LECTURE 1.

1.2.3. SUBSONIC AIRFLOW

1.2.3.1. Aerofoil terminology

Aerofoil: A shape capable of producing lift with relatively high efficiency.

Chord Line: A straight line joining the centres of curvature of the leading and trailing
edges of an aerofoil.
Chord: The distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord
line.
Angle of Incidence: The angle between the chord line and the horizontal datum of the
aircraft. (This angle is fixed for the wing, but may be variable for the tailplane).

Mean Line or Camber Line: A line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil,
equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces.
Maximum Camber: The maximum distance of the mean line from the chord line.
Maximum camber is expressed as a percentage of the chord, with its location as a percentages of
the chord aft of the leading edge. When the camber line lies above the chord line the aerofoil is
said to have positive camber, and if the camber line is below the chord line it is said to have
negative camber. A symmetrical aerofoil has no camber because the chord line and camber
line are co-incidental.
Thickness/Chord ratio: The maximum thickness or depth of an aerofoil section
expressed as a percentage of the chord, with its location as a percentages of the chord aft of the
leading edge. The thickness and thickness distribution of the aerofoil section have a great
influence on its airflow characteristics.

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 Leading edge radius: The radius of curvature of the leading edge. The size of the
leading edge radius can significantly effect the initial airflow characteristics of the aerofoil
section.
Relative Air Flow (Relative Wind or Free Stream Flow): Relative Air Flow has three
qualities.
(1) DIRECTION - air parallel to, and in the opposite direction to the flight path of the
aircraft, in fact the path of the CG; the direction in which the aircraft is pointing is irrelevant.
(2) CONDITION - air close to, but unaffected by the presence of the aircraft; its pressure,
temperature and velocity are not affected by the passage of the aircraft through it.
(3) MAGNITUDE - The magnitude of the Relative Air Flow is the TAS.
If air flow does not possess all three of these qualities, it is referred to as EFFECTIVE
AIRFLOW.
Total Reaction: The resultant of all the aerodynamic forces acting on the aerofoil
section.
Centre of Pressure (CP): The point on the chord line, through which Lift is considered
to act.
Lift: The aerodynamic force which acts at 90° to the Relative Air Flow.
Drag: The aerodynamic force which acts parallel to and in the same direction as the
Relative Air Flow (or opposite to the aircraft flight path).
Angle of Attack (a or alpha) (can also be referred to as Aerodynamic Incidence) The
angle between the chord line and the Relative Air Flow.

The angle between the chord line and the effective airflow is referred to as the
EFFECTIVE ANGLE OF ATTACK.

1.2.3.2. Basics about airflow

When considering airflow velocity, it makes no difference to the pressure pattern if the
aircraft is moving through the air or the air is flowing over the aircraft: it is the relative velocity
which is the important factor. To promote a full understanding, references will be made to both
wind-tunnel experiments, where air is flowing over a stationary aircraft, and aircraft in flight
moving through 'stationary' air.

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 Three dimensional airflow: Three dimensional flow is the true airflow over an aircraft
and consists of a hypothetical two dimensional flow modified by various pressure differentials.
Three dimensional airflow will be examined later.
Two dimensional airflow: Assumes a wing with the same aerofoil section along the
entire span with no spanwise pressure differential or flow.

1.2.3.3. Two dimensional airflow

This CONCEPT, figures 6 and 7, is used to illustrate the basic principles of aerodynamic
force generation.
As air flows towards an aerofoil it will be turned towards the lower pressure at the upper
surface; this is termed upwash. After passing over the aerofoil the airflow returns to its original
position and state; this is termed downwash.

Figure 6

Figure 7
Influence of Dynamic Pressure: Fig. 8 shows an aerofoil section at a representative
angle of attack subject to a given dynamic pressure (IAS). "If the static pressure on one side of a
body is reduced more than on the other side, a pressure differential will exist".

Figure 8
Fig. 9 shows the same aerofoil section at the same angle of attack, but subject to a higher
dynamic pressure (IAS). "If the dynamic pressure (IAS) is increased, the pressure differential
will increase".

Figure 9
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 The pressure differential acting on the surface area will produce an upward acting force.
"If the dynamic pressure (IAS) is increased, the upward force will increase".

Influence of Angle of Attack: At a constant dynamic pressure (IAS), increasing the

angle of attack (up to about 16°) will likewise increase the pressure differential, but will also
change the pattern of pressure distribution.
The aerofoil profile presented to the airflow will determine the distribution of velocity
and hence the distribution of pressure on the surface. This profile is determined by the aerofoil
geometry, i.e. thickness and distribution (fixed), camber and distribution (assumed to be fixed for
now) and by the angle of attack (variable).
The greatest positive pressure occurs at the stagnation point where the relative flow
velocity is zero. This stagnation point is located somewhere near the leading edge. As the angle
of attack increases from -4° the leading edge stagnation point moves from the upper surface
around the leading edge to the lower surface. It is at the front stagnation point where the flow
divides to pass over and under the section. The pressure at the stagnation point is Static +
Dynamic.
The flow over the top of the section accelerates rapidly around the nose and over the
leading portion of the surface - inducing a substantial decrease in static pressure in those areas.
The rate of acceleration increases with increase in angle of attack, up to about 16°. (Anything
which changes the accurately manufactured profile of the leading portion of the surface can
seriously disrupt airflow acceleration in this critical area. e.g. ice, snow, frost, dirt or dents). The
pressure reduces continuously from the stagnation value through the free stream value to a
position on the top surface where a peak negative value is reached. From there onwards the flow
continuously slows down again and the pressure increases back to the free stream value in the
region of the trailing edge.
At angles of attack less than 8 ° the flow under the section is accelerated much less,
reducing the pressure to a small negative value, also with subsequent deceleration and increase in
pressure back to the free stream value in the region of the trailing edge.
The pressure differential between the leading edge stagnation point and the lower
pressure at the trailing edge creates a force acting backward which is called 'form (pressure)
drag'. (This will be discussed in more detail later).
Angle of Attack (-4°) - The decrease in pressure above and below the section are equal
and no differential exists. There will, thus, be no lift force. (Fig. 10). This can be called the "zero
lift angle of attack".

Figure 10

Figure 11

Angles of Attack (0° to 8°) - Compared to free stream static pressure, there is a pressure decrease
over the upper surface and a lesser decrease over most of the lower surface. For a cambered aerofoil there
will be a small amount of lift even at small negative angles (-4°to0°).
Angles of attack (0° to 16°) - Increasing the angle of attack increases the lift force because the
acceleration of the airflow over the top surface is increased by the reduction in effective cross-sectional
area of the local streamtube.
The reduced pressure 'peak' moves forward as the angle of attack increases.
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 The greatest contribution to overall lift comes from the upper surface.

Pressure Gradient: Is a change in air pressure over distance. The greater the difference in
pressure between two points, the steeper the gradient. A favourable gradient is when air pressure is falling
in the direction of airflow. An adverse pressure gradient is when air pressure is rising in the direction of
airflow, such as between the point of minimum pressure on the top surface and the trailing edge. The
higher the angle of attack, the steeper the pressure gradient. At angles of attack higher than
approximately 16°, the extremely steep adverse pressure gradient prevents air that is flowing over the
top surface from following the aerofoil contour and the previously smooth streamline flow will separate
from the surface, causing the low pressure area on the top of the section to suddenly collapse. Any
pressure differential remaining is due to the pressure increase on the lower surface only. This condition is
known as the stall.
Centre of Pressure (CP): The whole surface of the aerofoil contributes to lift, but the point along
the chord where the distributed lift is effectively concentrated is termed the Centre of Pressure (Fig. 12).
The location of the CP is a function of camber and section lift coefficient, i.e. angle of attack.

Figure 12

Movement of the Centre of Pressure: As the angle of attack increases from 0° to 16° the upper
'suction' peak moves forward (Fig. 11) so the point at which the lift is effectively concentrated, the CP,
will move forward. The CP moves forward and the magnitude of the lift force increases with increase in
angle of attack until the stall is reached when the lift force decreases abruptly and the CP generally moves
back along the chord (Fig. 13). Note that the CP is at its most forward location just before the stall (C
L MAX)

Figure 13

Aerodynamic Force Coefficient: A coefficient is a dimensionless number expressing degree of

magnitude. An aerodynamic force coefficient is a common denominator for all A/C of whatever weight,
size and speed. An aerodynamic force coefficient is a dimensionless ratio between the average
aerodynamic pressure and the airstream dynamic pressure.

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 By this definition a lift coefficient (C L) is the ratio between lift divided by the wing planform
area and dynamic pressure and a drag coefficient (C D) is the ratio between drag divided by the wing
planform area and dynamic pressure.
The use of the coefficient of an aerodynamic force is necessary since the force coefficient is:
a) An index of the aerodynamic force independent of area, density and velocity. It is derived from
the relative pressure and velocity distribution.
b) Influenced only by the shape of the surface and angle of attack since these factors determine
the pressure distribution.

Development of Aerodynamic Pitching Moments: The distribution of pressure over a surface is

the source of aerodynamic moments as well as forces. There are two ways to consider the effects of
changing angle of attack on the pitching moment of an aerofoil.
a) Changes in the magnitude of lift acting through a moving CP, or more simply:
b) Changes in the magnitude of lift always acting through an Aerodynamic Centre, which is fixed.

Aerodynamic Centre (AC): The AC is a 'fixed' point on the chord line and is defined as: 'The
point where all changes in the magnitude of the lift force effectively take place', AND: 'The point about
which the pitching moment will remain constant at 'normal' angles of attack'. A nose-down pitching
moment exists about the AC which is the product of a force (lift at the CP) and an arm (distance from
the CP to the AC). Since an increase in angle of attack will increase the lift force, but also move the CP
towards the AC (shortening the lever arm), the moment about the AC remains the same at any angle of
attack within the "normal" range.

Figure 14

When considering subsonic airflows of less than M=0,4, the AC is located at the 25 %
chord point for any aerofoil regardless of camber, thickness and angle of attack.
The aerodynamic centre (AC) is an aerodynamic reference point. The most direct
application being to the longitudinal stability of an aircraft

Pitching Moment for a Symmetrical Aerofoil: Note the change in pressure distribution
with angle of attack for the symmetrical aerofoil in Fig 15. When at zero angle of attack, the
upper and lower surface forces are equal and located at the same point. With an increase in angle
of attack, the upper surface force increases while the lower surface force decreases. A change in
the magnitude of lift has taken place with no change in the CP position - a characteristic of
symmetrical aerofoils. Thus, the pitching moment about the AC for a symmetrical aerofoil will
be zero at 'normal' angles of attack - one of the big advantages of symmetrical aerofoils.

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 Figure 15

SUMMARY

Airflow pattern, and ultimately lift and drag, will depend upon:
a) Angle of attack - airflow cross-sectional area change
b) Aerofoil shape (thickness & camber). - airflow cross-sectional area change
c) Air density - mass flow of air (decreases with increased altitude)
d) Velocity - mass flow of air (changes with aircraft TAS)

The Lift force is the result of the pressure differential between the top and bottom
surfaces of an aerofoil; the greatest contribution to overall lift comes from the top surface.

Anything (Ice in particular, but also frost, snow, dirt, dents and even water droplets)
which changes the accurately manufactured profile of the leading portion of the upper surface
can seriously disrupt airflow acceleration in that area, and hence the magnitude of the lift force.

An increase in dynamic pressure (IAS) will increase the lift force, and vice versa.
An increase in angle of attack will increase the lift force, and vice versa, (0° to 16°)

The centre of pressure (CP) of a cambered aerofoil moves forward as the angle of attack
increases. The (CP) of a symmetrical aerofoil does not move under the influence of angle of
attack, (within the confines of 'normal range').

Throughout the normal range of angles of attack the aerofoil nose down pitching moment
about the aerodynamic centre (AC) will remain constant. The AC is located at the quarter chord
position for subsonic flow of less than M=0,4.

The coefficient of lift (C L) is the ratio between lift per unit wing area and dynamic
pressure.

As the angle of attack increases from -4° the leading edge stagnation point moves from
the upper surface around the leading edge to the lower surface.

The greatest positive pressure occurs at the leading edge stagnation point, where the
relative flow velocity is zero.

Form (pressure) drag is the result of the pressure differential between the leading edge
and trailing edge of the aerofoil.

An increase in dynamic pressure (IAS) will increase form drag, and vice versa.
The coefficient of drag (CD) is the ratio between drag per unit wing area and dynamic
pressure.
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Camber- кривизна;
Tailplane - стабілізатор;
Subsonic - дозвуковий;
Pitch - тангаж;
Drag – лобовий опір;
Stall - звалювання;
wind-tunnel - ;аеродинамічна труба
trailing edge – задня кромка (крила);
leading edge – передня кромка;
Mean Line (Camber Line) – середня лінія (крила);
Angle of Incidence – кут встановлення;
Chord - хорда;
Aerofoil – аеродинамічний профіль.