seconds into the
simulation, and two circuit breakers clearing the line. The power measurements during this event are pre-
sented in Figure 2, while the machine parameters are provided in Figure 3.

Similar to the previous case, the measurements obtained from PMU and continuous technology (Cont) are
nearly identical, differing only in their initialization. The graphs effectively illustrate the system dynamics
before, during, and after the short circuit event. However, the SCADA measurements once again exhibit their
limitations due to the 3-second measurement interval. The short circuit is observed with a delay of 3 seconds,
and the dynamic response of the system is not accurately captured. While the SCADA system is not respon-

2
sible for detecting and clearing the fault, the rest of the system still experiences a 3-second delay. This delay
creates a critical 3-second window during which proper system restoration, dispatch changes, and other nec-
essary actions may be missed. Under unfavourable conditions, this delay could determine the distinction
between a functioning grid and a blackout.

Furthermore, the power measurements reveal that prior to the short circuit, the two lines were transferring
approximately 400 MW of power. Once the fault occurs and one of the lines is taken out of service, all the
power must be transmitted through a single line. Although the system has not yet reached a steady-state
operation following the fault, it appears that having only one line in operation imposes limitations on the
power transfer capacity. This places considerable stress on the line, potentially leading to overloading. In a
real-world system, circuit breakers would disconnect the line if the overloading becomes too severe. This, in
turn, could result in insufficient power availability in the grid, leading to further complications. Here is where
the 3-second delay of the SCADA system becomes significant. The breakers are designed to have a time de-
lay in response to line overloading, and if provided with enough time, system operators can adjust dispatch
controls and load flow patterns to address the issue and free up capacity on the line. Therefore, these three
seconds can prove to be crucial in mitigating potential problems.

Scada Power Measurement

400
Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 2

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s]

(a) Power measurements scada technology

PMU Power Measurement Cont Power Measurement

400 400
Total load power [MW]

Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 1
Line 2
Line 2

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(b) Power measurements PMU technology (c) Power measurements continuous technology

Figure 2: Power simulations for different measurement technologies line 1 and 2 with short circuit occurring after 12 seconds

The machine parameters provided in Figure 3 reveal two key aspects. Figure 3a illustrates the angle differ-
ences between generators 1, 2, and 3 in comparison to generator 4, while Figure 3b depicts the angular veloc-
ities. The results demonstrate that when the short circuit occurs, the angles of generators in area 1 undergo
significant changes relative to generator 4, whereas generator 3 experiences a relatively smaller variation.
During a short circuit event, the generators produce an excessive amount of current to meet the demands
of the short circuit currents. Consequently, the system voltages are reduced due to the presence of the short
circuit, thereby restricting the feasible active power dispatch of the generators. This surplus power causes
the rotor to accelerate, leading to an increase in angular velocity. Subsequently, when the circuit breakers
clear the fault, the speed begins to decrease once again. Additionally, it is evident that the generators in Area
1 exhibit a distinct dynamic profile compared to those in Area 2. This discrepancy arises from the damping
parameters inherent to the generators themselves, as well as the parameters of the surrounding components.
The frequency controllers subsequently intervene to readjust the speed back to steady-state levels.

As a result of the differential rates at which the speeds of the generators increase and decrease in the two
areas, the angles between the generators also increase. Conversely, generators within the same area exhibit
similar behaviours to one another.

3
Finally, it can be noted that the angular velocity of the machines reaches a new steady-state value after the
fault occurs. This results in a higher frequency in the network, which means that the equipment that is con-
nected to the grid can be damaged.

dthetavs M4 Angular velocity

30 1.004
Machine 1
Machine 2
Machine 3
Machine 1

1.002 Machine 2
Machine 3
Machine 4
Degrees [°]

20
1

[pu]
0.998
10
0.996

0 0.994
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(a) d t het a vs M4 (b) Angular velocity

Figure 3: Machine parameters short circuit occurring after 12 seconds

Connecting a microgrid to the network

Now that a microgrid is connected to the network and a three-phase-to-ground fault is introduced again after
12 seconds, the resulting power flow through the lines for the three measurement methods can be found
below in Figure 4

Scada Power Measurement

400
Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 2
Line 3

300

200

100

-100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s]

(a) Power measurements SCADA technology

PMU Power Measurement Cont Power Measurement

500 500
Total load power [MW]

Total load power [MW]

Line 1 Line 1
Line 2 Line 2
Line 3 Line 3

0 0

-500 -500
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(b) Power measurements PMU technology (c) Power measurements continuous technology

Figure 4: Power simulations for different measurement technologies line 1, 2 and 3 with short circuit occurring after 12 seconds and
microgrid connected

From the power measurements in Figure 4, it can be observed that introducing a microgrid does not signif-
icantly impact the power flows through the lines. The microgrid is mostly self-sufficient and only injects or
absorbs small amounts of power compared to the power flows through lines 1 and 2. When the fault occurs
however, the network’s response is different than before and the simulation stops after 17 seconds. Breakers
1 and 2 open again to isolate the fault, and all the power flowing from Area 1 to Area 2 now has to go through
one line instead of two. From Figures 5a and 5b, it can be seen that the rotor angle of machines 1 and 2 with
respect to machine 4 only increases. At one point, the machines are 90 degrees out of phase and from Figure
5b it is clear that from this point onwards the angular velocities of the machines start to go in different direc-
tions. So while one area is trying to increase its output, the other area is decreasing the output. This will result
in a rotor angle difference of 180 degrees between areas 1 and 2, which breaks the simulation.

4
 dthetavs M4 Angular velocity
200 1.015 Machine 1
Machine 1 Machine 2
Machine 2 Machine 3
Machine 3 Machine 4

1.01

150 1.005
Degrees [°]

[pu]
100
0.995

0.99
50
0.985

0 0.98
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(a) d t het a vs M4 (b) Angular velocity

Figure 5: Machine parameters short circuit occurring after 12 seconds

The main reason that the system becomes unstable and collapses is the introduction of the microgrid, where
power is flowing from Area 1 to the microgrid just before the fault. The system is already operating close to its
limits and additional demand from the microgrid means that the machines in Area 1 respond too aggressively
to the fault. The machines in Area 1 get more than 90 degrees out of phase with the machines in Area 2, which
will see them working against each other. This results in the system collapsing when the machines are 180
degrees out of phase.

Task 6
For the next task, the battery controller located in area 3 is enabled. The microgrid is still present in the sys-
tem. The three different available signals (Continuous, PMU, SCADA) are used to control the battery system
and are simulated separately. The behaviour of the different signals can be respectively found in Figure 6,
Figure 7 and Figure 8.

Scada Power Measurement

400
Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 2
Line 3

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s]

(a) Power measurements SCADA technology

PMU Power Measurement Cont Power Measurement

400 400
Total load power [MW]
Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 1 Line 2
Line 2
300 Line 3

300 Line 3

200
200
100
100
0

0 -100
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(b) Power measurements PMU technology (c) Power measurements continuous technology

Figure 6: Power simulations for different measurement technologies line 1, 2 and 3 with short circuit occurring after 12 seconds and
microgrid connected with battery controller with continuous reference signal

5
 Scada Power Measurement
400

Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 2
Line 3

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s]

(a) Power measurements SCADA technology

PMU Power Measurement Cont Power Measurement

400 400
Total load power [MW]

Total load power [MW]

Line 1 Line 1
Line 2 Line 2
Line 3 Line 3

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0

-100 -100
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(b) Power measurements PMU technology (c) Power measurements continuous technology

Figure 7: Power simulations for different measurement technologies line 1, 2 and 3 with short circuit occurring after 12 seconds and
microgrid connected with battery controller with PMU reference signal

Scada Power Measurement

1000
Total load power [MW]

Line 1
Line 2
Line 3

500

-500

-1000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s]

(a) Power measurements SCADA technology

PMU Power Measurement Cont Power Measurement

1000 1000
Total load power [MW]

Total load power [MW]

Line 1 Line 1
Line 2 Line 2
Line 3 Line 3

500 500

0 0

-500 -500

-1000 -1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [s] Time [s]

(b) Power measurements PMU technology (c) Power measurements continuous technology

Figure 8: Power simulations for different measurement technologies line 1, 2 and 3 with short circuit occurring after 12 seconds and
microgrid connected with battery controller with SCADA reference signal

The most ideal way to control this system is with continuous measurements. However, this type of control is
not possible in real life. The best approximation for this might be a complete analog measurement and con-
trol setup. This however is not possible in today’s power systems, where everything should be measured and
controlled digitally. Furthermore, analog systems also might introduce some delays, so perfectly continuous
measurements and control are not available in reality.
A good approximation of perfectly continuous measurements are the PMU measurements. The results of the
line load powers are almost identical to the results simulated with continuous control. Hence, for this situa-
tion, PMU can be used to control the battery system.
With the battery control executed with the SCADA measurements, the system becomes really unstable. The

6
line loads fluctuate a lot within seconds. The delay introduced by SCADA makes that this measurement tech-
nology is not suitable for this application.
The most simple way to improve the PMU is to sample at a higher frequency, and with that create a better
resolution of the measurements. The data system around the PMU must also be able to handle those fre-
quencies.

In task 4, the problem arises that after a fault a line is cleared and the generators end up at a higher angular
velocity than before. This results in an increased frequency in the system. This could possibly be prevented
by the following measures.
First, it might be possible to close the line breakers some time after the fault again. Often a fault clears itself,
meaning that the system can restore itself with all the lines in use again.
Another possible solution might be to increase the generation capacity in zone 2, which results in less load
on the transmission lines as the demanded power can be generated in the zone itself.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the implementation of various measurement techniques for wide area monitoring has been
looked at, as well as connecting a microgrid to the existing network and finding the effectiveness of using
various measurements for a battery controller.

For an existing, stable system, it was observed that all measurements give a good representation of the sys-
tem dynamics. The introduction of the microgrid makes the system unstable, with a clear distinction in the
power measurements of the various measurements now being visible. The PMU and continuous measure-
ments have a similar resolution, while the SCADA measurements are missing the dynamics of the system.
The additional load of the microgrid was enough to make the system unstable, as the machines in Area 1
react too aggressively and they get out of phase with the machines in Area 2.

Implementing a battery controller in the microgrid based on the three measurement technologies introduced
does help in getting the system to return to a new stable operating point. This cannot be achieved with SCADA
measurements however, as it is too slow to effectively control the battery to keep the system operational.

Although the system is in a new steady state, it differs from the original values. This results in a higher system
frequency, which could damage components in the system. Possible solutions for returning to the original
state could be to close the breakers again shortly after the fault, as oftentimes the fault clears itself. Further-
more, the capacity in Area 2 can be increased, such that the power transfer between the areas is lower. This
lowers the chances of the system collapsing.

All in all, this report looked at the resolution of various measurement technologies and how they can be
used to observe and control the system to improve the reliability and resilience of todays and future power
systems.