CHAPTER-3

SPECIALTY COMPOSITES

COMPOSITES FOR SATELITE AND ADVANCED LAUNCHED

VECHILES
Composite materials play a crucial role in the construction of satellites and advanced
launch vehicles due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, thermal stability, and
resistance to environmental degradation.

1. Composite Materials Used

o Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) (the most commonly used

composites): High strength and lightweight, commonly used in spacecraft
structures, fairings, and payload adapters.
o Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRP): Used for secondary
structures where cost and impact resistance are important.
o Kevlar/Epoxy Composites: Used in protective shielding and high-impact
areas due to its toughness.
o Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): Used in thermal protection
systems for re-entry vehicles and nozzles.
o Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs): Applied in high-stress components
like turbine blades and structural supports.

2. Applications in Satellites

o Primary Structures: Composite panels and trusses reduce satellite

weight while maintaining rigidity.
o Antenna Reflectors: CFRP ensures lightweight, thermally stable
antennas for high-precision communication.
o Booms and Deployable Structures: High-strength composites allow for
lightweight, deployable solar arrays and instrument arms.
o Radiation Shielding: Some composite materials offer enhanced
protection against space radiation.

3. Applications in Launch Vehicles

o Payload Fairings: Large composite fairings protect the payload while

minimizing weight.
o Solid Rocket Motor Casings: CFRP enhances strength while reducing
weight for higher efficiency.
o Cryogenic Tanks: Composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs)
store liquid fuels with improved strength and reduced mass.
 o Interstages and Adapters: High-strength composites provide load-
bearing connections between rocket stages.
o Thermal Protection Systems (TPS): CMCs help shield spacecraft from
extreme heat during re-entry or high-speed flight.

4. Advantages of Composites in Aerospace

o Weight Reduction: Enables higher payload capacity and fuel efficiency.

o Thermal Stability: Withstands extreme temperature variations in space.
o Corrosion Resistance: Essential for long-duration missions.
o High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Crucial for structural integrity under high
stress.
o Customization & Integration: Complex geometries and multifunctional
properties can be tailored for mission-specific needs.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS PMC FOR STRUCTURAL

COMPOSITES
When designing Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) for structural applications,
especially in aerospace, several key considerations must be taken into account to
ensure optimal performance. These considerations include material selection, structural
integrity, environmental factors, and manufacturing constraints.

1. Material Selection

 Matrix Material: Typically, thermosetting polymers (epoxy, polyester, phenolic) or

thermoplastics (PEEK, PPS) are chosen based on mechanical, thermal, and chemical
resistance properties.
 Reinforcement Type:
o Carbon Fiber: High strength and stiffness, used in high-performance aerospace
applications.
o Glass Fiber: Cost-effective with good impact resistance, but lower stiffness.
o Kevlar Fiber: High toughness and impact resistance, commonly used in
protective structures.

2. Structural Performance Considerations

 Load-Bearing Capability: Evaluate tensile, compressive, shear, and flexural strengths

under expected loading conditions.
 Stiffness & Modulus: High stiffness-to-weight ratio is critical for aerospace structures.
 Damage Tolerance: Resistance to impact, fatigue, and crack propagation should be
optimized.
  Fracture Toughness: Preventing delamination and fiber-matrix debonding is crucial.
 Fatigue Resistance: Long-term durability under cyclic loading conditions must be
considered.

3. Manufacturing Considerations

 Layup Orientation: Fiber orientation affects strength; commonly used configurations

include unidirectional, woven, or cross-ply laminates.
 Curing Process: Proper curing (e.g., autoclave or out-of-autoclave methods) ensures
high-quality bonding.
 Voids & Defects: Minimized through optimized resin flow, pressure application, and
curing cycles.
 Scalability: Manufacturing processes should be cost-effective and repeatable for large
structures.

4. Environmental & Operational Considerations

 Thermal Stability: Resistance to temperature fluctuations in space or re-entry

conditions.
 Moisture Absorption: Some polymer matrices absorb moisture, which can degrade
mechanical properties.
 Radiation Resistance: Protection against UV and space radiation is essential for
satellites and space vehicles.
 Fire & Smoke Resistance: In manned spacecraft, low-toxicity fire-resistant resins are
preferred.

5. Joint & Fastening Considerations

 Bonded Joints: Adhesive bonding offers weight savings but must be evaluated for peel
and shear strength.
 Bolted Joints: Used where high-load transfer is required but must account for stress
concentrations and hole weakening.

6. Testing & Validation

 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Techniques like ultrasonic inspection, X-ray, and

thermography detect voids or defects.
 Mechanical Testing: Tensile, compression, shear, and fatigue tests validate design
strength.
  Environmental Testing: Thermal cycling, humidity exposure, and space radiation
simulations ensure reliability.

Silicon Carbide (SiC) Composites: Design, Processing, and Properties

Silicon carbide (SiC) composites are made by combining a SiC matrix with a
fiber phase. They are used in many engineering applications because of
their high strength, toughness, and resistance to heat, corrosion, and
damage.

Design
 SiC/SiC composites are made by stacking 2D woven fabric and infiltrating it
with a SiC matrix
 SiC fiber tows are coated with carbon or boron nitride, then infiltrated with a
ceramic slurry
 The coated fiber tows are wound into a tape, then stacked and compressed to
form a block
 The block is heat treated to remove the polymer binder, then infiltrated with
molten silicon
Processing
 Chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) is a common method for processing SiC/SiC
composites
 Liquid phase sintering (LPS) is another processing technique
 Additive manufacturing (AM) and solid free-form fabrication (SFF) can be
used to make complex designs
Properties
 SiC/SiC composites have high thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability
 They have a high strength to weight ratio
 They are anisotropic, meaning their properties vary in different directions
 They are ideal for high-temperature applications like aircraft engines
 They are promising for nuclear applications

Carbon-Carbon (C/C) Composites: Matrix Precursors and

Manufacturing Considerations
 In carbon-carbon (C/C) composites, the "matrix" is essentially a carbon-based
material formed from precursor compounds like organic polymers (e.g.,
phenolic resins, pitch) or gaseous hydrocarbons which are impregnated into a
carbon fiber preform and then heated to high temperatures in a process called
carbonization, resulting in a solid carbon matrix that binds the fibers
together; key manufacturing considerations include the choice of precursor,
impregnation technique, carbonization temperature, and the need for
additional processing like chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) to achieve desired
properties.
Key points about C/C composite matrix precursors and manufacturing:
 Precursor Types:
 Organic polymers: Phenolic resins are commonly used due to their high
carbon yield and good processing characteristics.
 Pitch: Petroleum-based pitch can also be used, offering different mechanical
properties depending on the source and processing.
 Gaseous hydrocarbons: In CVI processes, hydrocarbons like methane or
propane are used as the carbon source to deposit a carbon matrix directly onto
the fiber preform.
Manufacturing Steps:
 Fiber preform creation: Carbon fibers are woven or laid up into the desired
shape to create a preform.
 Impregnation: The preform is immersed in the liquid precursor, allowing it to
fully penetrate the fiber structure.
 Drying: Excess liquid is removed through evaporation.
 Carbonization: The preform is heated to a high temperature (typically above
1000°C) in a controlled atmosphere to pyrolyze the polymer, leaving behind a
carbon matrix.
 Optional CVI: For enhanced properties, a CVI process may be used where a
hydrocarbon gas is introduced into the partially carbonized preform, allowing
carbon deposition on the fiber surfaces and further densification of the matrix.
Factors to consider in C/C composite manufacturing:
 Precursor selection:
The choice of precursor significantly impacts the final properties of the
composite, including strength, thermal conductivity, and density.
 Impregnation technique:
 Ensuring uniform penetration of the precursor throughout the fiber preform is
crucial for good matrix quality.

 Carbonization temperature and atmosphere:

Precise control of temperature and atmosphere during carbonization is
necessary to achieve the desired degree of carbonization and matrix
properties.
 Fiber architecture:
The arrangement of carbon fibers within the preform (unidirectional, woven,
etc.) determines the mechanical performance of the final composite.
 Post-processing:
Additional treatments like surface finishing or heat treatment can be required
depending on the application.
Applications of C/C composites:
 Aerospace: Nose cones, re-entry vehicle components, leading edges of
wings due to their high temperature resistance
 Automotive: High-performance brake discs
 Industrial applications: Components requiring high thermal conductivity and
dimensional stability in extreme environments

NANOCOMPOSITES

Nanocomposites are multiphase materials where one of the phases has at least one
dimension in the nanometer range (1–100 nm). These materials offer superior
mechanical, thermal, electrical, and barrier properties compared to conventional
composites.

Nanoparticle Dispersion in Polymer Matrices

Nanoparticle dispersion in polymer matrices is a critical factor in determining the

mechanical, thermal, electrical, and optical properties of nanocomposites. Achieving
uniform dispersion of nanoparticles is challenging due to factors such as aggregation,
interfacial interactions, and viscosity of the polymer matrix.

Key Factors Affecting Nanoparticle Dispersion

 1. Nanoparticle Properties
o Size and shape
o Surface energy and chemistry
o Agglomeration tendency
2. Polymer Matrix Characteristics
o Molecular weight and viscosity
o Surface energy compatibility
o Processing method
3. Dispersion Techniques
o Solvent-Based Methods: Nanoparticles are dispersed in a solvent before
mixing with the polymer. Solvent evaporation helps in achieving uniform
dispersion.
o Melt Blending: High shear forces in extrusion or molding help break
agglomerates and disperse nanoparticles.
o In Situ Polymerization: Nanoparticles are added during polymerization,
leading to better dispersion due to molecular-level interactions.
o Surface Modification of Nanoparticles: Functionalizing nanoparticles
with surfactants or coupling agents (e.g., silanes) enhances compatibility
with the polymer.

Challenges and Strategies

 Aggregation: Can be mitigated using surfactants or compatibilizers.

 Poor Interfacial Interaction: Surface functionalization improves adhesion
between nanoparticles and polymer chains.
 Processing Issues: Optimized shear mixing, ultrasonication, or using dispersing
agents can enhance uniformity.

POLYMER NANOCLAY COMPOSITE

A polymer nanoclay composite is a material made by combining a polymer
matrix with nanoclay filler or reinforcement. The nanoclay improves the
properties of the polymer, such as its mechanical, thermal, and physical
properties.

Applications
 Packaging: Nanoclay composites can be used as smart packing materials
that control the permeability of gases like CH4 and CO2. This helps to extend
the shelf life of preserved food.
 Biomedical: Nanoclay composites can be used in biomedical applications.
 Environmental: Nanoclay composites can be used to remove pollutants.
 Benefits
 Improved properties: Nanoclay composites have improved mechanical,
thermal, and physical properties compared to the polymer matrix alone.
 Enhanced performance: Nanoclay composites can enhance the
performance of polymeric materials.
 Interfacial treatment: Nanoclay can be used as an interfacial treatment agent
for natural fibers.
Factors affecting properties
The properties of nanoclay composites are influenced by the polymer
viscosity, nanoclay contents, and nanoclay modification.

POLYMER CARBON NANOTUBE COMPOSITE

A polymer carbon nanotube (CNT) composite is a type of composite material that
consists of a polymer matrix reinforced with carbon nanotubes. These composites are
known for their exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties, making them
useful in various advanced applications.

Key Features of Polymer-CNT Composites

1. High Strength & Stiffness: CNTs have extraordinary tensile strength (~100 times
stronger than steel) and can enhance the mechanical properties of polymers.
2. Lightweight: CNTs are extremely lightweight, allowing composites to achieve high
strength-to-weight ratios.
3. Electrical Conductivity: CNTs can transform insulating polymers into conductive
materials, useful in sensors, flexible electronics, and electromagnetic shielding.
4. Thermal Conductivity: Improved heat dissipation makes them ideal for thermal
management in electronics.
5. Chemical & Environmental Resistance: CNTs can improve a polymer’s resistance to
chemicals, oxidation, and UV degradation.

Types of Polymer Matrices

 Thermoplastics: Polypropylene (PP), Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylidene Fluoride

(PVDF)
 Thermosets: Epoxy, Polyurethane (PU), Polyester
 Elastomers: Silicone, Natural Rubber

Processing Methods

1. Solution Mixing: Dispersing CNTs in a solvent before mixing with the polymer.
 2. Melt Blending: Mixing CNTs into a polymer at high temperatures.
3. In-Situ Polymerization: Polymerizing monomers in the presence of CNTs.
4. Electrospinning: Creating CNT-polymer nanofibers for high-performance applications.

Applications

 Aerospace & Automotive: Lightweight, high-strength materials for aircraft, cars, and
space structures.
 Electronics: Flexible circuits, conductive coatings, and sensors.
 Biomedical: Drug delivery systems, tissue engineering scaffolds, and biosensors.
 Energy: Supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells.