Preparing a Series Testing Board

A series testing board is a simple electrical circuit used to test the continuity and functionality
of various electrical components. Here's a basic guide on how to prepare one:

Materials Needed:

 Wooden or Plastic Base: A sturdy base to mount the components.

 Terminal Blocks: To connect the wires and components.
 Jumper Wires: Flexible wires for making connections.
 Switch: A single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch.
 Indicator Light (Optional): A small bulb to indicate power.
 Power Source: A suitable power supply (e.g., a variable DC power supply).
 Multimeter: For testing voltage and continuity.
 Screws, Nuts, and Bolts: For mounting components.
 Tools: Screwdriver, wire stripper, pliers, etc.

Procedure:

1. Prepare the Base:

o Clean and prepare the base material.

o Mark the positions for the terminal blocks, switch, and indicator light (if
used).
o Drill holes for mounting the components.
2. Mount Components:
o Secure the terminal blocks, switch, and indicator light to the base using
screws, nuts, and bolts.
3. Connect Components:
o Connect the positive terminal of the power supply to one of the terminal
blocks.
o Connect the negative terminal of the power supply to another terminal block.
o Connect the switch between the two terminal blocks.
o If using an indicator light, connect it in parallel to the switch.
4. Test the Circuit:
o Connect the multimeter to the terminals on either side of the switch.
o Turn on the power supply.
o Check for continuity across the switch terminals using the multimeter.
 o If using an indicator light, it should illuminate when the switch is closed.

Using the Series Testing Board:

 Testing Components:
o Connect the component to be tested between the two terminal blocks.

o Close the switch and observe the indicator light (if used) or measure the
voltage across the component using the multimeter.
o A functioning component will typically show a voltage drop or current flow.

Additional Considerations:

 Safety: Always work with electricity with caution. Ensure the power supply is
properly grounded and use appropriate safety measures.
 Component Ratings: Use components rated for the appropriate voltage and current
levels.
 Versatility: You can expand the functionality of the board by adding more terminal
blocks, switches, and other components as needed.

Diagram:

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basic series testing board circuit diagram

By following these steps, you can create a simple and effective series testing board for
evaluating various electrical components.

Select the electric wire using measuring and testing instruments for particular applications.

Selecting Electric Wire Using Measuring and Testing Instruments

Proper selection of electric wires is essential for safety and efficiency. Measuring and testing
instruments help determine wire characteristics to ensure suitability for specific applications.
Follow these steps:
1. Determine Application Requirements

 Load Capacity: Calculate the current load (in amperes) based on the devices to be
connected.
 Voltage Level: Identify the operating voltage (low voltage or high voltage).
 Environmental Conditions: Check if the wire will be exposed to moisture, heat, or
mechanical stress.

2. Measure Wire Size

Tools Used:
 Micrometer: Measures the diameter of solid conductors.
 Vernier Caliper: Measures the cross-sectional dimensions of the wire.
 Wire Gauge: Directly identifies the gauge or size of the wire.

Process:
1. Strip the insulation to expose the conductor.
2. Measure the diameter using a micrometer or wire gauge.
3. Calculate the cross-sectional area using the formula: Area(A)=π(d2)2\text{Area} (A) = \pi \
left(\frac{d}{2}\right)^2Area(A)=π(2d)2 where ddd is the diameter.

3. Test Wire Properties

Tools and Techniques:

1. Multimeter:
o Measure resistance of the conductor to ensure low resistance for efficient current
flow.
o Check insulation resistance using the resistance mode.

2. Megger:

o Measure high insulation resistance to ensure safety in high-voltage applications.

3. High-Pot Tester:

o Test the dielectric strength of insulation for high-voltage environments.

4. Clamp Meter:

o Verify current-carrying capacity when the wire is operational.

 5. Flame Test:

o For identifying flame-retardant wires (e.g., FR or FRLS).

4. Select the Correct Wire Based on BIS Standards

Factors to Consider:
 Wire Size: Based on calculated load (e.g., 1.5 mm² for lighting circuits, 4 mm² for power
circuits).
 Insulation Material: PVC, XLPE, or FR based on temperature and fire resistance needs.
 Number of Strands: For flexibility in installations, choose stranded conductors.

Common Applications and Recommendations:

Application Recommended Wire

Lighting circuits PVC-insulated 1.5 mm² wire

Power circuits PVC-insulated 2.5–4 mm² wire

High-temperature areas XLPE-insulated wire

Industrial environments Armored cables (multistranded)

Fire-prone areas FR or FRLS wire

5. Verify with Standards

Ensure the selected wire complies with BIS Standards (e.g., IS: 694 for PVC wires).

6. Label and Document

Record the wire size, type, and testing results for future reference and compliance.

OR

2. Practical: Select the Electric Wire Using Measuring and Testing Instruments for
Particular Applications
Objective

To select an appropriate electric wire for a specific application by measuring its physical and
electrical properties using suitable testing instruments.

Apparatus and Instruments Required

1. Samples of Electric Wires: Different sizes and types of wires (PVC wires, flexible cables,
armoured cables, etc.).
2. Wire Gauge: To identify the gauge/size of the wire.
3. Vernier Caliper or Micrometer: To measure the diameter of the conductor.
4. Multimeter: To measure the resistance of the wire.
5. Megger (Insulation Tester): To test insulation resistance.
6. Clamp Meter: To measure current-carrying capacity (if wire is in use).
7. Load Devices: Appliances or dummy loads for practical testing.
8. Table of BIS Wire Standards: For reference.
9. Measuring Tape: To measure the length of the wire if needed.

Theory

Electric wires are selected based on the following parameters:

1. Cross-Sectional Area: Determines the current-carrying capacity.

2. Insulation Resistance: Indicates the quality of insulation to prevent leakage current.
3. Voltage Rating: Ensures the wire can operate at the required voltage.
4. Current-Carrying Capacity: The wire should handle the required load without overheating.

BIS standards provide guidelines for wire sizes and their respective current ratings to ensure
safety and efficiency.

Procedure

1. Inspect the Wire

o Identify the wire type (PVC, FR, armoured, etc.) by looking at its markings and
insulation.
o Note the application for which the wire will be used (e.g., lighting, power circuits).

2. Measure Conductor Diameter

 o Strip the insulation at one end of the wire using a wire stripper.
o Use a Vernier Caliper or Micrometer to measure the diameter of the conductor.
o Calculate the cross-sectional area (AAA) using the formula: A=π(d/2)^2

3. Identify Wire Gauge

o Use a Wire Gauge to directly determine the size of the wire.

4. Measure Resistance

o Set the Multimeter to resistance mode (ΩΩΩ).

o Measure the resistance of the conductor for a known length (e.g., 1m or 10m).
o Compare the measured resistance with standard values to ensure the wire's quality.

5. Test Insulation Resistance

o Connect the Megger to the wire’s two ends (conductor and insulation).
o Apply a high voltage (e.g., 500V).
o Ensure the insulation resistance is at least 1 MΩ or as per BIS standards.

6. Check Current-Carrying Capacity

o If the wire is connected to a live circuit, use a Clamp Meter to measure the current
flow.
o Verify that the wire's current-carrying capacity matches the application's
requirements.
7. Compare with Standards

o Refer to the BIS Table for wire sizes and their respective current ratings.
o Match the measured data (cross-sectional area, resistance, insulation resistance,
and current-carrying capacity) with the standards.
8. Determine Wire Suitability

o Based on the above measurements and the application's load requirements, select
the appropriate wire.

Observations
Parameter Measured Value Standard Value (BIS) Remarks

Wire Diameter (mm)

Cross-Sectional Area (mm²)

Resistance (Ω/m)
 Parameter Measured Value Standard Value (BIS) Remarks

Insulation Resistance (MΩ) ≥ 1 MΩ

Current-Carrying Capacity (A)

Selected Wire Type/Size

Result

The appropriate wire for the application was selected based on measurements, testing, and
comparison with BIS standards.

Precautions
1. Ensure all instruments are properly calibrated before use.
2. Handle wires and tools with insulated gloves for safety.
3. Avoid touching exposed conductors during testing.
4. Ensure the wire is de-energized during resistance and insulation testing.
5. Compare all results with BIS standards for accuracy.

3.Identify cables of different current ratings

Objective

To identify various types of cables and their current-carrying capacities based on cross-
sectional area, insulation type, and application.

Apparatus and Materials Required

1. Samples of cables of different types and sizes:
o PVC insulated cables

o Flexible cables
o Armoured cables
o Low-tension and high-tension cables
2. Wire Gauge or Vernier Caliper: For measuring cable diameter.
 3. Multimeter: To test resistance and continuity.
4. Clamp Meter: To measure current if cables are in use.
5. BIS Standards Table: Reference for current ratings.
6. Identification chart for insulation types (e.g., PVC, XLPE).

Theory

The current-carrying capacity of a cable depends on:

1. Cross-Sectional Area (mm²): Larger cables carry more current.

2. Type of Insulation: Materials like PVC, XLPE, or VIR impact thermal and electrical
performance.
3. Cable Type: Solid or stranded conductors, armoured or unarmoured cables.
4. Ambient Conditions: Installation environment (temperature, ventilation).

Standard values are provided by BIS for safe current ratings based on wire size and insulation
type.

Procedure

1. Inspect the Cable

o Observe the markings on the cable to identify its size, insulation type, and voltage
rating.
2. Measure Conductor Diameter

o Use a Wire Gauge or Vernier Caliper to measure the diameter of the conductor.
o Calculate the cross-sectional area (AAA): A=π(d2)2A = \pi \left( \frac{d}{2} \
right)^2A=π(2d)2
3. Identify Insulation Type

o Examine the outer insulation. Match the material (e.g., PVC, XLPE, rubber) with the
identification chart.
4. Test Cable Properties

o Use a Multimeter to check for continuity and resistance.

o If the cable is live, use a Clamp Meter to measure the actual current flowing through
it.
5. Compare with BIS Standards
 o Refer to the BIS Table for current ratings based on cross-sectional area and
insulation type.

BIS Reference Table

Cross-Sectional Area (mm²) Current Rating (A) Common Applications

1.0 mm² 11–13 A Lighting circuits (low load)

1.5 mm² 16 A Residential lighting, fans

2.5 mm² 22–25 A Power sockets, heavy-duty lighting

4.0 mm² 28–32 A Air conditioners, water heaters

6.0 mm² 36–40 A Industrial loads, power circuits

10 mm² 50–55 A High-power motors, industrial loads

Observations
Cable Type Cross-Sectional Area (mm²) Insulation Type Current Rating (A) Application

PVC Cable

Flexible Cable

Armoured Cable

Low-Tension Cable

High-Tension Cable

Result

Cables of various current ratings were identified based on their cross-sectional area,
insulation type, and application.

Precautions
1. Ensure all measuring instruments are calibrated before use.
2. Handle live cables with care and use insulated gloves.
3. Verify cable markings for accurate identification.
4. Refer to BIS standards to avoid incorrect conclusions.
4.Identify different Cable insulation materials (brief introduction) - vulcanized rubber
(VIR), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cross linked polythene (XLPE), impregnated paper used in
various applications.

1. Vulcanized Rubber (VIR)

 Description:
Vulcanized rubber is a natural or synthetic rubber that has undergone vulcanization, a
process where sulfur is added to improve its strength, elasticity, and heat resistance.
 Properties:
o Good flexibility and elasticity.
o High insulation resistance.
o Temperature range: -20°C to 85°C.
 Applications:
o Used in domestic wiring systems (historically, before PVC became more common).
o Low voltage applications like lighting and small appliances.

2. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

 Description:
PVC is a thermoplastic material widely used for insulation due to its durability, flexibility, and
resistance to moisture and chemicals.
 Properties:
o Flame retardant.
o Resistant to oils, chemicals, and abrasion.
o Operating temperature range: -10°C to 70°C (normal PVC) or up to 105°C for heat-
resistant types.
 Applications:
o Residential and industrial wiring.
o Low and medium voltage cables.
o General-purpose electrical installations.

3. Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE)

 Description:
XLPE is a thermosetting plastic obtained by chemically cross-linking polyethylene, enhancing
its thermal and electrical properties.
 Properties:
 o Excellent thermal stability and insulation properties.
o Withstands higher temperatures (up to 90°C during operation and 250°C during
short circuits).
o Resistant to chemicals and water.
 Applications:
o High-voltage (HV) and extra-high-voltage (EHV) cables.
o Underground and submarine cables.
o Industrial power distribution systems.

4. Impregnated Paper
 Description:
Impregnated paper insulation is made by saturating paper with insulating oils or resins to
improve its dielectric properties and moisture resistance.
 Properties:
o High dielectric strength.
o Good moisture resistance when impregnated with oil or resin.
o Requires careful sealing to prevent leakage of impregnating materials.
 Applications:
o Low and medium voltage underground cables.
o Used historically in high-voltage power transmission before XLPE gained popularity.

Comparison Table

Material Key Features Applications

Flexible, heat resistant, Domestic wiring, low voltage circuits (historical

Vulcanized Rubber (VIR)
good insulation use).

Durable, flame retardant, Residential wiring, general-purpose

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
chemical resistant installations, low-medium voltage cables.

Cross-Linked High thermal stability, High-voltage and extra-high-voltage cables,

Polyethylene (XLPE) chemical resistant industrial power systems.

High dielectric strength, Underground and historical high-voltage power

Impregnated Paper
moisture resistant transmission cables.
By understanding the properties and applications of these insulation materials, electricians
and engineers can select the appropriate cables for specific installations and ensure reliable
and safe operation.

5. Control one lamp from two different places using PVC surface
conduit wiring system.

Objective

To design, install, and test a PVC surface conduit wiring system to control one lamp from
two different places using two-way switches.

Materials Required
1. PVC Conduit Pipes: For surface wiring.
2. Two-Way Switches: 2 units.
3. Lamp Holder with Lamp: 1 unit.
4. PVC Junction Boxes: 2-3 units.
5. PVC Clamps: To fix conduits on the wall.
6. Electrical Wire: 1.5 mm² PVC insulated copper wires (as per BIS).
7. Switch Board: 1 unit.
8. Screws and Fasteners: For fixing conduits and boxes.
9. Drill and Screwdriver Set: For mounting components.
10. Wire Stripper and Cutter: For preparing wires.
11. Multimeter: For continuity and functionality testing.

Theory

In this setup, a lamp is controlled from two different locations using two two-way switches.
The wiring involves connecting the switches and the lamp in a specific arrangement so that
toggling either switch turns the lamp ON or OFF.
Wiring Diagram

Below is the circuit arrangement:

1. Two-Way Switches: Each switch has three terminals:

o Common (C)
o L1 (Line 1)
o L2 (Line 2)

2. Connections:

o The phase wire from the power supply is connected to the common terminal (C) of
Switch 1.
o The L1 and L2 terminals of Switch 1 are connected to the L1 and L2 terminals of
Switch 2, respectively, using two wires.
o The common terminal of Switch 2 is connected to the live terminal of the lamp
holder.
o The neutral wire from the power supply is connected directly to the neutral terminal
of the lamp holder.

Procedure

1. Mark the Wiring Path:

o Mark the positions for the switches, lamp holder, and junction boxes on the wall.

2. Install Conduits:

o Cut PVC conduit pipes to the required lengths.

o Secure the conduits on the wall using clamps and fasteners.

3. Install Junction Boxes and Accessories:

o Fix the junction boxes and switchboards securely on the wall.

o Mount the lamp holder.

4. Pull Wires Through Conduits:

o Pull the phase, neutral, and switch connection wires through the conduit pipes using
a draw wire if necessary.
5. Make Connections:

o Connect the phase wire to the common terminal of Switch 1.

o Interconnect L1 and L2 of both switches.
o Connect the common terminal of Switch 2 to the live terminal of the lamp holder.
 o Connect the neutral wire directly to the lamp holder's neutral terminal.

6. Test the Wiring:

o Before energizing, use a multimeter to check for continuity and ensure there are no
short circuits.
o Switch on the power supply and test the operation of the lamp by toggling both
switches.

Observation Table
Action Switch 1 Position Switch 2 Position Lamp Status

Both switches in the same position ON or OFF ON or OFF OFF

Both switches in different positions ON or OFF ON or OFF ON

Precautions
1. Ensure the power supply is switched off during installation.
2. Use proper insulation and connect wires securely to terminals.
3. Test for continuity and short circuits before energizing the circuit.
4. Use wires of the correct size to avoid overheating.

Result

The lamp was successfully controlled from two different locations using the PVC surface
conduit wiring system.

Designing a 2BHK residential electrical installation scheme involves creating a plan that
includes proper lighting, power points, and other necessary details. Here's a step-by-
step approach:

1. Layout Design

1. Rooms to Include:
o Two Bedrooms

o Living Room
o Kitchen
 o Bathroom
o Balcony (optional)
2. Fixtures:
o Ceiling lights
o Wall-mounted lights
o Fans
o Power sockets
o Switchboards
o Circuit breaker box

2. Electrical Points Distribution

 Bedrooms (Each):
o 1 Ceiling light

o 2 Plug points (5A/15A) for TV, charger, etc.

o 1 Fan point
 Living Room:
o 2 Ceiling lights
o 1 Wall light
o 2 Plug points (5A)
o 1 Fan point
 Kitchen:
o 1 Ceiling light
o 2 Plug points (5A/15A) for fridge and appliances
 Bathroom:
o 1 Ceiling light
o 1 Exhaust fan point
 Common Area:
o 1 Distribution Board with MCB

3. Material Estimate
 Item Quantity Remarks
1. Wires (1.5 sq mm) 90 meters For lights and fans
2. Wires (2.5 sq mm) 60 meters For power sockets
3. Switchboards 6 For all rooms
4. Plug Sockets 10 For appliances and devices
5. Ceiling Lights 6 LED lights recommended
6. Fans 3 For bedrooms and living room
7. MCB Panel 1 For distribution board
8. Conduits (PVC pipes) 50 meters For concealing wiring
9. Junction Boxes 5 For wiring joints
10. Screws and Clips As required For mounting

4. Installation Details

 Use surface conduits or concealed wiring as per preference.

 Ensure MCB ratings are appropriate for the load:
o Lighting: 6A MCB
o Power sockets: 16A MCB
 Follow standard IS Codes for safe installations.

5. Drawing

The drawing will include:

1. Plan View of the 2BHK showing positions of lights, fans, switches, and sockets.
2. Wiring Diagram for connections from the DB to the appliances.
3. MCB Panel Layout.

OR

Designing a 2BHK residential electrical installation scheme involves

creating a plan that includes proper lighting, power points, and other
necessary details. Here's a step-by-step approach

Objective

To design a 2 BHK electrical installation scheme, estimate the materials required, and draw a
schematic diagram with installation details.

Steps to Design
Room-wise Load Distribution
Room Load Details No. of Points Total Load (W)

2 Tube Lights (40 W each), 2 Fans (60 W each), 2

Bedroom 1 6 200
Sockets

Bedroom 2 2 Tube Lights (40 W each), 1 Fan (60 W), 2 Sockets 5 180

2 Tube Lights (40 W each), 1 Ceiling Fan (60 W), 3

Living Room 6 220
Sockets

Kitchen 1 LED Light (20 W), 1 Exhaust Fan (60 W), 2 Sockets 4 140

Bathroom 1 LED Light (20 W), 1 Geyser (1500 W) 2 1520

Common Areas 1 Tube Light (40 W) 1 40

Total 24 Points 2300 W

Material Estimation

Material Requirements
Item Specifications Quantity Purpose

1.5 mm² (Lighting), 2.5

Wires 100 m each Lighting and socket connections.
mm² (Power)

Connection from the main supply to

Main Cable 6 mm² 10 m
the distribution board.

Conduits (PVC) 20 mm 40 m For surface wiring and cable routing.

Switch Boards 6 modular 6 units To house switches and sockets.

Switches 6A 12 units For controlling lights and fans.

Sockets 6 A (5 units), 16 A (3 units) 8 units General and power socket outlets.

Ceiling fans for bedrooms and living

Fans 60 W 4 units
room.

7 tube lights, 2
Lights 40 W tube lights, 20 W LED For illumination in rooms and kitchen.
LEDs

Geyser 1.5 kW 1 unit For bathroom hot water supply.

Distribution
8-way MCB panel 1 unit Houses MCBs for circuit protection.
Board

MCBs 16 A, 6 A 4 units each Circuit breakers for lighting and power

 Item Specifications Quantity Purpose

circuits.

Junction Boxes PVC type 8 units To connect multiple wires.

Clips and Screws Standard As required To fix conduits and boards.

Tape and
Insulation tape, clamps As required For securing wires and final touches.
Accessories

Estimated Cost
Item Rate (₹) Quantity Total Cost (₹)

Wires (1.5 mm², 2.5 mm²) 10/m (approx) 200 m 2000

Conduits (20 mm PVC) 15/m 40 m 600

Switch Boards 300/unit 6 units 1800

Switches (6 A) 50/unit 12 units 600

Sockets 6 A: 50/unit, 16 A: 100/unit 8 units 600

Fans (60 W) 1500/unit 4 units 6000

Tube Lights 300/unit 7 units 2100

LED Lights 500/unit 2 units 1000

Geyser (1.5 kW) 5000/unit 1 unit 5000

Distribution Board 3000/unit 1 unit 3000

MCBs (16 A, 6 A) 250/unit 8 units 2000

Miscellaneous 2000

Total Cost 27,700

Installation Details

1. Lighting Circuit:
o Use 1.5 mm² wires for all lighting points.
o Connect lights and fans in separate circuits for better load management.

2. Power Circuit:

o Use 2.5 mm² wires for sockets and high-power devices (e.g., geyser).
 o Use separate MCBs for lighting, power, and the geyser.

3. Earthing:

o Ensure all circuits have a proper earthing connection using a 6 mm² green PVC wire.

4. Conduits:

o Lay conduits on walls as per the shortest path to avoid wire wastage.
o Secure with clamps at intervals of 1 m.

A4 Size Drawing Description

The drawing should include:

1. Floor Plan:
o Clearly mark the locations of switches, sockets, lights, fans, and geyser.
o Indicate conduit paths.

2. Schematic Diagram:

o Show the wiring connections for all circuits (lighting, power, and geyser).
o Include details of the distribution board and MCB ratings.

3. Symbols Used:

o Lamp: ○
o Switch: ⬛
o Socket: ⬤
o Fan: F
o Conduit: ———

Conclusion

The 2 BHK residential electrical installation scheme has been designed with detailed load
distribution, material estimation, and wiring connections. Ensure to implement proper safety
standards and follow BIS guidelines during installation.

7.Identify and study different types of light sources and their Luminous flux
Objective

To identify various types of light sources, understand their characteristics, and compare their
luminous flux (brightness output) in lumens.

1. Incandescent Bulb

 Description:
Traditional light source where an electric current heats a tungsten filament, causing it to
glow.
 Luminous Flux:
12-15 lumens per watt (lm/W).
Example: A 60 W incandescent bulb produces about 800 lumens.
 Applications:
Used in residential lighting, decorative fixtures, and table lamps.
 Advantages:
Low cost, warm light.
 Disadvantages:
Low efficiency, high heat production, short lifespan.

2. Fluorescent Tube Light (FTL)

 Description:
A glass tube filled with mercury vapor, which produces ultraviolet (UV) light when electricity
passes through it; a phosphor coating converts UV light to visible light.
 Luminous Flux:
60-100 lm/W.
Example: A 40 W tube light produces about 2400-4000 lumens.
 Applications:
Offices, schools, and industrial spaces.
 Advantages:
High efficiency, lower energy consumption than incandescent bulbs.
 Disadvantages:
Contains mercury, which is hazardous.

3. Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

 Description:
A compact version of the fluorescent tube, designed for residential use.
  Luminous Flux:
50-70 lm/W.
Example: A 15 W CFL produces about 800 lumens.
 Applications:
Residential, commercial, and outdoor lighting.
 Advantages:
Energy-efficient, longer lifespan than incandescent bulbs.
 Disadvantages:
Contains mercury, reduced brightness over time.

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

 Description:
A semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current passes through it.
 Luminous Flux:
80-120 lm/W (can exceed 150 lm/W in advanced LEDs).
Example: A 10 W LED produces about 800-1000 lumens.
 Applications:
Residential, commercial, streetlights, automotive lighting.
 Advantages:
Highly energy-efficient, long-lasting, and eco-friendly.
 Disadvantages:
Higher initial cost (but decreasing over time).

5. Halogen Lamp

 Description:
An improved version of the incandescent lamp with halogen gas, increasing efficiency and
lifespan.
 Luminous Flux:
16-20 lm/W.
Example: A 50 W halogen lamp produces about 800-1000 lumens.
 Applications:
Spotlights, outdoor lighting, automotive headlights.
 Advantages:
Brighter and smaller than traditional incandescent bulbs.
 Disadvantages:
High heat generation, lower efficiency than LEDs.
6. High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

 Description:
A category that includes metal halide, sodium vapor, and mercury vapor lamps. These lamps
generate light through an electric arc in a gas-filled chamber.
 Luminous Flux:
o Metal Halide: 80-100 lm/W.
o High-Pressure Sodium (HPS): 100-150 lm/W.
o Mercury Vapor: 50-60 lm/W.
 Applications:
Streetlights, industrial lighting, stadiums, and parking lots.
 Advantages:
High brightness and long-range illumination.
 Disadvantages:
Contains harmful substances like mercury, slow start-up time.

7. Solar Lamps

 Description:
LED-based light sources powered by solar energy.
 Luminous Flux:
Same as LED (80-120 lm/W) but varies based on solar panel and battery quality.
 Applications:
Outdoor lighting, garden lights, remote areas.
 Advantages:
Eco-friendly, renewable energy source.
 Disadvantages:
Dependent on sunlight availability.

Comparison Table

Luminous Flux
Type of Light Source Typical Applications Key Characteristics
(lm/W)

Residential, decorative Low efficiency, high heat

Incandescent Bulb 12-15
lighting output.

Fluorescent Tube Light Offices, schools,

60-100 Efficient, long-lasting.
(FTL) industries

CFL 50-70 Residential, outdoor Energy-efficient, contains

 Luminous Flux
Type of Light Source Typical Applications Key Characteristics
(lm/W)

lighting mercury.

LED 80-120+ All-purpose, streetlights Highly efficient, long lifespan.

Spotlights, outdoor
Halogen Lamp 16-20 Bright, but generates heat.
lighting

Streetlights, stadiums, High brightness, slow start-up

HID Lamps 80-150 (varies)
parking time.

Eco-friendly, sunlight
Solar Lamps 80-120 Outdoor, remote areas
dependent.

Conclusion

Different types of light sources offer unique benefits and are selected based on the specific
requirements of efficiency, brightness, and application. LEDs are the most versatile and
efficient, while traditional sources like incandescent bulbs are becoming obsolete due to their
low efficiency.