Digital Electronics

L3

Outline
 Signed Numbers
 Complements
 1’s and 2’s Complements of Binary Numbers
 Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
 Codes
 Gray Codes and its conversion
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 Bit combinations

 Bit - a binary digit 0 or 1

 Nibble - a group of four bits
 Byte - a group of eight bits
 Word - a group of sixteen bits;

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 Signed Numbers

 Digital systems, such as the computer, must be able to handle both

positive and negative numbers.
 A signed binary number consists of both sign and
magnitude information.
 The sign indicates whether a number is positive or negative.
 Magnitude is the value of the number.
 There are 3 forms in which signed integer numbers can be
represented in binary:
 Sign-magnitude
 1’s complement
 2’s complement
 The 2’s complement is the most important and the sign magnitude
are rarely used. 3
 Number Ranges

 A signed number has the range:

-2n-1 to 2n-1 –1
 An unsigned number has the range:
0 to 2n -1

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 Sign-Magnitude Form

 The left most number in a signed binary number is the sign

bit,
which tells you whether the number is positive or negative.
 0 is for positive, and 1 is for negative
 The remaining bits are magnitude bits.
 The magnitude bits are in true (uncomplemented) binary for
both positive and negative number

+25: 00011001 8-bit signed binary number

-25: 10011001

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 The Decimal Value of Signed Number

Sign-Magnitude
 Only the magnitude bits are considered for finding the
decimal value, sign bit will decide the sign
Ex: 10010101
Considering the magnitude bits only: 0010101 :: 2110
The sign bit is 1; therefore the decimal number is -21

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 Compliments
 Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the
subtraction operations and for logical manipulation.
 Easily represent a minus sign electronically in a computer.
 Arithmetic operations are manageable.
 There are two types of compliments for each number base
system.
(i) r’s complement (radix complement)
(ii) (r-1)’s complement (diminished radix complement)

 For base 2, we have 2’s complement & 1’s complement.

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 (r-1)’s Compliments (DRC)
 In general if given a number N in base r and having n digits, then its (r-1)’s
complement is defined as (rn-1)-N.
 Binary case: r=2 & r-1 =1, so 1’s complement of N is (2n-1)-N.
Now 2n in binary is represented with 1 followed by n 0’s. Thus 2n-1 is
represented by n 1’s.
 Example if n=4,
We have 24 =(10000)2 and 24 -1=(01111)2
 Thus 1’s complement is obtained by subtracting each digit from 1. so
only 2 cases occurs either 1-0=1 or 1-1=0. So the bits changes from 0
to 1 & vice versa.
 Example find 1’s comp. of (1010)2
1111-1010=0101 (1’s comp.) 8
 (r-1)’s Compliments

 (r-1)’s Compliments is obtained by subtracting each digit from (rn-1).

 For Octal subtract each digit from 7.
 For Hexadecimal subtract each digit from F (15).
 For r=10,subtract each digit from 9.

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 r’s Compliments
 In general if given a number N in base r and having n digits,
then its r’s complement is defined as: (rn-N) for N≠0.
: 0 for N=0.
 Range of 2’s complement is: (-2n-1 to 2n-1-1).
• For 4 variable it is -8 to 7.

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1’s & 2’s Complement of Binary Numbers

 The 1’s complement and the 2’s complement of a binary

number are important because they permit the
representation of negative numbers.
1’s Complement of a Binary Number
 The 1’s complement of a binary number is found by changing
all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s

10110010

01001101
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 2’s Complement of a Binary Number

 The method of 2’s complement arithmetic is commonly used in

computers to handle negative numbers.
 The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by adding 1 to
the LSB of the 1’s complement.
Q: Find the 2’s complement of 10110010
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 Binary number
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1’s complement
+ 1 Add 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2’s complement

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 1’s Complement Form

 Positive numbers in 1’s complement form are represented the

same way as the positive sign magnitude number.
 Negative numbers, however, are the 1’s complement of the
corresponding positive numbers

+25: 00011001
-25: 11100110

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 2’s Complement Form
 Positive numbers in 2’s complement form are represented the
same way as the sign magnitude and 1’s complement forms.
 Negative numbers, are the 2’s complement of the corresponding
positive numbers:
+25: 00011001
-25: 11100111
Q: Express the decimal number -39 as an 8-bit number in the
sign-magnitude, 1’s complement, and 2’s complement forms.
A: 8-bit number for +39: 00100111
Sign-magnitude form for -39: 10100111
1’s complement form for -39: 11011000
2’s complement form for -39: 11011001
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 Binary subtraction using 1’s Complement
 Direct binary sub. becomes complicated as no. size increase.
 Example: Subtract B from A, then it can be written as A-B or A+(-
B).
 Step1: Convert no. to be subtrated in its 1’s complement from.
 Step2: Perform the addition.
 Step3: If the final carry (FC) is 1, then add it to the result obtained in
step 2. If the FC is 0, then result obtained in step 2 is –ve & in the 1’s
complement form.

 Note: 1’s complement of B is (-B)

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 Subtraction with 1’s Complement
 To subtract smaller no. with larger no. method is as follows:
(1) Determine the 1’s Complement of smaller no.
(2) Add this to larger no.
(3) Remove the carry & add it to the result. This carry is called EAC
(end-around carry)
Q.) Using direct & 1’s complement method, Subtract (1010)2
from (1111)2
Direct Method 1’s Complement Method
1111 1111
-1010 0101 (1’s complement)
0101 Carry 1 0100
Add Carry 1
0101

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 Binary subtraction using 2’s Complement
 EAC is the drawback of 1’s comp.
 Example: Subtract B from A, then it can be written as A-B or A+(-
B).
 Step1: Find 2’s comp. of the no. to be subtrated.
 Step2: Perform the addition.
 Step3: If the FC is generated (i.e.1), then the result is +ve & in its
true form. If FC is not produced (i.e.0), then the result is –ve & in
its 2’s complement form.

 Note: 2’s complement of B is (-B).

 Note: we neglect the FC in 2’s complement method to avoid
overflow.

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 Subtraction with 2’s Complement
 To substract smaller no. with larger no. method is as follows:
(1) Determine the 2’s Complement of smaller no.
(2) Add this to larger no.
(3) Omit the Carry (there is always a carry in this case)
Q.) Using direct & 2’s complement method, Subtract (1010)2
from (1111)2

Direct Method 2’s Complement Method

1111 1111
-1010 0110 (2’s complement)
0101 Carry 10101

Carry is Discarded.
Thus ans. is (0101)2
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 Subtraction with 2’s Complement
 To subtract larger no. with smaller no. method is as follows:
(1) Determine the 2’s Complement of larger no.
(2) Add the 2’s complement to the smaller no.
(3) There is no Carry. The result is in 2’s complement form and is –
ve.
(4) To get an ans in true form, take the 2’s complement and change
the sign.
Q.) Using direct & 2’s complement method, Subtract (1010)2
from (1000)2
Direct Method 2’s Complement Method
1000 1000
-1010 0110 (2’s complement)
0010 No Carry 1110
No Carry is obtained.
Thus the difference is –ve & the true ans is the
2’s complement of (1110)2 i.e (0010)2
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 Addition in the 2’s Complement System
 Since the 2’s complement form for representing signed
numbers is the most widely used in computer and
microprocessor-based systems.
Cases:
1. Both numbers positive
+7 + 4
2. Positive number with magnitude larger than negative number
+15 + (-6)
3. Negative number with magnitude larger than positive number
+16 + (-24)
4. Both numbers negative
-5 + (-9)

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 Addition in the 2’s complement System
 Case 1: Both numbers positive
Lets Say +29 and +19

+29 0 001 1101 (Augend or A)

+19 0 001 0011 (Addend or B)
0 011 0000 (Sum=48)
Sign bit

 The Sign bit of A & B are 0 & the sign bit of the sum is 0,
indicating that when the sum is positive they have the same
no. of bits.

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 Addition in the 2’s complement System
 Case 2: Positive number with magnitude larger than negative
number
Lets Say +39 and -22
Note: -22 will be in 2’s complement form. As +22 [0 001 0110] must be
converted to -22 [1 110 1010]

+39 0 010 0111 (Augend or A)

-22 1 110 1010 (Addend or B)
1 0 001 0001 (Result=17)

Carry Sign bit

 In this case:
 Sign bit also participate in the addition.
 Carry is always omitted and hence the result is 0001 0001 (=+17).
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 Addition in the 2’s complement System
 Case 3: Negative number with magnitude larger than positive
number
Lets Say -47 and +29

-47 1 101 0001 (Augend or A)

+29 0 001 1101 (Addend or B)
1 110 1110 (Result=-18)
Sign bit

 In this case
 Sign bit of 1 in result indicate –ve no. means it is in 2’s complement
form i.e. last 7 bits 1101110 represents 2’s complement of the sum.
 Thus the true magnitude of the sum can be found by taking 2’s
complement of 110 1110; the result is 10010(+18). Thus 1 110 1110
represents -18.
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 Addition in the 2’s complement System
 Case 4: Both numbers negative

Lets Say -32 and -44

-32 1 110 0000 (Augend or A)

-44 1 101 0100 (Addend or B)
1 1 011 0100 (Result=-76)
Carry Sign bit
 In this case
 Carry is discarded and hence the result is 1011 0100.
 The true magnitude of the sum is the 2’s complement of 011 0100, i.e 1
1001100 (-76).

 Thus 2’s complement addition work in every case.

 For n=8, If the decimal sum is outside -128 to +127 range then we get an
Overflow. 24
 Overflow
 If we add two 4 bits no. then sum should be 4 bit no. only if the sum
is greater than 4 bit no. then Overflow occurs.
 Example: Lets (1001) + (1100)

 For 4 variables range of 2’s comp. is -8 to +7

1001
1100
10101
Overflow

 Trick to check or Condition for overflow:

x’y’z + xyz’ =0 (no overflow)
=1 (overflow)
 Where x, y, and z are the sign bits of two no.’s, and result (z)
respectively. 25
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers Cont.

Q: Perform each of the following subtractions of signed

numbers:
 11100111 – 00010011
 10001000 – 11100010

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Hexa-decimal Arithmetic

Q: Perform the following operations:

 2B16 + 8416
 DF16 + AC16
 C316 - 0B16

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 Codes

Codes: When the no. or letters are represented by specific

group of symbols we say that the no. or letters are encoded & the
group of symbols are called codes.

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 Coding
 Coding is the process of altering the characteristics of information
to make it more suitable for intended application.
 Coding schemes depend on:
 Security requirements
 Complexity of the medium of transmission
 Levels of error tolerated
 Need for standardization

 Decoding
 Decoding is the process of reconstructing source information from the
received encoded information
 Decoding can be more complex than coding if there is no prior
knowledge of coding schemes
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Classification of Codes

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 Self Complementing or Reflective Code
 Code of 9 is complement of 0.
 Code of 8 is complement of 1.
 Code of 7 is complement of 2.
……..
Example: 2421 Code

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 Sequential Code
 Each succeeding Code is 1 binary no. greater than the preceding
code. Example: 8421, XS-3 Code.

Alphanumeric Code
 Can represent no., character, symbols, and small instructions.
Example: ASCII

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 How do we select a coding scheme?
 It should have some desirable properties
 ease of coding
 ease in arithmetic operations
 minimum use of hardware
 error detection property
 ability to prevent wrong output during transitions

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 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

 Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a way to express each of the

decimal digits with a binary code.
The 8421 Code
 The 8421 is a type of BCD code.
 Binary coded decimal means that each decimal digit, 0 through
9, is represented by a binary code of four bits
 The designation 8421 indicates the binary weights of the four
bits (23, 22, 21, 20 )

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 The 8421 BCD Code

 You should realize that, with four bits, sixteen numbers

(0000 through 1111) can be represented but that, in the 8421
code, only ten of these are used.
 The six code combinations that are not used – 1010, 1011,
1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 – are invalid in the 8421 BCD code
Convert the following decimal numbers to BCD
 15  00010101
 98  10011000
 2469  0010010001101001
Convert the following BCD code to decimal numbers
 10000110  86
 001101010001  351
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 BCD Addition

 Step 1: Add the two BCD numbers, using the rules for
binary addition.
 Step 2: If a 4-bit sum is equal to or less than 9, it is a
valid BCD number
 Step 3: If a 4-bit sum is greater than 9, or if a carry out of the
4-bit group is generated, it is an invalid result. Add 6
(0110) to the 4-bit sum in order to skip the six invalid states
and return the code to 8421. If a carry results when 6 is
added, simply add the carry to the next 4-bit group
Add the following BCD Numbers
 00010110 + 00010101
 01100111 + 01010011 36
 Introduction to the Gray Code

 The Gray code is unweighted and is not an arithmetic code;

 The important feature of the Gray code is that it exhibits only a single
bit change from one code word to the next in sequence.
 Also known as Reflected Binary Code or Cyclic Code.
 Unit distance Code & Minimum error Code.
 This property is very important in many applications for error detection

Frank Gray
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The Gray Code Contd.

 Two successive values

differ in only 1 bit.
 Switching is reduced in
GC.

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 Binary-to-Gray Code Conversion
 Binary is converted to GC to reduce the switching operation.
 Step1: Record the MSB as it is.
 Step2: Add the MSB to the next adjacent bit, record the sum &
neglect the carry.
 Step3: Repeat the process.

Convert the binary number to Gray code

 11000110 Ans: 10100101
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 Binary-to-Gray Code Conversion
 Binary is converted to GC to reduce the switching operation.
 Step1: Record the MSB as it is.
 Step2: Add the MSB to the next bit, record the sum & neglect the carry. Or
perform X-OR operation.
 Step3: Repeat the process.

Note: X-OR is odd 1’s detector. (AB’+A’B)

Convert the binary number to Gray code

 11000110 Ans: 10100101 40
 Gray-to-Binary Conversion
 Gray to binary or binary to gray MSB remains the same.
 The most significant bit (left-most) in the binary code is the same
as the corresponding MSB in the Gray code
 Add each binary code bit generated to the Gray code bit in the
next adjacent position. Discard carries.
Generally:
b (1)= g (1)
b (2)= b (1) X-OR g (2)
b (3)= b (2) X-OR g (3)
b (4)= b (3) X-OR g (4)
b (5)= b (4) X-OR g (5)

Convert the binary number to Gray code

 10101111 Ans: 11001010
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End of the Class

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