Immune System
Immunity : refers to all the mechanisms used by the body for
protection from environmental agents that are foreign to body. These
agents (antigens) may be microorganisms, or their products, certain
food items, chemicals, drugs, pollen, etc.
A study of immune system is called Immunology.
Immunity is of two types :-
a) Innate immunity : also known as non-specific immunity comprises
of all those defense elements with which an individual is born and
which are always available to protect a living body.
It consists of various types of barriers that prevent the entry
of foreign agents into the body. This includes:
The first line of defense.
i) Surface barriers – (a) Skin and its secretions ( keratin protein
present in skin, sweat glands and sebaceous glands)
(b) Mucous membrane and its secretions ( lining the body
cavity, digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts
that open outside the body).
ii) Physiological barriers – (a) Tear glands (modified sweat glands)
secrete tears that contain lysozyme that kills bacteria and also
washes away dirt and infectious agents entering eyes.
(b) Salivary glands secrete saliva that also contains lysozyme
that is bactericidal.
(c) Acidic nature of urine protects the urinary tract from
infection.
The second line of defense.
iii) Biochemical barrier – (a) Interferons -are released by virus-
infected cells. When a virus infects our body, its DNA enters the
host cell and triggers some specific genes in the host cell to
produce a special class of glycoproteins called interferons.
These diffuse to the neighboring healthy cells and activate their
genes to produce antiviral proteins. These proteins prevents
many viral infections.
• Interferons also help to activate macrophages and natural –
killer cells.
• Inhibits viral replication
• Induces resistance of host cells to viral infection
• Increasing antigen presentation to lymphocytes so as to
increase multiplication of matching T – and - cells.
(b) Inflammatory barriers – inflammatory responses (redness, swelling,
pain and generation of heat) occur due to release of chemical alarm
signals such as histamines and prostaglandins by damaged mast cells
and lymphokines by the T-cells, at the site of injury. They cause local
vasodilation to result in more blood flow in that area and release of
clotting factors, antibacterial serum proteins and antibodies and also an
influx of phagocytic cells in the affected area to destroy the invading
pathogens.
iv) Cellular barriers - (a) Phagocytes – the process of engulfing
foreign solids is called phagocytosis. The most important
phagocytes are the neutrophils ( a type of granulocyte)and
macrophages (formed by combining monocytes). Whenever
there is an infection, the total count of leucocytes (WBCs)
increase sharply, circulating throughout the body and
destroying the pathogens by amoeboid action.
Macrophages are large irregular-shaped cells that engulf
microbes, viruses, cellular debris etc.
(b) Natural-killer cells – they are a special type of lymphocytes,
that kill the virus-infected cell and tumor/cancer cells by
creating pores in the cell membrane of cells. These pores allow
entry of water into the target cell that swells and bursts.
b) Acquired immunity : also known as specific immunity. It is found
only in vertebrates. It is capable of recognizing and selectively
eliminating specific micro-organisms. It has following unique features:
i) Specificity: it is the ability to distinguish differences among various
foreign molecules.
ii) Diversity: it can recognize a vast variety of foreign molecules.
iii) It is able to discriminate between self and non-self.
iv) Memory: when the immune system encounters a specific antigen,
for the first time, it generates immune response and eliminates it. The
immune system retains the memory of this encounter. As a result, a
second encounter with the same microbe evokes a heightened immune
response.
The third line of defense.
Acquired immunity involves two types of lymphocytes: (i) T
lymphocytes and (ii) B lymphocytes. Both are produced in the bone
marrow. Some of them mature in the thymus gland and called as T
cells, others mature in the bone marrow itself and called as B cells.
The large and complex foreign molecules (mainly proteins) that activate
the specific immunity are known as antigens. Antigenic determinants
are those sites on antigens that are recognized by antibodies and
receptors present on T and B cells. A subgroup of T cells called T helper
cells, specifically interacts with the antigens and become activated. The
activated T helper cells then activate B cells and T cytotoxic cells in a
specific manner. These cells proliferate to produce a clone of cells
which recognize the same antigen and eliminate it.
Lymphocytes generate two types of specific immunity:
1. Cell-mediated Immunity : generated by T cells, specially the T
cytotoxic cells. An activated Tc cell is specific to a target cell which has
been infected and kills it by a variety of mechanisms. This prevents the
completion of life-cycle of the pathogen. It also helps to kill cancer cells.
Types of T cells
T helper cells T cytotoxic cell T suppressor cell
Th cells help to Specialized for killing They slow down or
activate B cells to virus infected and stop the activity of B,
produce antibodies cancer cells. Th and Tc cells after
and Tc cells to kill infection is controlled.
infected cell.
2. Humoral immunity : (Antibody-mediated immunity) In response to
antigens, B cells produce specialized glycoproteins called antibodies
which are present in body fluids. The ability of an antigen to stimulate
antibody production is called antigenicity. The antibodies released in
response to an antigen are highly specific to them. Antibodies are also
called Immunoglobulin (Ig). The variable region binds to specific
antigens in a lock and key fashion, forming an antigen-antibody
complex.
Humoral immunity are of following types:
Active Immunity
a) Naturally acquired active immunity – produced by actually coming
in contact with antigens. The antibodies produced during infection will
prevent the individual from contracting the same disease in future due
to memory cells. Eg. small pox
b) Artificially acquired immunity – introduced into the body by
vaccination in which dead or attenuated (living but very weak)
pathogens are injected or orally given to the body. This prevents
disease if body actually comes in contact with virulent pathogens. Eg.
polio
Passive Immunity
a) Naturally acquired – transfer of antibodies from mother’s body to
the foetus, through placenta.
b) Artificially acquired – by transfer of antibodies produced in the body
of one individual (dog or horse) into the body of another individual
(humans) through injections. It is short-lived. Eg. snake-bite, tetanus
Antibodies – are also called as Immunoglobulins. There are 5 major
types:
Ig A Provides first line of defense against 10 – 15 Found in serum,
inhaled and ingested pathogens and fights % tears, saliva,
back infection even before the person is seminal fluid,
sensitized. urine, colostrum
and mother’s
milk
Ig D Functions mainly as an antigen receptor Found in Found in serum
on B cells that have not been exposed to very
antigens. It has been shown to small
activate basophils and mast cells to amounts
produce antimicrobial factors and
activates B-lymphocytes to secrete other
immunoglobulins.
Ig E Binds to allergens and Found in Found in
triggers histamine release from mast high mucous
cells and basophils, and is involved in numbers membranes,
allergy. Also protects against parasitic in people skin and lungs
worms. with
allergies
Ig G In its four forms, provides the majority of 75 – 80 Found in blood
antibody-based immunity against invading % and extracellular
pathogens. The only antibody capable of Most fluid. Main
crossing the placenta to give passive common component of
immunity to the foetus upto 6 months humoral
immune system
Ig M Expressed on the surface of B cells 5 – 10 % Found in blood,
(monomer) and in a secreted form mostly
(pentamer) with very high avidity. intravascular
Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of
B cell mediated (humoral) immunity
before there is sufficient IgG.
Table of Antibody isotopes
Structure of an Antibody molecule
Lymphoid organs :
1. Primary lymphoid organs – where B and T lymphocytes mature.
Eg. bone marrow and Thymus.
Bone marrow − Here, all blood cells including lymphocytes are
produced.
Thymus − It is responsible for maturation of Tlymphocytes. This lobed
organ is situated near the heart and keeps on reducing in size as the
age increases.
2. Secondary lymphoid organs– where proliferation and differentiation
of lymphocytes occur. Lymphocytes migrate here after attaining
maturity. Eg. lymph node, spleen and tonsils.
Spleen − Large beanshaped organ containing lymphocytes and
phagocytes, which acts as a filter for blood.
Lymph nodes − Located at different points throughout the immune
system, they trap the antigens present in lymph or tissue fluid, and
these antigens cause activation of lymphocytes and generation of
immune response.
Vaccination and Immunization:
The process of introducing a vaccine in the body to develop immunity
against a particular disease is called vaccination.
The vaccination can be administered either orally or by injecting into
the body.
The process of generating immune response in our body deliberately
through vaccination is called Immunization. The vaccination which
induces generation of antibodies by the body’s immune system is called
Active immunization. The vaccination in which preformed antibodies or
antitoxins are injected in the body is called Passive immunization.
The substances which induce formation of antibodies are called
vaccines. They protect us from infections. The first vaccine to be
developed against any disease was that of small pox by Edward Jenner.
Pasteur in the year 1880 postulated that vaccines could be prepared
from cultures of deadly micro-organisms, but they should be weakened
or attenuated. Vaccines against cholera, anthrax and rabies were
developed by him.
Recent vaccines:
1. Hepatitis B vaccine: Engerix and Shanvac (Vaccine from cellular
fractions of the pathogen)
2. AIDS vaccine: Some important vaccines developed by IVAI
(International AIDS Vaccine Initiative) under clinical trials are:
AIDSVAX (made of purified proteins from HIV surface).
3. Malaria vaccine: Spf-66. This is a synthetic chemical, which mimics
the chemical released by malarial parasite and thus invokes
immune response in human body. It is in trial stage.
4. Anti-rabies vaccine: it is a DNA based vaccine. It does not require
cold-chain, so it is very useful in Indian conditions.
Common vaccines:
1. BCG: Tuberculosis. (Live Vaccine from live, weakened or non-
virulent microorganisms)
2. MMR: Measles, Mumps, Rubella. (Live Vaccine)
3. DPT (Triple Antigen): Diptheria, Pertussis and Tetanus.
(Combination Vaccine)
4. ATS: Antitetanus serum. (Toxoid – toxin released by pathogen is
made harmless by treating with formaldehyde, but it retains
capacity to produce antitoxins)
5. Rabies vaccine: Meraux human diploid cell vaccine, three
injections in arms provide the protection. (Vaccine from killed
germs)
Problems of immune system
1. Allergies
Exaggerated immune response to certain antigens present in
environment
Allergens − Substances in response to which allergy is produce E.g.,
dust, pollen, etc.
Antibodies involved − IgE type
During allergic reactions, chemicals such as histamines and
serotonins are released.
Symptoms − Sneezing, watery eyes, difficulty in breathing, etc.
Allergy test − Patient is injected with small doses of allergens to
monitor his response. Antihistamines, adrenalins, and steroids may be
given so that the symptoms of allergy subside.
2. Autoimmunity:
It is an abnormal condition where the immune system of the body
starts attacking the body’s own cells.
Example:
1. Hashimoto’s disease – immune response against a person’s own
thyroid gland resulting in a condition called myxoedema.
2. Other autoimmune disorders are insulin-dependent diabetes,
rheumatoid arthritis, Addison’s disease etc.
