Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory

Core Concepts

1. Holistic-Dynamic Theory: Focuses on the whole person being

constantly motivated by one need or another. This theory assumes
people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, self-
actualization, and fulfilling their potential if certain needs are met.
2. Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s well-known framework, which
organizes human needs in a hierarchy:
• Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs such as food, water,
oxygen, and temperature maintenance. These are the most
prepotent needs and must be satisfied first.
• Safety Needs: Needs for physical security, order, stability,
protection from danger, and freedom from fear and anxiety.
• Love and Belongingness Needs: The need for relationships,
friendship, affection, and group membership. Includes giving and
receiving love.
• Esteem Needs: Includes two levels:
• Reputation: Recognition or prestige in the eyes of others.
• Self-Esteem: Personal confidence and self-respect, which
reflect achievement and competence.

• Self-Actualization: The highest level in the hierarchy, involving

self-fulfillment, creativity, and the realization of one’s potential.
3. Cognitive Needs: The desire to know, understand, and solve
mysteries. Cognitive needs are essential for satisfying all other
needs and for achieving self-actualization.
4. Aesthetic Needs: The need for beauty, order, and aesthetically
pleasing environments. Frustration of these needs may lead to
psychological illness.
 5. Neurotic Needs: Unproductive needs that result in an unhealthy
style of life. They serve as compensations for unmet basic needs
and can lead to pathology regardless of whether they are satisfied
or frustrated.
6. Basic Assumptions of Motivation:
• Motivation is holistic, involving the whole person.
• Motivation is complex, with multiple motives often driving a
single behavior.
• People are continually motivated, with one need replacing
another as it is satisfied.
• All people are motivated by universal needs, though the ways
they are satisfied may differ across cultures.
• Needs are hierarchical, with lower needs taking precedence
over higher ones.

Psychological Growth and Pathology

7. Self-Actualization:
• Represents growth, fulfillment, and full use of one’s talents and
potential.
• Requires embracing B-values (truth, beauty, justice, simplicity,
etc.).
• Self-actualizers transcend lower needs, becoming independent
from love and esteem needs.
• Not everyone who satisfies lower needs becomes self-actualizing.
8. The Jonah Complex: The fear of achieving success or
fulfilling potential, often due to self-doubt or fear of the
responsibilities that success entails.
9. Peak Experiences: Moments of intense joy, creativity, and
transcendence often associated with self-actualization.
10. Deprivation of Needs: Lack of satisfaction of any need
can lead to psychological or physical pathology. For example:
 • Unmet physiological needs result in hunger and fatigue.
• Safety deprivation causes fear and insecurity.
• Lack of love leads to social withdrawal or aggression.
• Unfulfilled esteem needs cause self-doubt and lack of confidence.

11. Metapathology: A condition resulting from unmet B-

values, characterized by a lack of fulfillment, loss of meaning, or
alienation.
12. Expressive Behavior: Actions that are spontaneous, often
unmotivated, and serve as an end in themselves. Examples include
slouching or expressing joy.
13. Coping Behavior: Purposeful actions aimed at satisfying
specific needs.
14. Reversed Order of Needs: Occasionally, higher-level
needs such as creativity may take precedence over lower-level
ones like safety or physiological needs.
15. Instinctoid Needs: Basic human needs are innate,
universal, and species-specific. However, they can be influenced by
culture and learning.
16. Psychotherapy: Focuses on helping individuals satisfy
unmet needs and move toward self-actualization.
17. Unmotivated Behavior: Actions caused by factors such as
reflexes, maturation, or drugs, which are not driven by needs.
18. Maslow’s Concept of Humanity: Emphasizes optimism,
growth, and intrinsic human goodness, while recognizing the
potential for fear and avoidance of growth.
19. Critique of Maslow: Includes the lack of empirical
validation for self-actualization and the cultural bias in the
hierarchy of needs.

Allport: Psychology of the Individual

Core Concepts
 1. Psychology of the Individual: Highlights the uniqueness of
every person and rejects generalized theories that overlook
individuality.
2. Definition of Personality: “The dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine
characteristic behavior and thought.”
3. Dynamic Organization: Personality is organized, patterned, and
constantly changing.
4. Personal Dispositions: The unique traits or characteristics that
guide an individual’s behavior:
• Cardinal Dispositions: Dominant traits that define a person’s
life (e.g., narcissism or altruism).
• Central Dispositions: The 5–10 key traits that are essential to
understanding a person.
• Secondary Dispositions: Less conspicuous traits that appear in
specific situations.
5. Proprium: Refers to the core of personality, including traits and
behaviors that people consider central, warm, and important to their
identity.
6. Functional Autonomy: Adult motives become independent of
childhood origins. Behavior is driven by current interests and goals.
7. Motivational Dispositions: Traits that initiate action, driven by
strong needs.
8. Stylistic Dispositions: Traits that guide how actions are
performed without initiating them.

Psychological Growth

9. Characteristics of a Healthy Person:

• Self-Extension: Engaging in activities and relationships beyond
oneself.
• Warm Relating to Others: Compassion and respect in
relationships.
• Emotional Security: Self-acceptance and resilience.
 • Realistic Perception: Viewing the world without distortion.
• Insight and Humor: Objective self-awareness and a nonhostile
sense of humor.
• Unifying Philosophy of Life: A clear sense of purpose, often
tied to mature religious values.

The Study of Personality

10. Morphogenic Science: Focuses on individual cases to

study personality.
11. Letters from Jenny: An example of Allport’s study of an
individual’s personality through her personal letters.

Allport’s Critique of Theories

12. Eclectic Approach: Advocates for combining insights from

multiple theories.
13. Rejection of Particularism: Warns against theories that
focus on a single aspect of personality, emphasizing the complexity
of human nature.
14. Critique of Freud: Believed that depth psychology often
“plunges too deep,” failing to account for conscious motivation.
15. Allport’s Concept of Humanity: Focuses on growth,
individuality, and proactive behavior while recognizing the
importance of conscious processes in healthy individuals.

May: Existential Psychology

Core Concepts of Existential Psychology

1. Existential Psychology: Focuses on human beings as living in

the present and taking responsibility for their actions and choices. It
emphasizes freedom, individuality, and the search for meaning.
 2. Existentialism: A philosophical movement prioritizing
existence over essence—the process of becoming and redefining
oneself through choices rather than being confined by static traits.
3. Being-in-the-World (Dasein): The unity of person and
environment, incorporating three modes:
• Umwelt: The physical world and biological needs.
• Mitwelt: Interpersonal relationships and social connections.
• Eigenwelt: Self-awareness and the internal world of an
individual.
4. Alienation: A state of separation from one’s environment
(Umwelt), others (Mitwelt), or oneself (Eigenwelt). It is the illness of
modern times.

Nonbeing and Anxiety

5. Nonbeing: Awareness of death and the potential for

nonexistence provokes dread but also gives life meaning.
Confronting this reality leads to authentic living.
6. Anxiety: A feeling arising from the threat of nonbeing or a
challenge to one’s values. It can be constructive or destructive:
• Normal Anxiety: Proportionate to the threat, conscious, and
constructive, facilitating growth.
• Neurotic Anxiety: Disproportionate, repressed, and destructive,
leading to inaction and stagnation.

Guilt

7. Ontological Guilt: A universal form of guilt tied to one’s mode of

being-in-the-world, arising from:
• Separation from Nature (Umwelt): Alienation from the natural
world, such as over-reliance on technology.
• Failure to Perceive Others Accurately (Mitwelt): Inability to
fully understand or meet the needs of others.
• Denial of Potentialities (Eigenwelt): Failure to fulfill one’s
potential.
 8. Neurotic Guilt: Morbid guilt resulting from avoiding ontological
guilt and suppressing personal growth.

Freedom and Destiny

9. Freedom: The capacity to make choices within the

limitations of destiny. It involves two forms:
• Existential Freedom: Freedom of action (e.g., moving, choosing
a job).
• Essential Freedom: Freedom of being, requiring inner growth
and self-awareness.
10. Destiny: The inevitable aspects of existence, such as
death, biology, or cultural influences, which must be confronted
and integrated to achieve authentic freedom.
11. Interconnection of Freedom and Destiny: These are not
opposites but complementary forces; freedom gains significance
through destiny, and destiny is meaningful only through freedom.

Care, Love, and Will

12. Care: The foundation of love and will, signifying active

concern for another’s well-being.
13. Love: A complex phenomenon involving four types:
• Sex: Biological procreation and physical gratification.
• Eros: A deeper desire for union and creation.
• Philia: Intimate, nonsexual friendship.
• Agape: Altruistic, selfless love.
14. Will: The ability to make conscious choices and direct
oneself toward goals.
15. Union of Love and Will: Modern society has separated
love and will, reducing love to sensuality and will to determination.
Healthy individuals integrate both, balancing care and action.

Power of Myth
 16. Role of Myths: Myths are belief systems providing
meaning and coherence in life. They help people confront
existential crises, such as birth, separation, identity, and death.
17. Modern Society’s Crisis: The absence of shared myths
has led to alienation and a search for substitutes like cults,
consumerism, or addiction.

Psychopathology

18. Apathy and Emptiness: The primary disorders of modern

times, stemming from alienation and the denial of freedom or
destiny.
19. Neurotic Symptoms: Serve as defenses against existential
anxiety by restricting one’s world and avoiding the challenges of
existence.

Psychotherapy

20. Purpose: To make people more human by helping them

confront their existence, expand awareness, and take
responsibility for their lives.
21. Therapeutic Relationship: Based on an I-thou
encounter, emphasizing empathy, openness, and mutual growth.
22. Techniques: Existential therapy avoids rigid methods,
focusing instead on facilitating the patient’s understanding of their
world and choices. For example:
• Fantasy Conversations: Encouraging patients to engage with
their inner selves or unresolved relationships to uncover hidden
emotions and insights.
• Exploration of Early Life: Connecting current behaviors to past
experiences to reveal patterns.

Key Figures and Influences

23. Rollo May’s Biography: Shaped by personal struggles,

including illness and family conflicts, his experiences inspired his
existential approach.
 24. Influences from Existential Philosophy: May drew from
Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and others, integrating their
ideas into psychology.

Rogers: Person-Centered Theory

Core Concepts

1. Formative Tendency
• The tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to evolve
from simpler to more complex forms. Rogers identified this as a
universal creative process observed in phenomena such as the
formation of galaxies, snowflakes, and the evolution of human
consciousness.
2. Actualizing Tendency
• The inherent drive within all living organisms to move toward
fulfillment, growth, and the realization of their potential. This
includes both basic maintenance needs, like food and safety, and
the enhancement of the self, such as curiosity, playfulness, and
learning.
3. Self and Self-Actualization
• The Self: Develops as infants begin to personalize experiences
as “I” or “me.” It becomes the framework for identity.
• Self-Actualization: A subset of the actualizing tendency that
focuses on fulfilling the perceived self. Congruence between the
organismic self and self-concept is essential for harmony and
psychological health.
4. Self-Concept
• Refers to the aspects of one’s being and experiences that are
perceived in awareness. It does not always align with the
organismic self, as individuals may deny or distort experiences
inconsistent with their self-concept to maintain consistency.
5. Ideal Self
 • The self a person aspires to be, typically containing positive
attributes. A wide gap between the self-concept and ideal self
indicates incongruence and psychological distress.
6. Awareness
• Defined as the symbolic representation of experiences.
Awareness can occur at three levels:
• Ignored or Denied Experiences: Subconscious or
inaccessible experiences.
• Accurately Symbolized Experiences: Consistent with the
self-concept and freely admitted into awareness.
• Distorted Experiences: Altered to fit into the existing self-
concept.
7. Positive Regard and Positive Self-Regard
• Positive Regard: The need to feel loved, valued, and accepted
by others.
• Positive Self-Regard: Valuing oneself, which emerges from
receiving unconditional positive regard.
8. Conditions of Worth
• Occur when positive regard is conditional on meeting
expectations. Over time, individuals internalize these conditions,
leading to reliance on external evaluations and estrangement from
their organismic self.
9. Incongruence
• A discrepancy between the self-concept and organismic
experiences. This creates psychological tension and manifests as:
• Vulnerability: Lack of awareness of incongruence.
• Anxiety and Threat: Emerging awareness of
incongruence.
• Defensiveness: Denial or distortion of experiences to
protect the self-concept.
• Disorganization: Breakdown of defenses, leading to
psychotic behavior.
Psychotherapy

1. Core Conditions for Therapeutic Growth

• Rogers identified three necessary and sufficient conditions:
• Congruence: The therapist’s genuineness and alignment of
feelings, awareness, and expression.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance of the client
without judgment or conditions.
• Empathic Understanding: Accurate sensing of the client’s
feelings and experiences, without projecting or evaluating.
2. Stages of Therapeutic Change
• Rogers identified seven stages of personality change:
• Stage 1: Resistance to communication and extreme
rigidity.
• Stage 2: Limited communication about external events,
denying personal feelings.
• Stage 3: Discussing self as an object, avoiding
responsibility.
• Stage 4: Recognizing deeper feelings and incongruence,
tentatively exploring them.
• Stage 5: Openly expressing present feelings and relying on
internal evaluation.
• Stage 6: Irreversible psychological growth and congruence.
• Stage 7: Full integration and generalization of therapeutic
gains into daily life.

Barriers to Psychological Health

1. Conditions of Worth: Leads to external evaluations and

incongruence.
2. Incongruence: Discrepancy between self-concept and
organismic experiences.
 3. Defensiveness: Protecting the self-concept through denial or
distortion of experiences.
4. Disorganization: Breakdown of defenses resulting in
inconsistent or psychotic behavior.

The Person of Tomorrow

1. Adaptability: Open to change and capable of evolving with the

environment.
2. Openness to Experience: Freely receiving and symbolizing
internal and external stimuli.
3. Trust in the Organismic Self: Reliance on inner experiences to
guide decisions.
4. Existential Living: Living fully in the moment with no need for
pretenses.
5. Harmonious Relationships: Authentic, nonjudgmental
interactions with others.
6. Integration: Alignment of conscious and unconscious processes,
reducing discrepancies between the real and ideal self.
7. Trust in Human Nature: Belief in the inherent goodness and
reliability of others.
8. Richness of Life: Greater emotional depth and awareness of the
present moment.

Research and Findings

1. The Chicago Studies

• Rogers conducted research at the University of Chicago
Counseling Center, revealing:
• Clients reduced the discrepancy between their real self and
ideal self.
• Clients maintained therapeutic gains during follow-ups.
• Behavioral changes were perceived by close friends.
 2. Self-Discrepancy Theory
• Built on Rogers’ idea of incongruence, Higgins introduced the
concept of real-ideal and real-ought discrepancies, linking them
to emotional outcomes such as depression and anxiety.
3. Motivation and Goals
• Incongruence in goal setting, such as pursuing goals misaligned
with one’s ideal self, can lead to psychological distress. Congruent
goals promote personal fulfillment and growth.

Below is a longer and more detailed reviewer for each chapter,

elaborating on concepts, models, and applications.

Chapter 14: Factor Analysis by Raymond Cattell

1. Overview of Factor Analysis

• Definition: Factor analysis is a statistical method for identifying
clusters of related variables (factors) from a larger dataset.
• Purpose: Simplifies large amounts of data by reducing multiple
observed variables into a smaller number of factors, making it easier
to understand relationships.

2. Key Types of Traits According to Cattell

• Surface Traits:
• Observable behaviors that are easily noticeable (e.g.,
friendliness, punctuality).
• Often inconsistent and dependent on specific situations.
• Source Traits:
• Fundamental, underlying characteristics that influence behavior.
• Stable and universal across situations.
• Identified through factor analysis and form the basis of
personality.

3. The 16 Personality Factors (16PF)

• Cattell identified 16 primary source traits using factor analysis.
 • Examples of key factors:
1. Warmth (Reserved vs. Outgoing)
2. Reasoning (Concrete vs. Abstract thinking)
3. Emotional Stability (Reactive vs. Calm)
4. Dominance (Submissive vs. Assertive)
5. Social Boldness (Shy vs. Venturesome)

4. Dynamic, Ability, and Temperament Traits

• Dynamic Traits: Motivational traits that drive behavior, such as
ambition or curiosity.
• Ability Traits: Skills and capabilities that help an individual solve
problems (e.g., intelligence).
• Temperament Traits: Style and pace of behavior, including
emotional responses and energy levels.

5. Applications of Cattell’s Work

• 16PF Questionnaire:
• Used in clinical, organizational, and educational settings to assess
personality.
• Helps in career guidance, team building, and therapy.
• Research Contributions: Provided a scientific, objective
method to study personality, moving away from purely subjective
observations.

6. Criticisms and Legacy

• Complexity of the 16-factor model was seen as a limitation
compared to simpler models (e.g., the Big Five).
• However, Cattell’s work remains foundational in quantitative
personality research.

Chapter 15: Biologically Based Factor Theory by Hans

Eysenck

1. Overview of Eysenck’s Personality Theory

 • Focus: Personality traits are biologically and genetically
determined.
• Eysenck’s theory combines biological, physiological, and
statistical approaches to understand personality.

2. The PEN Model of Personality

• Psychoticism (P):
• Associated with aggressiveness, impulsivity, and lack of empathy.
• High psychoticism is linked to creativity but also to antisocial
behaviors.
• Believed to have a biological basis tied to hormonal and
neurological factors.
• Extraversion (E):
• Reflects sociability, activity levels, and need for stimulation.
• Biological Basis: Extraverts have lower cortical arousal and seek
external stimulation.
• Introverts: Higher cortical arousal, leading to preference for
quieter environments.
• Neuroticism (N):
• Reflects emotional instability, moodiness, and anxiety.
• Linked to an overactive limbic system and heightened autonomic
nervous system responses.

3. Supporting Research for the PEN Model

• Studies on heritability: Twin studies demonstrate a strong genetic
basis for PEN traits.
• Neuroimaging studies show differences in brain activity related to
arousal and emotional regulation.

4. Criticisms and Legacy

• Some critics argue the PEN model oversimplifies personality by
ignoring situational factors.
 • However, Eysenck’s emphasis on biological foundations
influenced modern neuroscience and psychology.

Chapter 16: Five-Factor Traits Theory by McCrae and

Costa

1. Overview of the Five-Factor Model (FFM)

• Big Five Traits:
• Openness: Imagination, creativity, and willingness to try new
experiences.
• Conscientiousness: Organization, reliability, and discipline.
• Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, and positive energy.
• Agreeableness: Compassion, trust, and cooperative behavior.
• Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, and irritability.

2. Development and Validation

• McCrae and Costa expanded on earlier trait theories, refining the
FFM using empirical research.
• The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) was developed to
assess these five dimensions.

3. Key Characteristics of the FFM

• Universality: Cross-cultural studies show the Big Five traits are
present across different societies.
• Stability Over Time: Traits are relatively stable throughout an
individual’s life, with minor changes due to life stages.
• Biological Basis: Traits are partially influenced by genetics but
also shaped by environment.

4. Applications of the FFM

• Career Assessment: Identifying strengths and weaknesses for
job placements.
• Clinical Use: Assessing mental health conditions like depression
(linked to neuroticism).
 • Interpersonal Relationships: Understanding compatibility
based on traits like agreeableness and extraversion.

5. Criticisms
• Over-reliance on self-report measures may introduce biases.
• Some argue it overlooks other dimensions, such as spirituality or
cultural influences.

Chapter 17: Personal Constructs by George Kelly

1. Overview of Kelly’s Theory

• Core Idea: People act as “scientists,” constantly interpreting and
predicting events using mental templates called personal constructs.
• Constructive Alternativism: Reality is subjective and shaped
by how individuals interpret it.

2. Personal Constructs
• Definition: Cognitive frameworks or mental filters through which
people perceive and evaluate the world.
• Characteristics:
• Bipolar (e.g., kind vs. cruel).
• Unique to each individual.
• Continuously revised based on new experiences.

3. The Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test)

• Used to identify a person’s construct system by exploring how
they perceive relationships between people and objects in their
environment.

4. Applications
• Therapy: Help clients challenge rigid or negative constructs,
encouraging healthier interpretations of their experiences.
• Education: Understanding individual differences in perception and
learning.
Chapter 18: Cognitive Social Learning Theory by
Rotter and Mischel

1. Julian Rotter’s Theory

• Key Concepts:
1. Locus of Control:
• Internal: Belief in personal responsibility for outcomes.
• External: Belief that external forces control outcomes.
2. Expectancy-Value Theory:
• Behavior is guided by expected outcomes and the value
placed on those outcomes.
3. Behavior Potential:
• Likelihood of performing a specific behavior in a given
situation.

2. Walter Mischel’s Contributions

• Person-Situation Debate: Argued behavior is more influenced
by situational factors than fixed traits.
• Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS):
• Personality is a dynamic interaction of cognitive and emotional
variables with the environment.
• Variables include competencies, self-regulation, and personal
goals.
• Delay of Gratification: Explored self-control in the famous
“marshmallow test.”

3. Applications
• Rotter: Used in understanding health behaviors, motivation, and
coping strategies.
• Mischel: Influenced self-regulation research and strategies for
building self-control.

4. Legacy
• Shifted focus in psychology from fixed traits to the role of
cognition and environment in shaping behavior.