State: Definition and Understanding
• According to the document, a state is
defined as a government structure that is
sovereign and powerful enough to enforce its
laws and maintain order.
• This is distinct from a nation, which refers
to a population with a sense of shared
history, culture, and often language. For
example, South Sudan became a recognized
state in 2011, joining the global community
as the 194th state .
• A state focuses on governance, the creation
of order, and managing society, whereas a
nation emphasizes cultural or historical
identity.
• Nations often do not precede states;
rather, many states created their nations by
unifying diverse peoples under common
administration, like France or the United
States .
Institutionalized Power
• Political Institutions are the structures
within which power operates in any state.
They encompass legislatures, executive
departments, and courts.
• These institutions are not just buildings
but are systems that acquire legitimacy
through social acceptance of their
authority.
• Authority is key; it depends on
permanence and stability. Political
institutions outlive individuals who
occupy positions within them.
• For instance, when President Nixon
resigned in 1974, the institution of the
presidency remained intact, emphasizing
the idea that institutions hold their own
authority independent of the individuals
in them .
Classic Works: Aristotle’s Six Types of
Government
Aristotle’s classifications are
foundational to political science:
o Monarchy: Rule by one in the interest
of all, but it can degrade into tyranny
where the ruler acts in self-interest.
o Aristocracy: Rule by a group in the interest
of all, which can decline into oligarchy,
where the elite acts for their own benefit.
o Polity: Rule by many for the common good,
which can degenerate into what Aristotle
considered democracy—not the modern idea but
rather mob rule, where demagogues manipulate
public opinion, leading to disorder .
Effective, Weak, and Failed States
Effective States control their entire
territory, enforce laws, provide services,
and maintain low corruption levels. These
include countries like Japan, the United
States, and most European nations.
• Weak States are marked by the penetration of
crime into politics; you cannot easily tell
where politics ends and crime begins. They
struggle with issues such as corruption,
lawlessness, and drug trafficking.
• Justice is often bought, and while democracy
may be preached, it is rarely practiced
honestly. Weak states struggle to collect taxes
effectively, and revenues from resources often
end up enriching a few powerful individuals, as
in Nigeria and Mexico .
• Failed States lack any effective national
government. They are characterized by
warlords, militias, and other non-state
actors dominating regions. There is no rule
of law beyond the gun, and basic services
like healthcare and education are almost
non-existent. Examples include Somalia and
Afghanistan .
Theories: Political Development in Three
Stages (Fukuyama)
Francis Fukuyama described political
development as a three-stage process:
1.State Formation: This stage involves a
powerful monarch unifying tribes or
regions, often by force, to consolidate
control. It focuses on building
authority, regardless of moral concerns.
1.Bureaucracy Formation: The creation of a
competent and loyal bureaucracy is crucial.
This bureaucracy must be unbiased, literate,
and relatively uncorrupt to strengthen state
governance.
2.Rule of Law and Accountability: Establishing
a legal system where all, including leaders,
are subject to the law is fundamental. This
step eventually leads to democracy,
characterized by accountability .
Unitary or Federal Systems
Unitary Systems: These concentrate power at
the central level, with local governments
having little authority. France is an
example, where policies, even on education,
are often centralized in Paris .
Federal Systems: In federal systems like
Germany, power is divided between central
and regional governments, with local
subdivisions (called Länder in Germany)
• Federal systems provide a balance, ensuring
local representation, while unitary systems can
more efficiently standardize and coordinate
policies across a nation.
• A unitary system centralizes political power in
the capital city, allowing little autonomy to
regional authorities. The power structure in a
unitary system means that the national
government is responsible for most of the
administration, including education, policing,
and judicial systems. Local authorities mainly
execute decisions made by the central
government, which leads to high levels of
uniformity across the nation.
• Examples of countries with a unitary system
include France, the United Kingdom, and Spain,
although each has its unique approach to
managing regional differences.
• France: France is one of the most prominent
examples of a unitary state. The French
political system is characterized by a
strong central government that exerts
significant control over local affairs.
• Historically, the French state sought to
foster national unity by centralizing power.
In doing so, France even restructured
regional identities—such as renaming regions
after rivers instead of historical provinces
to reduce regional distinctions and
reinforce national cohesion.
• In recent years, France has moved toward
some degree of decentralization, giving
regions more say in economic development and
cultural matters. However, the Prefects, who
are appointed by the central government,
continue to serve as representatives of the
state in regional and local areas, ensuring
that the policies formulated in Paris are
implemented uniformly across the country
• United Kingdom: The United Kingdom is
formally a unitary state, but it has
undergone significant devolution since the
late 1990s. Devolution granted powers to
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, each
of which now has its own legislature and
varying degrees of legislative authority
over matters such as education, health, and
transportation.
• Despite this, the central government in
Westminster retains overarching powers,
particularly concerning defense and foreign
policy, which means the UK remains a unitary
state overall. Scotland enjoys greater
legislative powers compared to Wales and
Northern Ireland, including tax-raising powers,
yet Westminster ultimately holds the authority
to revoke devolved powers, maintaining the
unitary character of the state
• Spain: Spain presents an interesting example of
a unitary state with significant regional
autonomy. After the fall of Franco's
dictatorship, Spain moved towards
decentralization, establishing autonomous
communities such as Catalonia and the Basque
Country, which have considerable authority over
their own cultural, educational, and economic
policies.
• Despite the strong degree of autonomy granted
to these regions, Spain is still categorized as
a unitary state because the central government
retains the ultimate right to limit or revoke
regional powers. The ongoing tension between
the central government in Madrid and the
regional government of Catalonia, which has
sought greater independence, underscores the
complexities of maintaining a unitary system in
a culturally diverse nation
General Overview of Federalism
• Federalism divides powers between central and
local governments.
• Central government handles national issues
(e.g., defense, foreign policy), while
states/provinces manage local affairs (e.g.,
education, police).
• Balance between central authority and state
autonomy is delicate and evolves over time.
Reasons for Federal Unions
• National security: Small states combine to
defend against aggressors (e.g., Bismarck’s
Germany).
• Economic benefits: Large unified markets
without trade barriers (e.g., the U.S.,
European Union).
• Cultural unity with autonomy: Allows diverse
groups to maintain identity while joining a
larger nation (e.g., India, Belgium).
• Territorial control: Vast countries like
Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico use federalism
for effective management.
Pros and Cons of Federalism
• Advantages:
• Citizens are closer to local governments and can
influence decisions.
• Local governments can experiment with policies
("laboratories of democracy").
• Disadvantages:
• Risk of poor coordination and duplication of
services.
• Local governments may lack resources or suffer from
corruption.
Examples of Federal Systems
1.United States:
1.States legislate in areas not delegated to the
federal government.
2.Federal government expanded influence over civil
law, welfare, and education.
3.Balancing federal and state powers has been a
historical challenge.
4.Controversies include federal mandates tied to
funding (e.g., legal drinking age) and sectionalism
leading to the Civil War.
2. Ex-Soviet Union:
• Federation in name, highly centralized in
practice.
• Local nationalism surfaced under Gorbachev,
leading to the collapse in 1991.
• Post-collapse, Russia retained federal
structure with strong central control,
including repression in regions like Chechnya.
3. Yugoslavia
• Hyperfederalism under Tito allowed local
autonomy but fueled nationalism.
• The system collapsed after Tito’s death,
leading to wars and the breakup into
independent states.
• External interventions (e.g., NATO) were needed
to manage conflicts.
4. Canada
• Federal structure accommodates French-speaking
Quebec.
• Conflicts over Quebec’s distinct status and
bilingualism challenged unity.
• Sovereignty movement in Quebec has receded, but
debates over federalism persist.
5. India
• Federal system allows states to maintain
languages and cultures.
• Central government can take control during
disorder ("president’s rule").
Key Challenges of Federalism
• Cultural and economic diversity: Too many
differences among components (e.g., language,
history) can weaken the system.
• Central control vs. autonomy: Striking the right
balance is critical but difficult.
• Historical failures: Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and
Czechoslovakia highlight risks when federal
systems are poorly designed or imposed.
• Lessons from Federal Systems
• Shared language and culture help maintain unity.
• Federalism is not a universal solution and must be
adapted to each nation’s circumstances.
Electoral Systems
Single-Member Districts (SMD): One
representative is elected per district,
which favors a two-party system. This
system is used in the U.S. and the U.K.,
encouraging major political factions to
coalesce into larger parties to gain
electoral advantages .
Proportional Representation (PR): Multiple
representatives are elected per district,
allowing for better representation of smaller
parties. This system is common in Sweden,
supporting a multiparty landscape that
encourages diversity in political
representation .
States and the Economy
States manage economies through different
models:
o Laissez-Faire: Minimal state involvement;
the private sector drives growth (e.g.,
United States).
o Welfare State: States provide extensive
social services without direct ownership
of industries (e.g., Sweden).
o Statism: The state owns major industries
but leaves much of the economy in private
hands (e.g., Russia).
o Socialism: Full state ownership and
redistribution, previously seen in the
Soviet Union.
Many countries use hybrid models of these
systems, adapting to specific needs and
