1

Chapter 1
Electric charges and Fields

The flow of electrons is known as charges. The flow of charges is known

as electricity
When the charges are at rest, the study is known as electrostatics or
static electricity.
When the charges are moving, the study is known as current
electricity or electrodynamics.
When the charges flow through vacuum or semiconductors, the
study is known as electronics.
Conductors, semiconductors and insulators
▪ Conductors
Substance which allow electricity fluently through a medium are known
as conductors
E. g. Metals are good conductors of electricity
▪ Semiconductors
Substance which allow electricity partially through a medium are known
as semiconductors
E. g. Germanium, silicon
▪ Insulators
Substance which do not allow electricity are known as insulators.
e. g. Plastic, rubber, wood etc.
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Charge (q)
Unit of electric charge is coulomb (C). charge is a scalar quantity. There
are two type of charges - positive and negative charges.
Like charges repels each other and unlike charges attract each other
Basic properties of electric charges
1. Force between two charges
Two like charges i.e. two positive or two negative charges repel each
other. But two unlike charges a i. e. a negative and a positive charge attract
each other
2. Additivity if charges
Consider a system of a number of charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 … . 𝑞𝑛. the total
charges of the system are given by
𝑞𝑞==𝑞𝑞
1 ++𝑞𝑞
2 +𝑞 3 +…… +𝑞𝑛
1 2 +𝑞3 +…… +𝑞𝑛

3. Quantization of charges
According to quantization of charge, charge of a body is always an
integral multiple of fundamental charge i.e charge of an electron
q=
q=±ne
±ne
where n = 1,2,3,4…
e = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Conservation of charge
Charges can neither be created nor be destroyed. For an isolated system
the total charge remains constant
Comparison between gravitational force and electric force
o Electric force is much stronger than gravitational force
 3

o Gravitational force is always attractive but electric force can be

attractive or repulsive
Comparison between charge and mass
1. Charge can be +ve or -ve but mass is always +ve
2. Charge is independent on speed but mass defends on speed
3. Force between two charges can be attractive or repulsive. But force
between two masses is always attractive
4. Charge is conserved but mass is not conserved as it can be converted
into energy
Point charges
If the linear size of the charged bodies is much smaller than the distance
separating them. Then their sizes may be ignored and the charged bodies
are called point charges
Coulomb’s law (inverse square law in electrostatics)

The force of attraction or repulsion between two-point charges is directly

proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 ×
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2

Where ‘k’ is known as proportionality constant

 4

1
𝑘=
4𝜋𝜀

Therefore,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= [1]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2

Where ‘𝜀’ is known as absolute permittivity of the medium.In free space

or vacuum,

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= [2]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Where ‘𝜀0 ’ is known as absolute permittivity of free space or vacuum.

𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚

1
= 9 × 109
4𝜋𝜀0
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 = 9 × 109 [3]
𝑟2

But, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 Where ‘𝜀𝑟 ’ is known as relative permittivity

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟

9××101099
𝐹 =9 𝑞1𝑞𝑞12𝑞2
×
𝐹= × 2𝑟 2
𝜀𝑟𝜀𝑟 𝑟
 5

Relative permittivity or dielectric constant (𝜺𝒓 )

𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
𝜺
𝜺𝒓 =
𝜺𝟎
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of
absolute permittivity to the medium to the absolute permittivity of free
space or vacuum.
Coulomb
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 = 9 × 109
𝑟2

If 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1𝐶, 𝑟 = 1𝑚
𝐹 = 9 × 109 N
Coulomb is that charge which when placed in free space at a distance of
1m from an equal and similar charge repels with a force of 9 × 109 N
Numericals
1. What is the force between two small charged spheres having
charges of 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒄 and 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒄 placed on air 30 cm apart

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑞1 = 2 × 10−7 𝑐
𝑞2 = 3 × 10−7 𝑐
𝑟 = 30𝑐𝑚 = 30 × 10−2 𝑚 Type equation here.

2 × 10−7 × 3 × 10−7
9
𝐹 = 9 × 10
(30 × 10−2 )2
 6

= 6 × 10−3 𝑁

2. Find the force between two small charged spheres having charges
of 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑪 and 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑪 placed in air 20 cm apart
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑞1 = 4 × 10−5 𝑐
𝑞2 = 8 × 10−7 𝑐
𝑟 = 20𝑐𝑚 = 20 × 10−2 𝑚 Type equation here.

4 × 10−5 × 8 × 10−7
9
𝐹 = 9 × 10
(20 × 10−2 )2

F= 7.2 𝑁

3. Two charges 𝟐𝝁𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟒𝝁𝒄 are placed in a medium of dielectric

constant 80 at a distance of 3cm apart. find the force between
them?
9 × 109 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= × 2
𝜀𝑟 𝑟

𝑞1 = 2𝜇𝑐 = 2 × 10−6 𝐶
𝑞2 = 4𝜇𝑐 = 4 × 10−6 𝐶
𝜀𝑟 = 80
𝑟 = 3𝑐𝑚 = 3 × 10−2 𝑚

9 × 109 2 × 10−6 × 4 × 10−6

𝐹= ×
80 (3 × 10−2 )2
 7

= 1𝑁

Superposition principle

If we having many point charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 …. are at distance of

𝑟1 , 𝑟21 , 𝑟31 …. ,the total force on charge 𝑞1 is given by

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹12 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹13 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹14 + ⋯ 𝜃
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞3 1 𝑞1 𝑞4
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = × × 𝑟̂
21 + × × 𝑟̂
31 + × × 𝑟̂41 …
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟21 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟31 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟41 2

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞4
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = [ 2 × 𝑟̂21 + × 𝑟̂
31 + × 𝑟̂41 + ⋯ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟21 𝑟31 2 𝑟41 2

Electric field 1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞4
1 2
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = [ 2 × 𝑟̂21 + × 𝑟̂
31 + × 𝑟̂41 + ⋯ ]
Electric field 4𝜋𝜀
is a0space
𝑟21 in which 𝑟an2 𝑟41 2 place
31 electric charge at any point
experience an electric force
 8

Intensity of electric field (electric field strength)

Intensity of electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at the point. If ‘F’ is the force experienced by a unit
+ve charge ‘q’ in an electric field E. Intensity of electric field is given by
𝑭
𝑬=
𝒒
Unit is N/C or N𝐶 −1 𝑭
𝑬=
𝒒

Uniform Electric field

If the Intensity of electric field has same magnitude and direction, it is a

uniform electric field.
Considered two plates +ve and -ve plate. If ‘V’ is the potential and ‘d’ is
the distance between the plates, then uniform electric field is given by
𝑽
𝑬=
𝒅
𝑽
Unit is V/m or V𝑚−1 𝑬=
𝒅
Electric dipole
 9

A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small vector distance

is called electric dipole. It is a vector quantity. Its direction is from -ve
charge to +ve
Dipole moment
It is the product of magnitude of one of the charges and dipole length. If
‘q’ is the charge and ‘a’ or ‘2l’ is the dipole length. The dipole moment is
given by
𝑷 = 𝟐𝒍𝒒
𝑷 = 𝟐𝒍𝒒
Unit is coulomb meter(Cm)
Force and torque of a dipole placed in a uniform electric field

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and -q of dipole

length ‘a’ placed in a uniform electric field of strength ‘E’. The force
acting in the charge +q is +qE. the force acting in the charge -q is -qE.
The net force acting on the dipole is

𝑭 = 𝒒𝑬 + −𝒒𝑬
𝑭=𝟎

The torque acting on the dipole is given by

 10

𝜏 = 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 𝑎 sin 𝜃

𝜏 = 𝑞𝑎𝐸 sin 𝜃

But, qa = P
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 sin 𝜃

In vector form
𝜏𝜏==𝑃⃗𝑃⃗××𝐸⃗𝐸⃗
❖ When the dipole is perpendicular to the electric field (𝜃 = 90° )
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 sin 𝜃

𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 sin(90)
sin(90) = 1

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐸

𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 sin 90

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐸

❖ When the dipole is parallel to the electric field

(𝜃 = 0° )
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 sin 𝜃

𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 sin 0
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
 11

Expression for the intensity of electric field at a point

▪ Due to a point charge
Consider a point charge +q situated in free space, electric intensity due
to a point charge is given by
1 𝑞
𝐸 = 𝐸 = ×1 2 × 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀04𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
0

▪ Due to a number of charges in space

Consider a point charge 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 … . 𝑞𝑛 , Intensity of electric charge

due to a number of charges is given by

1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2 1 𝑞3
𝐸= × 2 × 𝑟̂1 + × 2 × 𝑟̂2 + × 2 × 𝑟̂3 + ⋯
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3

𝑛 𝑛
1 1 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖
𝐸
𝐸= = ∑∑2 ×2𝑟̂×
𝑖 𝑟̂𝑖
4𝜋𝜀4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟
0 0 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1𝑖=1

▪ Due to an electric dipole

a. At a point on the axial line of the dipole

 12

Considered an electric dipole AB of charge q and length ‘2l’ and dipole

moment ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the Centre ‘c’ of the dipole
Electric intensity at o due to charge +q at B is
1 𝑞
𝐸1 = × [1]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟−𝑙)2

Electric intensity at o due to charge -q at A is

1 𝑞
𝐸2 = × [2]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+𝑙)2

Resultant Electric intensity at O due to the dipole is given by

𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸= × − ×
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2

𝑞 1 1
𝐸= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2

𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑙)2
𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙2 )2

𝑞 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑙 + 𝑙2 − (𝑟 2 − 2𝑟𝑙 + 𝑙2 )
𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙2 )2

𝑞 4𝑟𝑙
𝐸= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙2 )2

1 4𝑟𝑙𝑞
= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙2 )2
 13

1 2𝑙𝑞 × 2𝑟
𝐸= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙2 )2

But, 2lq=P

1 2𝑃𝑟
𝐸= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑙2 )2

But 𝑙2 ≪ 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑜 𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

1 2𝑃𝑟
𝐸= × 2 2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 )

1 2𝑃𝑟
𝐸= × 4
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

1 2𝑃
𝐸 =1 ×
2𝑃 3
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀×0 3 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

a. At a point on the equatorial line of the dipole

 14

Consider an electric dipole AB of charge q and length ‘2l’ and dipole

moment ‘P’. let ‘O’ be any point on its equatorial line at a distance ‘r’
from the Centre ‘C’ of the dipole
Electric intensity at O due to charge +q at A is
1 𝑞
𝐸1 = × [1]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

Resolving 𝐸1 into two components

1. 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝑋 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒(OX)
2. 𝐸1 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝑌 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑂𝑌)

Electric intensity at O due to charge -q at B is

1 𝑞
𝐸2 = × [2]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥2
Resolving 𝐸2 into two components

3. 𝐸2 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝑋 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

4. 𝐸2 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝑌 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

Hence resultant electric intensity at O due to the dipole is given by

𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸1 sin 𝜃 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸2 sin 𝜃

(sin 𝜃 components canceled each other because they are equal and
opposite)
𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃

𝐸1 = 𝐸2
𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸1 cos 𝜃
𝐸 = 2𝐸1 cos 𝜃 [3]
 15

Substituting [1] in [3]

1 𝑞
𝐸 =2× × 2 × cos 𝜃 [4]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥

From triangle ACO

𝐴𝐶
cos 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑂
𝑙
cos 𝜃 = [5]
𝑥
1 𝑞 𝑙
𝐸 =2× × 2×
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 𝑥
1 2𝑙𝑞
𝐸= × 3 [5]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥
But, 2lq = P

1 𝑃
𝐸= × 3 [6]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥

From triangle ACO, applying Pythagoras theorem,

𝑥 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑙2

𝑥 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2
1⁄
𝑥 = (𝑟 2 + 𝑙2 ) 2

3⁄
𝑥 3 = (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 ) 2 [7]
 16

Substituting [7] in [6]

1 𝑃
𝐸= ×
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙2 )3⁄2

But 𝑙2 ≪ 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑜 𝑙2 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

1 𝑃
𝐸= ×
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 )3⁄2

1 𝑃
𝐸= ×
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

Continuous charge distribution

A system of closely spaced charges is said to form a continuous charge
distribution. There are three kind of uniform charge distribution
1. Linear charge distribution
2. Surface charge distribution
3. Volume charge distribution

➢ Linear charge distribution

If the charges are uniformly distributed along the line, it is called linear
charge distribution
▪ Linear charge density(λ )
It is the charge per unit length. If a charge is uniformly distributed over a
length ‘l’ is given by
𝒒
λ =
𝒍
 17

𝒒
ℵ=
𝒍
Unit is C/m or 𝐶𝑚−1
➢ Surface charge distribution
If the charges are uniformly distributed over a surface area it is called
surface charge distribution
▪ Surface charge density(𝝈)
It is the charge per unit area of the surface. If a charge ’q’ is uniformly
distributed over a surface area ‘a’ ,then 𝝈 is given by
𝒒
𝝈=
𝒂
𝒒
Unit is C/𝑚2 or 𝐶𝑚−2 𝝈=
𝒂

➢ Volume charge distribution

If the charges are uniformly distributed over a space, it is called volume
charge distribution
▪ Volume charge density(𝝆)
It is the charge per unit volume. If a charge is uniformly distributed over
a volume Then 𝝆 is given by
𝒒
𝝆𝝆== 𝒒
𝑽𝑽
Unit is C/𝑚3 or 𝐶𝑚−3

Electric lines of force

 18

An electric line of force is a path, a straight line or a curve along which

an imaginary positive charge moves. Tangent to the line of force at any
point gives the direction of electric field
Characteristics
1. All line originates from +ve charge and terminates to -ve charge
2. No line of forces exists inside a charged conductor
3. Line of force does not intersect each other
4. The tangent to the line of force gives the direction of electric field

Electric flux (∅)

It is the total number of electric lines passing through a surface.

Considered a small area ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 in a uniform electric field 𝐸⃗ .The electric
flux through the area is given by

∅ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
 19

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑∅ = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
∅ = ∫𝐸

Unit is N𝐶 −1 𝑚2 or weber
Gauss’s Theorem
Gauss’s theorem states that the electric flux through any closed surface in
1
free space is equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface
𝜀0

If ∅ is the electric flux q is the total charge, then according to gauss’s

theorem
1
∅= 𝑞
𝜀0
⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
But , ∅ = ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠
1
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞 1
⃗⃗⃗ 𝜀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞
0
𝑠 𝜀0
Proof

Considered a charge +q situated at a point ‘o’ let ‘p’ be a distance r from

‘o’the intensity of electric field at p is given by
 20

1 𝑞
𝐸= × [1]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

The advantages of gaussian surface is that electric field is constant

everywhere on the surface and angle (𝜃)is zero
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 (𝜃 = 0)
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠 cos 0 cos 0 = 1
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠 [2]
Sub [1] in [2]
1 𝑞
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = × 2 × 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Integrating on both sides
1 𝑞
∫ 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 × 2 × 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑞
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = × 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑠

But, ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

1 𝑞
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = × 2 × 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑠 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1
⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞
𝜀0 1
∫ 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 𝑞
𝑠 𝜀0
Applications
1. Electric intensity due to an infinite plane sheet of charge
 21

Considered a plane sheet of charge density 𝝈 at a point ‘p’ distance ‘r’

from it.Imagine a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder having area
of cross section ‘ds’
Electric flux can be calculated as
∅ = 𝐸 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
∅ = 𝐸 × 2𝑑𝑠 [1]
Charge enclosed by a Gaussian surface
𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑞 = 𝜎 × 𝑑𝑠 [2]
Applying Gauss’s theorem
1
∅= 𝑞 [3]
𝜀0

Substituting [2] in [3]

1
∅= × 𝜎𝑑𝑠 [4]
𝜀0

Equate [1] & [4]

1
𝐸 × 2𝑑𝑠 = × 𝜎𝑑𝑠
𝜀0
𝜎
𝐸= 𝜎
𝐸 =2𝜀0
2𝜀0
 22

2. Electric intensity due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

Consider a uniformly charged spherical conductor of radius ‘R’.to find

out the electric intensity at a point imagine a gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
Electric flux can be calculated as
∅ = 𝐸 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
∅ = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 [1]
Applying gauss’s theorem
1
∅= 𝑞 [2]
𝜀0
Equating [1] in [2]
1
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑞
𝜀0
1 𝑞
𝐸= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Charge enclosed by a gaussian surface
𝑞 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑞 = 𝜎 × 4𝜋𝑅 2
 23

𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎 [4]
Sub [4] in [3]
1 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎
𝐸= ×
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
One of the surface of the spherical shell (r = R)
𝜎 𝑅2
𝐸= × 2
𝜀0 𝑟
𝜎 𝑅2
𝐸= × 2
𝜀0 𝑅

𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸
==
𝜀0𝜀0
Electrostatic shielding
1 𝑞
𝐸= × 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Since q = 0
𝐸=0
The vanishing of electric field inside a conductor is known as electrostatic
shielding
3. Electric intensity due to an infinitively long, straight uniformly
charged wire
 24

Consider an infinitely long straight wire of density λ .let ‘p’ be a point

taken outside the wire. To find out the electric field at a point ‘imagine a
cylinder of radius ‘r’ having length ‘𝑙’
Electric flux through the curved surface is,
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅ = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠
∅ = 𝐸𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃
∅ = 𝐸𝑑𝑠 [1]
Integrating eq [1]
∅ = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
∅ = 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 [2]

Linear charge density is given by

𝑞
λ=
𝑙

𝑞 = λ × 𝑙 [3]

Applying gauss’s theorem

1
∅= 𝑞 [4]
𝜀0
Sub [3] in [4]
 25

1
∅= × λ𝑙
𝜀0

𝜆𝑙
∅= [5]
𝜀0

Equate [2] & [5]

𝜆𝑙
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0

λλ
𝐸𝐸 ==
2𝜋𝑟𝜀
2𝜋𝑟𝜀 00

Dipole in a non-uniform electric field

If the field is non-uniform the net force will be zero, so the dipole executes
translatory motion (linear motion) along with rotational motion
If p is parallel to electric field the dipole has a net force in the
direction of increasing field

If p is anti-parallel to electric field the dipole has a net force in the

direction of decreasing field

Polar and non-polar molecules

 26

➢ Polar molecules
The centre of positive and negative charge does not coincide there for they
have permanent dipole moment even in the absence of external electric
field such molecules are polar molecules.
e.g. Water
➢ Non-Polar molecules
The centre of positive and negative charge lies in the same plane, such
molecules are called non-polar molecules. They have zero dipole moment.
They develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied.
e.g. 𝐶𝑂2, 𝐶𝐶𝑙4, 𝐶𝐻4,
Gold leaf electroscope

It is a sensitive instrument used to check the nature of charge on a body

when a body is brought near a positively charged electroscope
▪ If the leaves get diverged, then the body is positively charged
▪ If the leaves get collapsed, then the body is -vely charged
▪ If the divergence of leaves not affected, then the body is uncharged

Dielectrics
 27

Dielectrics are substances which do not conduct electricity but transmits

electrical influence.
Dielectric polarization
When an electric field is applied to a capacitor, the dielectric material
become polarized, such that the negative charges in the material orient
themselves towards the positive electrode and the positive charges shift
towards the negative electrode.
Application questions
1. A glass rod is rubbed with silk
a. What type of charge is developed on it
b. Name the scientist who established the above phenomenon
c. Mention the basic properties of electric charge

a. Positive charge
b. Benchamin franklin
c. (Refer note)

2. When a polythene sheet is rubbed with wool.it acquires a positive

charge of 300nc
a. Calculate the number of electrons transferred
b. Explain two methods of charging a body
a.

q= ±ne
𝑞
𝑛=
𝐸
𝑞 = 300𝑛𝑐 = 300 × 10−9 𝑐
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑐
 28

300 × 10−9
𝑛=
1.6 × 10−19

= 187.5 × 1010 electrons

b.

▪ Charging by conduction
▪ Charging by induction
According to coulomb law,

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

1.
What are the factors on which proportionality constant k depends?
2. Is coulomb a very large unit of charge. Why?

1. Nature of the medium between two charges

Distance between two charges
2.Yes coulomb is a very large unit of charge
Coulomb is that force which when placed in free space at a distance of
1m from an equal & similar charge repels with a force of 9× 109
2. Charge and mass are inherent properties of matter
a. What is the unit of charge.
b. Discuss the similarities and dissimilarities of charges

a. Coulomb
b. Similarities
▪ They are inherent properties of matter
 29

▪ They are scalar quantities

▪ Dissimilarities
(refer notes)
3. What is the charge on a body which causes 12 excess of protons?

q= ±ne
𝑛 = 12
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑞 = 12 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑞 = 19.6 × 10−19 𝐶

4. State the limitations of coulomb law in electro statistics or is

coulomb law applicable to all the situations
No, it is applicable only when

o Electric charges are stationary

o Charges are point in size
o Both charges are lie in an isolated system

Find the magnitude of electric current which balance deutron of mass

3.2 × 10−27 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑚𝑔
𝐸=
𝑞
𝑚 = 3.2 × 10−27
 30

𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑐
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2

3.2 × 10−27 × 10
𝐸=
1.6 × 10−19
E= 2 × 10−7 𝑁𝐶 −1
Dielectric constant of water is 80 what is it permittivity?

𝜀𝑟 = 80
𝜀 =?
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
−12
𝜀 = 8.85 × 10

= 8.85 × 10−12 × 80

= 708 × 10−12

5. It is safest to be inside the car rather than outside in open ground

under a tree during thunder storm or lightening why?
It is due to electrostatics shielding the body of car is metallic it provides
electrostatic shielding to the person in the car because electric field inside
the car is zero. The discharge due to lightening passes to the ground
through the metallic body of the car.
6. Name the CGS and SI unit of charge give the relation between them?

▪ In SI system unit of charge is coulomb

▪ In CGS system the unit of charges is stat coulomb
1C = 3× 109 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
 31

7. Define uniform electric field and non-uniform electric field how are
they represent graphically?
If the intensity of electric field has same magnitude and direction it is a
uniform electric field

If the intensity of electric field has different magnitude. it is a non-uniform

electric field

8. Write the dimensional formula of 𝜀0

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝜀0 = .
4𝜋𝐹 𝑟 2

(𝐼𝑇)2
𝜀0 =
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 × 𝐿2

𝜀0 = 𝑀−1 𝐿−3 𝑇 4 𝐴2

9.
 32

A and B are negatively charged and insulated conductor state with reason
which conductor will tends to lose charge?
B will lose charge electric field will be greater at the pointed end due to
the concentration of electron in higher electric field the force acting on
charge will be, greater so charge will be lose from the pointed end

10. Why electric intensity at any point inside a charged conductor is

zero?

This is because there no electric line of force inside the body of

conductor.
11. Write the dimensional formula of electric field?
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
𝐸=
𝐼𝑇
𝐸 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 𝐼−1
or
𝐸 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 𝐴−1
12. An electric dipole has positive negative charges of each separated
by a distance of 5mm. Calculate the dipole moment
 33

P =2lq
2l = 5mm = 5× 10−3 𝑚

q = 4𝜇𝑐 =4× 10−6 𝐶

P =5× 10−3 ×4× 10−6

P = 20× 10−9 𝐶-m

13. Electric dipole of length 10 cm placed at an angle of 30° with a

uniform electric field of intensity 3× 105 𝑁/𝐶torque of magnitude
= 5× 10−5 𝑁𝑚 find the dipole moment of the dipole and magnitude
of electric charge?
2l = 10 cm = =10× 10−2 𝑚
𝜃 = 300
E = 3× 105
𝜏 = 5 × 10−5 𝑁𝑚
𝜏 = 𝑃⃗ × 𝐸⃗
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜏
𝑃=
𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
5 × 10−5
𝜃=𝑃=
3 × 10−5 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛30

𝜏 = 3.33 × 10−10 𝐶-m

𝑝
𝑝 = 2𝑙𝑞 , 𝑞 =
2𝑙

P= 0.3 × 10−8 𝑐
34
 1

Chapter 2
Electric potential & Capacitance

Electric potential (V):

Electric potential is the work done by an external agent in moving

a unit +ve charge from infinity to the point against the electric
field.
If ‘W’ is the work done in moving a charge ‘q’ from infinity to
the point, electric potential is given by,
𝑤𝑊
𝑣= 𝑉 =
𝑞𝑞
Unit is J/C or J𝐶 −1 another unit of electric potential is volt (V)

Dimension of Electric potential

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
𝑉=
𝐼𝑇
𝑉 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐼 −1
or
𝑉 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝐴−1
 2

Potential difference

Potential difference between two point is the work done in

moving a unit +ve charge from one point to another
Potential difference between two points A&B is
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴

Relation between electric intensity (E) and potential (V)

Considered two points A &B at a very small distance dx apart.

Let the electric intensity is taken as ‘E’. Let the potential of A &B
is V+dV and V respectively. The work done in moving a unit
charge from B to A is ‘dv’
 3

Work= Force × Displacement 𝐹

𝐸=
𝑞
dV = F×dx
q =1C, E=F
dV = -E ×dx
Negative sign shows that work done is opposite to the electric
field −𝑑𝑉
𝐸=
−𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥
𝐸=
𝑑𝑥
Thus, the electric intensity is the negative gradient of potential

Show that the line integral of electric field along any closed
path is zero

Consider a closed path ‘ABCDA’ in an electric field. The line

integral of electric field along closed path ‘ABCDA’ is

𝐵 𝐴
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝐴 𝐵
 4

𝑦 𝑥
∫ 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = − ∫ 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗
𝑥 𝑦

Along ACBDA along ACB along BDA

𝐵 𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 − ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝐴 𝐴

Along ACBDA along ACB along BDA

∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 0

Along ACBDA

Work done in moving a charge in an electric field

In an electric field consider the potential as ‘v’

𝑤
𝑉=
𝑞
Vq =W
If 𝑒 − of charge ‘e’ moving in an electric field
Ve =W
1
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
 5

Electron volt (eV)

It is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron when accelerated
through a potential difference of one volt.
−19
1eV=1.6×
1eV= 10−19𝐽𝐽
1.6× 10

Conversion of 1Mev to joule:

1MeV= 1.6× 10−19 × 106 𝐽

1MeV= 1.6× 10−13 𝐽

Conversion of 1Nev to joule:

1neV= 1.6× 10−19 × 10−9 𝐽

1neV= 1.6× 10−28 𝐽
Electric potential due to a point charge

Let a point charge +q situated in free space electric potential due

to a point charge is given by
11 𝑞𝑞
𝑉 𝑉== ××
4𝜋𝜀
4𝜋𝜀00 𝑟𝑟
 6

Electric potential due to a number of charges

If charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 …. are at distance of 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 …. from a

point potential is given by
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2 1 𝑞3
𝑉= × + × + × +⋯
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3

𝑛𝑛
1 𝑞𝑞𝑖 𝑖
𝑉 =
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∑𝑟∑
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑖𝑟
0 𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑖=1

Electric potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

Considered a spherical shell of radius ‘R’. it is charged uniformly

and the total charge of the shell is ‘q’. Let ‘p’ be any point at a
distance ‘r’ from the Centre of the shell
 7

Case 1: potential at the point outside the shell (r > R)

1 𝑞
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 × 𝑟 [1]
0

Case 2: potential at the point surface of the shell (r = R)

1 𝑞
𝑉= × [2]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Case 3: potential at the point inside the shell (r < R)
1 𝑞
𝑉= × [3]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

Thus, it is clear that from equation [2] and [3] electric potential is
same at the surface of the shell and inside the shell

Equipotential surface

An equipotential surface is one which electric potential is same

everywhere on the surface. No work is to be done in moving a
charge from one point to the other
 8

Properties

▪ Electric lines of force is perpendicular to the equipotential

surface
▪ No work is to be done in moving a charge from one point to
another
▪ Equipotential surfaces cannot intersect each other

Electron density / electron concentration

There are about 1028 free electrons per 𝑚3 .The number of
electrons in unit volume is called electron density or electron
concentration
Thermal speed
The free electron has an average speed which depends on
temperature. The average speed of electron is called thermal
speed. it is very high and is in the order of 106 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Capacitor
Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge. The ability to
store electric charge is known as capacitance
If a charge ‘q’ of a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential ‘V’
𝑞∝𝑉

𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
 9

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉

Where ‘C’ is known as capacitance of a conductor

Capacitance is defined as the ratio of charge to the potential
imparted. Unit of capacitance is farad (F) or C/V

Since farad is very large unit milli farad (mF) micro farad
𝜇𝐹and Pico farad (pF) commonly used
1𝑚𝐹 = 1 × 10−3 𝐹

1𝜇𝐹 = 1 × 10−6 𝐹

1𝑃𝐹 = 1 × 10−12 𝐹

Farad
Farad is a capacitance of a conductor if a charge of 1 coulomb
raises it potential by one volt.
 10

Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor

Let a charge q is given to a spherical conductor placed in a
medium of dielectric constant k. The potential of the isolated
spherical conductor is given by
1 𝑞
𝑉= ×
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
If there is a dielectric medium there is a dielectric constant k
1 𝑞
𝑉= ×
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑘 𝑟

𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑘𝑟
But,
Capacitance,
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉

𝑞
𝐶= 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑘𝑟

𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑘𝑟
In free space, k = 1
4𝜋𝜀00𝑟𝑟
𝐶𝐶==4𝜋𝜀
 11

Condenser (capacitor)
Condenser is an arrangement of conductors to increase the
capacitance of the conductor
Principle of a condenser

𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are two metal plates. 𝑃1 is positively charged and 𝑃2 is

negatively charged. A charge ‘q’ is given to the metal plate. 𝑃1
and 𝑃2 is earthed .The plates are separated by a distance ‘d’ .In
between the plates there is a dielectric medium, i.e. air
Consider a conductor of charged ‘q’ and potential ‘v’ capacitance
is givenby

𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
If no of capacitors are considered, capacitance is given by
′
𝑞
𝐶 =
𝑉
 12

The presence of earthed conductors 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 increases the

capacitance of 𝑃1 .The presence of earthed conductor 𝑃2 near
𝑃1 is increases the capacitance of 𝑃1 .

Expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are two metal plates. 𝑃1 is positively charged and 𝑃2 is

negatively charged. A charge ‘q’ is given to the metal plates. 𝑃1
and 𝑃2 is earthed the plates are separated by a distance ‘d’ .In
between the plates there is a dielectric medium, i.e. air
Consider a conductor of charged ‘q’ and A is the area of the
plate 𝜎 is the charge density
charge ‘q’ is given by
𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴 [1]
Applying gauss theorem
𝜎
𝐸= [2]
𝜀0
In a uniform electric field
 13

𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 [3]
Sub [2] in [3]
𝜎𝑑
𝑉= [4]
𝜀0
But,capacitance

𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= 𝑑
𝑑

If there is a dielectric medium there is a dielectric constant k, then

the equation becomes,
𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
𝐶 =𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
𝐶= 𝑑
𝑑

Grouping of capacitors
Capacitors are combined in two ways
➢ Capacitors in parallel
➢ Capacitors in series
 14

1. Capacitors in series

Let the capacitors 𝐶1, 𝐶2, 𝐶3, 𝐶4,…… be connected in series to a

potential difference ‘V’ volt. q is the charge given to the capacitor.
Let 𝑉1, 𝑉2, 𝑉3, …. be the respective potential difference across the
capacitors
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 +𝑉3 +……
Now
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞
𝑉=
𝐶
Therefore,
𝑞
𝑉1 =
𝐶1
𝑞
𝑉2 =
𝐶2
𝑞
𝑉3 =
𝐶3
 15

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
= + + +..
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

𝑞 1 1 1
= 𝑞[ + + + ⋯]
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

1 1 1 1
= = ++ ++ 1 +
1 1 1 ⋯
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶1𝐶 𝐶2𝐶 𝐶𝐶3 + ⋯
1 2 3

Thus, the reciprocal of effective capacitance connected in series

is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of individual capacitances.

Capacitors connected in parallel

Let the capacitors 𝐶1, 𝐶2, 𝐶3, … be connected in parallel to a

source of potential difference ‘V’ volt.
 16

Let 𝑞1, 𝑞2, 𝑞3, … be the charge acquired by the capacitors

𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 +𝑞3 +……
But
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉

Therefore,
𝑞1 = 𝐶1 𝑉

𝑞2 = 𝐶2 𝑉

𝑞3 = 𝐶3 𝑉

𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 + ⋯

𝐶𝑉 = 𝑉 [𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ ]

𝐶𝐶==𝐶𝐶11 +
+𝐶 +𝐶𝐶33++⋯⋯
𝐶22 +

Thus, the effective capacitance connected in Parallel is equal to

the sum of individual capacitances.
 17

Energy stored in a capacitor (U)

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
Work done by a capacitor is given by
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞

If an additional charge ‘dq’ is given to the capacitor, Work

changes to dw.
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞
But,
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞
𝑉=
𝐶
𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
Integrating on both sides
𝑞
𝑞
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞
0 𝐶

1 𝑞
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑞
𝐶 0
 18

𝑞
1 𝑞2
𝑊= [ ]
𝐶 2 0

𝑞
1 𝑞 2 02
𝑊= [ − ]
𝐶 2 2 0

𝑞2
𝑊=
𝐶×2

𝑞2
𝑈=
2𝐶
Work done = energy stored

W=U

But, q = CV

𝐶 2𝑉 2
𝑈=
2𝐶
1 2
𝑈 = 1 𝐶𝑉
𝑈 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2
2

Energy density in a capacitor(u)

Energy stored per unit volume is known as energy density
 19

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑢=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
1 2
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉
2

1 𝜀0 𝐴 2
𝑈= 𝑉 [1]
2 𝑑

Volume, V = Area × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

V=A×𝑑
1 𝜀0 𝐴 2
𝑉
𝑢= 2 𝑑
A ×𝑑
1 𝑉2
𝑈 = 𝜀0 2
2 𝑑
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑

𝑉2
𝐸= 2
𝑑

𝑈 =11 𝜀 𝐸22
𝑈 = 2𝜀00𝐸
2
 20

Van de Graff generator

In 1930 van de Graff developed an electrostatic generator is called

van de Graff generators
Aim
▪ It is used to produce a potential difference between 6-10
million volts
▪ It is used to accelerate charged particle
E.g. Proton, deuteron electron etc.

Principle
 21

▪ Action of points
▪ When a charged conductor is brought near a hollow
conductor all of the charge is transferred to a hollow
conductor and it get charged irrespective of potential

Apparatus
It consists of a large metal sphere of high insulating support 𝑝1,
and 𝑝2, are two pullies. 𝑝2, at the center of the metal sphere and
𝑝1, is vertically below 𝑝2, there is an endless belt ‘b’ which can run
by an electric motor ‘M’ 𝐵1, and 𝐵2, are two metal brushes 𝐵1, is
called spraying brush and 𝐵2, is called collecting brush ‘HT’ is
the high tension battery

Working
The positive terminal of the high-tension battery is connected to
the brush b1.the positive charges are sprayed by the brush b.
Another brush b2 collect positive charges and by induction it
becomes negatively charged. Positively charges are uniformity
distributed over the surface of the sphere as the belt is revolving
continuously the potential of the sphere goes on rising and a high
voltage 6-10 million volts are developed.

Uses
 22

1. It is used to produce a potential difference between 6-

10 million volts
2. It is used to accelerate charged particle
E.g. Proton, deuteron electron etc.

Limitations
It does not accelerate uncharged particle
E.g. Neutrons

Application Questions

1. Potential of conductor changes on charging

a. How are the charge and potential related?
b. What is the ratio called?

a.
𝑞∝𝑉
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
Where c is known as capacitor of conductor

2. A capacitor of capacitance ‘c’ connected to a voltage

source of potential difference ‘v’ the capacitor charges
 23

a. What happened the voltage across the capacitance

as voltage increased?
b. What is the net work done when capacitor is fully
charged?

a. Voltage increases
1
b. 𝑤 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2

3. Would electron move from higher potential to lower

potential and vice versa
Since the charge move from higher potential to lower potential
the electron being negatively charged move from lower potential
to higher potential

4. Write the expression for capacitance of a series

combination of n capacitors

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

5. Defined the unit of electric potential

The unit of electric potential is volt (v)

6. What is the basic use of a capacitor

 24

The basic use of a capacitor is to store charge and energy

The Electric potential at a point in an electric field is said to be
one volt.if one joule of work is done bringing one coulomb of
charge from infinity to the point against the electric field.

7. What is the net charge on a charged capacitor?

Zero, because the two plate of a charged capacitor carry equal and
opposite charges hence the net charge is zero

8. What is the dimension of capacitance?

𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
But,
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
𝑞2
𝐶=
𝑤
𝐼2𝑇 2
𝐶=
𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
𝐶 = 𝑀−1 𝐿−2 𝑇 4 𝐼 2
or
𝐶 = 𝑀 −1 𝐿−2 𝑇 4 𝐴2
 25

9. A parallel plate capacitor of area 2𝒎𝟐 with a medium of

dielectric constant 7 is charged to a potential of 100 v. Its
plate separation is 0.01 mm. calculate the capacitance?

𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12
𝑘=7
A = 2𝑚2
d = 0.01mm
= 0.01× 10−3 𝑚
8.85 × 10−12 × 7 × 2
𝐶=
0.01 × 10−3

C= 12390 × 10−9

C= 1.2390 × 10−5 F
 26

10. What is the area of the plate of 2F parallel plate

capacitor given the separation between the plate is
0.5mm

𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
𝑐𝑑
𝐴=
𝜀0

𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12
d = 0.5cm
= 0.5× 10−2 𝑚
C = 2F

2 × 0.5 × 10−2
𝐴=
8.85 × 10−12

𝐴 = 0.112 × 1010 𝑚2

11. Four capacitors of 4 𝝁F connected in

a. series
b. parallel
Calculate the net capacitance of each case

a.
 27

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶4

𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 𝐶4 = 4𝜇𝐹
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝐶 4 4 4 4
1 1
=4×
𝐶 4
C = 1𝜇𝐹
b.
𝑐 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + 𝐶4
=4×4
= 16𝜇𝐹

12. What happened to the plate of charged capacitors

are suddenly connected by a conducting wire

The capacitors plate will get discharged immediately. Energy

stored ij the capacitor changes into heat energy
 GIRISH'S PRIVATE TUTION FOR PHYSICS
Mob:- 9447015114, 9496466364
UNIT: 2
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Current Electricity :
When the charges are moving, the study is known as electrodynamics
or current Electricity.
Intensity Of Electric Field :
It is defined as the rate of flow of charge through any section of a
conductor.
If a charge 'q' passes through a conductor in a time 't', intensity of
Electric field is given by,
𝑞
𝑖 = ⁄𝑡
Unit of Electric current is 'Ampere'(A) or c/s
Direction And Velocity Of Electric Current :
The direction of Electric current is from +ve charge to -ve charge.
The velocity of electric current is nearly equal to the velocity of light
in vacuum. ie 3×108 m/s
Electric current is a scalar quantity because it doesn't obey vector
laws of addition.
Current Density (j) :
It is defined as the electric current flowing normal per unit area of a
conductor.
If 'i' is the current passing through an area 'a', current density of the
conductor is given by,
 𝑗 = 𝑖⁄𝑎
Unit of current density is A/𝑚2
Cell :
In order to maintain a constant current along a conductor, it is
necessary to maintain a steady potential difference between the ends of
a conductor. The device used for this purpose is called a cell.
EMF ( Electromotive force) :
EMF of a cell is equal to the potential difference between it's
terminals, when it is an open circuit, ie, when no current is drawn from
the cell.
EMF may be defined as the amount of work done by the source in
moving a unit charge once around a complete circuit.
If W is the work done in moving a charge q, EMF is given by,

𝐸 = 𝑊⁄𝑞

EMF is measured in volt (v)

Drift Velocity :

In the absence of an electric field, electrons in a conductor are in

random motion. When an electric field is applied, electrons modify
their random motion in such a way that they drift slowly in direction
opposite to the Electric field. The drift Velocity is defined as the
average velocity with which the electrons are drifted under the
influence of electric field. The drift Velocity is small and is of the order
of 10−3 m/s
Relaxation time (𝝉) :
The time interval between successive collisions of electrons with
atom or +ve ion in a conductor is called relaxation time .
Relation between drift Velocity (v) and relaxation time(𝝉)
According to Newton's second law,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹
𝑎=𝑚 (1)

The force on the Electric field is given by,

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
If an electron of charge e is accelerating
𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸 (2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
−𝑒𝐸
𝑎= 𝑚
(3)

But ,
𝑣
𝑎=
𝑡

𝑣 =𝑎×𝑡
−𝑒𝐸
𝑣=( )𝜏
𝑚
Relation between drift velocity and Current

Consider a conductor of length 'l' and number density of electrons 'n'.

[n = number of electrons per volume]
The distance travelled by electron in 𝑑𝑡 time = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
The number of free electrons in the distance 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = A𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 x n
The total charge crossing the area A in 𝒅𝒕 time, 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
Current, 𝐼 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝐼= 𝑑𝑡

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
Relation between drift velocity and Current Density
𝐼
𝐽= 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
𝐴
𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
𝐽= 𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑣𝑑 𝑒
Mobility
V ∝E
V = μE
𝑉 𝑒𝐸 𝑒
𝜇 = 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 𝜏 = 𝑚 𝜏
Mobility ′𝜇′ is defined as the ratio of magnitude of the drift velocity to
electric field strength.
 𝑚𝑠−1
Unit of 𝜇- = 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
𝑣𝑚 −1
𝑚𝑠 −1
Practical Unit of 𝜇- = 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
𝑣𝑚 −1

Ohm's law :
At constant temperature, current flowing through the conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between it's terminals.
If 'I' is the current flowing through a conductor of potential
difference 'V' volt, then according to ohm's law,
𝐼 ∝𝑉
𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼

𝑅 = 𝑉⁄𝐼

where R is known as the resistance of a conductor.

Unit of resistance is Ohm (𝛺)
V-I Graph

A graph plotted with V along x-axis and I along the Y axis. Graph is a
straight line.

If the temperature changes, Ohm's law is not valid because

resistance of a conductor varies with rise in temperature.
Conductance (K) :
Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.

𝑘 = 1⁄𝑅

Unit of conductance is 𝛺 −1 , mho, siemen(s)

Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends :
The factors which depends upon the resistance of a conductor are :
1. Length of the conductor (l)
2. Area of cross-section of the conductor (A)
3. Temperature
4. Nature of the material
Resistivity :
For a given temperature and a given material, the resistance of a
conductor is,
i. directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
ii. inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor.
𝑅∝𝑙
𝑅 ∝ 1⁄𝐴
𝑅 ∝ 𝑙⁄𝐴
𝑅 = 𝜌𝑙 ⁄ 𝐴
𝜌 = 𝑅𝐴 ⁄ 𝑙

When 𝑙 = 1𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 1𝑚2

∴ 𝜌=𝑅
Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a conductor of unit
length and unit area of cross-section.
Unit of 𝝆 :
𝑅𝐴
𝜌= 𝑙
𝛺𝑚2
𝜌=
𝑚

𝜌 = 𝛺𝑚
Unit of resistivity is 𝛺𝑚
Conductivity(𝝈) :
The reciprocal of resistivity is known as conductivity.

𝜎 = 1⁄𝜌

Unit of 𝛺 −1 𝑚−1
Electrical resistivity of conductors, insulators and
semiconductors
The electrical resistivity of substances varies over a wide range.
Depending on the resistivity, substances are classified into three:
1. Conductors
Substance which allow electricity fluently through a medium
are called conductors. Metals are good conductors of electricity and
have low resistivity. Metals have low resistivity in the range
10−8 𝛺𝑚 to 10−6 𝛺𝑚.
Copper and aluminium have very low resistivity and high
conductivity. So they are used as connecting wires in electric
circuits.
2. Insulators
Substances which do not conduct electricity are called
insulators. The resistivity of insulators are very large. The resistivity
of insulators have 1018 times greater than metals.
 Eg: rubber, plastic,wood etc
3. Semiconductors
The substances which allow electricity partially through a
medium are called semiconductors. The resistivity of
semiconductors lies between conductors and insulators.
Germanium and silicon are good examples of semiconductors and
are widely used in diodes and transistor.

Resistance Colourcode

Colour Code Tolerance Decimal

multiplier

Black 0 100
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%
No colour ±20%
 Resistances with wide range of values are used as electric and
electronic circuits. A colour code is used to indicate the resistance value
and its percentage accuracy.
The first two rings indicate the first two significant figures of
resistance in ohm. The third ring indicates the multiplier and the fourth
ring indicates the tolerance.
Eg : In the figure, R= (47 × 102 ) ± 5𝛺
Eg : (74 × 105 ) ± 10𝛺
Violet, Yellow, green, silver.
Temperature coefficient of Resistance (𝜶) ∶
It is defined as the increase in resistance per unit original
resistance at 0°C with rise of temperature.
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑜 𝛼𝑡
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅𝑜 𝛼𝑡
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅𝑜
𝛼= 𝑅𝑜 𝑡

Resistance of Alloys :
The temperature coefficient of most of the alloys are much smaller
than that of pure metals. In the case of manganin (an alloy of
manganese, copper and nickel), the temperature coefficient is very low
ie 0.000015°c but it's resistivity is high. Hence it is used for making
standard resistance coil in resistance boxes.
Resistance of conductors, semiconductors and insulator according to
temperature coefficient of resistance (𝛼):
Conductors

The temperature coefficient of conductors is +ve, or conductors have

+ve temperature coefficient of resistance, ie when temperature
increases, resistivity increases.
Semiconductors or Insulators

Semiconductors and insulators have -ve temperature coefficient

of resistance ie when temperature increases, resistivity decreases.
Alloys
 In the case of alloys, they have steady resistivity.
Ohmic and Non-ohmic conductors:
The conductors which obey Ohm's law are called ohmic
conductors. In ohmic conductors, graph is straight line.
The conductors which do not obey ohm's law are called non-
ohmic conductors. In non-ohmic conductors graph is not a straight line.
Failure of Ohm's Law/Properties of Non-ohmic
conductors:
1. The graph is not a straight line.
2. Temperature is not a constant
3. Non-linear relationship between voltage and current.
4. For the same value of current, there may not be more than one value
of voltage.
Combination of Resistors:
Resistors are combined in two ways:
1. Resistors in series
2. Resistors in parallel
Resistors in series:
 Let 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 ,𝑅3 … be the resistors connected in series between the
terminals A and B. Let I be the current through the circuit. Let
𝑉1 ,𝑉2 ,𝑉3 … be the potential differences across 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 ,𝑅3 …
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯
𝑅 = 𝑉⁄𝐼

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2
𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 +….
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼(𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 + ⋯ )
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯
Thus, the effective resistance connected in series is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances.
Resistors in parallel:

Let 𝑅1 ,𝑅2 ,𝑅3 … be the resistors connected in parallel. Let V be the

potential through the circuit. The main current I divides into 𝐼1 ,𝐼2 ,𝐼3 …
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯
𝑅 = 𝑉⁄𝐼
 𝐼 = 𝑉⁄𝑅

𝐼1 = 𝑉⁄𝑅
1

𝐼2 = 𝑉⁄𝑅
2

𝐼3 = 𝑉⁄𝑅
3
𝑉⁄ = 𝑉⁄ + 𝑉⁄ + 𝑉⁄ + ⋯
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉⁄ = 𝑉( 1⁄ + 1⁄ + 1⁄ + ⋯)
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1⁄ = 1⁄ + 1⁄ + 1⁄ + ⋯
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Thus, the reciprocal of effective resistance connected in parallel is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistors.
Internal Resistance of a cell (r)
When an electric current flows through a circuit, the resistance
offered by the cell is called Internal Resistance of a cell.
Effective resistance= R+r
𝐸
Current, 𝐼 =
𝑅+𝑟
𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑟) = 𝐸
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐸
But IR =V
𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐸
𝐼𝑟 = 𝐸 − 𝑉
𝐸−𝑉
𝑟= 𝐼

Internal resistance graph: V-I Graph, It is a straight line graph.

Factors which depends upon the Internal resistance of a
cell:
 Nature of electrolytes
 Distance b/w electrodes ( Directly proportional)
 Concentration of electrolytes (Directly proportional)
 Area of the electrodes ( Inversely Proportional)
 Temperature
 External Resistance
Terminal Potential Difference (V)
It is the potential difference b/w the terminal of a cell in a closed
circuit.
𝑉
𝐼= 𝑉=𝐸
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼= 𝑅=𝑅+𝑟
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 = 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 𝐼𝑟 → 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
(Q) Show that Terminal Potential Difference is equal to the EMF
of the cell when no current flows through the circuit.
Ans 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
When no current flows I=0
𝑉 = 𝐸−0×𝑟
𝑉=𝐸
Combination of Cells

(1) SERIES COMBINATION

𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 → (1)
𝑉1 = 𝐸1 − 𝐼𝑟1 → (2)
𝑉2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐼𝑟2 →(3)
Total potential difference across AB
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑉 = 𝐸1 − 𝐼𝑟1 + 𝐸2 − 𝐼𝑟2
𝑉 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 − 𝐼(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢 − 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢
If ‘n’ no of cells connected in series
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑛
(2) PARALLEL COMBINATION

𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 (1)
𝐸−𝑉
𝐼= 𝑟
𝐸1 −𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝑟 (2)
1
𝐸2 −𝑉
𝐼2 = 𝑟 (3)
2
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝐸1 −𝑉 𝐸2 −𝑉
𝐼= +
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐸1 𝑉 𝐸2 𝑉
𝐼= 𝑟1
−𝑟 +𝑟 −𝑟
1 2 2
𝐸1 𝐸2 1 1
𝐼= + − 𝑣( + )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝑟 +𝑟 𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1
𝑣 ( 𝑟1 𝑟 2 ) = 𝑟1 𝑟2
−I
1 2

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑉= 𝑟1 𝑟2
(𝑟 1+𝑟2 ) − 𝐼 (𝑟 1+𝑟2 )
1 2 1 2
𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟
𝑉= − 𝐼 (𝑟 1+𝑟2 ) (4)
𝑟1 +𝑟2 1 2
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1) & (4)

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟
𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢 = 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢 = 𝑟 2+𝑟1
𝑟1 +𝑟2 1 2
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢 − Ir𝑒𝑞𝑢
 If ‘n’ no of cells are connected in parallel.

𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢 𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3 𝐸
= + + + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑛

Internal Resistance of a Cell :

When an electric current flows through a circuit, the resistance offered

by the cell is called internal resistance of a cell. Internal resistance
depends upon:
1. Nature of the electrodes.
2. Nature of the electrolytes.
3. Area of the plates.
4. Distance between the plates.
5. Temperature.
6. External resistance.
Kirchoff's Laws :
 FIRST LAW - junction rule
 The algebraic sum of the current meeting at any junction in a
circuit is zero.
∑𝑖 = 0
The total current entering the junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction.

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 − 𝑖4 + 𝑖5

 SECOND LAW - Mesh rule / loop rule

In any closed mesh of an electric circuit, algebraic sum of the

product of current and resistance is equal to the algebraic sum of the
emf.

∑𝑖 𝑅 − ∑𝐸
From the figure and applying mesh rule (loop rule),
For the mesh ABCDA
𝑖1 𝑅1 + 𝑖 𝑟 = 𝐸
For the mesh BEFCB
𝑖2 𝑅2 − 𝑖1 𝑅1 = 0
For the mesh AEFDA
𝑖2 𝑅2 + 𝑖 𝑟 = 𝐸
Wheatstone's Bridge :

P, Q, R and S are the four resistors connected to a closed network

ABCDA. A cell is connected between A and B and a sensitive
galvanometer of resistance G is connected between C and D.
Applying Kirchoff's rule to the mesh ACDA,
𝑖1 𝑃 + 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 − 𝑖2 𝑅 = 0 → (1)
For the mesh CBDC,
𝑖3 𝑄 − 𝑖4 𝑆 − 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 = 0 → (2)
The resistors P, Q, R and S are adjusted so that the galvanometer
current, 𝑖𝑔 = 0. Thus, the network is said to be balanced.

𝑖𝑔 = 0
𝑖1 = 𝑖3
𝑖2 = 𝑖4
When 𝑖𝑔 = 0, the eqn (1) becomes,
𝑖1 𝑃 − 𝑖2 𝑅 = 0
𝑖1 𝑃 = 𝑖2 𝑅 → (3)
 When 𝑖𝑔 = 0, the eqn (2) becomes,
𝑖3 𝑄 − 𝑖4 𝑆 = 0
𝑖3 𝑄 = 𝑖4 𝑆 → (4)
Applying 𝑖1 = 𝑖3 , 𝑖2 = 𝑖4 in eqn (4),
𝑖1 𝑄 = 𝑖2 𝑆 → (5)
Eqn (3) ÷ eqn (5)
𝑖1 𝑃 𝑖1 𝑅
=
𝑖2 𝑄 𝑖2 𝑆

𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆

This is the wheatstone's principle.

Meter Bridge :
 It is a simple form of Wheatstone's bridge used to measure the
resistance of a resistor.
It consist of a uniform resistance wire AB of 1m long. It is kept
stretched between, two copper strips fixed on a wooden board. Another
copper strip is fixed centrally between the other two on the board
leaving two gaps between the strips. The copper strips are provided
with terminals. The conductor of unknown resistance 'x' is connected
in the left gap and a resistance gap is connected in the right gap. A
battery is connected between A and B. A galvanometer is connected
between C and D.
A suitable resistance R is taken in the resistance box and the circuit
is closed. The position of the jockey is adjusted so that the
galvanometer deflection is zero. The balancing AJ is measured as 't' and
BJ is measured as 100 - l.
According to Wheatstone's principle,
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
𝑋 𝑙𝑥
=(
𝑅 100−𝑙 )𝑥
𝑋 𝑙
=(
𝑅 100−𝑙 )

𝑅𝑙
𝑋=(
100−𝑙 )

Thus, the resistance x of the conductor is calculated as the experiment

is repeated for different values of R. The experiment can also be
repeated by interchanging X and R between the gaps.
Potentiometer :

It is a device used to measure potential difference. It consist of

a uniform resistance wire AB of 10m long. It is stretched on a wooden
board in a zigzag manner.
Potentiometer consist of two circuits :
1. Primary circuit
2. Secondary circuit
Primary circuit : It consist of key, rheostat and cell.
Secondary circuit : It consist of cell, galvanometer and resistance box.

Principle of potentiometer :
The principle of a potentiometer is that EMF is directly
proportional to balancing length.

𝐸∝𝑙
EXPERIMENT NO 1 : To compare the EMF of the two cells.

The primary circuit is closed. The balancing length AJ is

measured as 𝑙1 .

𝐸1 ∝ 𝑙1 (1)

The 1st cell of EMF 𝐸1 is replaced by the 2nd cell of EMF 𝐸2 in

the circuit. Then, the balancing length is measured as 𝑙2

𝐸2 ∝ 𝑙2 (2)
Eqn (1) ÷ eqn (2)

𝐸1 𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝑙2

This experiment is repeated by adjusting the rheostat. The

𝐸1
average value of is calculated.
𝐸2
EXPERIMENT NO 2 : To find the internal resistance of a cell

A resistance box R is connected across the cell through a key K

when the key is opened, determine the balancing length as.... Then the
EMF of the cell is given by,

𝐸 ∝ 𝑙1 (1)
A suitable resistance R is taken in the resistance box and the key
𝐸𝑅
is closed. Then the potential difference falls to
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸𝑅
∝ 𝑙2 (2)
𝑅+𝑟
eq (1) ÷ eq (2)
𝐸 𝑙1
𝐸𝑅 =
𝑙2
𝑅+𝑟
𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1
=
𝑅 𝑙2

(𝑅 + 𝑟)𝑙2 = 𝑅𝑙1
𝑅𝑙2 + 𝑟𝑙2 = 𝑅𝑙1
𝑅𝑙1 − 𝑅𝑙2 = 𝑟𝑙2
 𝑅(𝑙1 − 𝑙2 ) = 𝑟𝑙2
𝑅(𝑙1 −𝑙2 )
𝑟=
𝑙2

Application Questions :
1. A wire is drawn into double its length and half its original area of
cross-section. What will be the change in resistance and resistivity?
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
𝜌×2𝑙
𝑅1 = 𝐴
⁄2
𝜌𝑙
𝑅1 = 4 ( 𝐴 )
𝑅1 = 4𝐴
The resistance will become 4 times. Since resistivity is
independent of length and area of cross -section, the resistivity will
remain the same.

2. Which lamp has greater resistance - a 60w or 100w, when

connected to same supply?

Since electric power is given by,

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑉
But 𝐼 =𝑅
𝑉
𝑃 =𝑉×𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃= 𝑅

𝑃 ∝ 1⁄𝑅
 Resistance is inversely proportional to the power of the lamp.
Hence 60W lamp has more resistance than 100W.

3. Is ohm's law universely applicable for all conducting elements.

If not give example of elements which do not obey it?

No, the elements which do not obey ohm's law are vacuum
diode or transistor, semiconductor diode, thyristor, etc.

4. Explain the significance of Kirchoff's law.

Ohm's law can be used to analyse simple electrical circuit.

When the circuit is complicated Kirchoff's law are used to
analyse the circuit.

5. Why conducting wires are made up of copper?

 Conductivity of copper is very high.

 Resistivity is very low.
 It is diamagnetic.
Hence, it does not magnetise when current passes through it.

6. On what conservation principle is the Kirchoff's 1st law based?

Law of conservation of charge.

7. On what conservation principle is the Kirchoff's 2nd law based?

Law of conservation of energy.

8. Of which material is the potentiometer wire normally made up of

and why?
The potentiometer wire is usually made up of an alloy
such as nichrome or manganine. Such an alloy has higher
resistivity and low temperature coefficient of resistance.
9. Why do we prefer a potentiometer with a longer bridge wire?

A potentiometer with a longer bridge wire has a small

potential gradient. Therefore, it is more sensitive and hence
preferred.

10. A carbon resistor of 47 k𝛺 is marked with different coloured

rings for its identification. Write the sequence of colours.

R = 47 × 103 𝛺
Yellow, violet, orange

GIRISH'S PRIVATE TUITION FOR PHYSICS

Contact : 9447015114, 9496466364
 1

Chapter 4
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Magnetic Field (B)

Magnetic field is a space in which the magnetic influence is felt.
Unit of magnetic field Intensity is Tesla (T).
In CGS System the unit of magnetic field is Gauss (G).
1T = 104 G
1G = 10-4T
Magnetic Lorentz Force
The force experienced in a magnetic field is called Magnetic
Lorentz Force. Magnetic Lorentz Force is depends upon:

1. Magnetic field (B)

2. Charge (q)
3. Velocity (v)
4. Sine of angle θ (sinθ)
I.e. F ∝ Bqvsinθ
In vector form,
F = q (B x v)
 2

Magnetic Induction / Strength of Magnet

F = Bqvsinθ
When, q = 1C,
v = 1m/s,
θ = 90o
F = B or B = F
Magnetic Induction is defined as the force experienced by a
unit positive charge moving with uniform velocity in the
direction perpendicular to magnetic field.

Magnetic flux (Φ)

It is the total number of magnetic lines passing through the

surface. If A is the area of lines and B is the magnetic lines, the
magnetic flux is given by,
Φ = BA
 3

∅
B=𝐴
❖ Magnetic flux is measured in Webber (Wb)

Right hand thumb rule

A conductor carrying current is held in a right hand, the thumb
indicates the direction of electric current and the closed fingers
indicate the direction of magnetic field.
Maxwell’s cork screw rule
In this rule, the tip of the screw indicates the direction of
electric current and rotation of thumb indicates the direction of
magnetic field.
Fleming’s Left-hand rule
In this rule thumb indicates the direction of up thrust.
Forefinger indicates the direction of magnetic field and the
middle finger indicates the direction of electric current.
Biot-Savart's Law
 4

The mathematical relation between magnetic field and current

was formulated by Biot and Savart. According to Biot-Savart’s
Law, magnetic field of a conductor carrying current is,
dB ∝ i
dB ∝ 𝑑𝑙
dB ∝ sinθ
1
dB ∝ 𝑟 2
𝑖𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
i.e. dB ∝ 𝑟2
𝑖𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
dB = k 𝑟2
μ0
Where k is a constant, k = 4π
𝛍𝟎 𝒊𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝛉
dB = 𝟒𝛑 x 𝒓𝟐

Where μ0 is the permeability of the free space.

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 N/A2

Applications of Biot-Savart’s Law

Magnetic field due to a circular loop carrying current
 5

Consider a circular loop of radius ‘a’ carrying current of ‘i’. Let

‘P’ be any point at a distance ‘x’ from ‘O’ at the centre of the
circular loop. To find the magnetic field at ‘P’, consider an
element portion AB of length ‘dl’. Magnetic field at P due to
AB is,

𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵1 = 2
(∅ = 900 )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵1 = (1)
4𝜋 𝑟 2

Revolving 𝑑𝐵1 into 2 components

1. 𝑑𝐵1 cos ∅ (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟)
2. 𝑑𝐵1 sin ∅ (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙)
Consider the opposite position 𝐴′ 𝐵′ of length ‘dl’ to find the
magnetic field at P due to the position 𝐴′ 𝐵′ :
 6

𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵2 = 2
(∅ = 900 )
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵2 = (2)
4𝜋 𝑟 2

Revolving 𝑑𝐵2 into 2 components

1. 𝑑𝐵2 cos ∅ (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟)
2. 𝑑𝐵2 sin ∅ (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 )

Net magnetic field is given by:

dB = 𝑑𝐵1 cos ∅ + 𝑑𝐵1 sin ∅ + 𝑑𝐵2 cos ∅ + 𝑑𝐵2 sin ∅

dB = 𝑑𝐵1 sin ∅ + 𝑑𝐵2 sin ∅

(i.e. perpendicular components cancelled each other

because they are equal and opposite)
𝑑𝐵1 = 𝑑𝐵2
dB = 𝑑𝐵1 sin ∅ [3]
substitute (1) into [3]
𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = sin ∅ (4)
4𝜋 𝑟 2

Integrating both sides

𝜇0 𝑖𝑑𝑙
∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ sin ∅
4𝜋 𝑟 2
 7

𝜇0 𝑖 sin ∅
∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟2
But, ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑙 ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐵

𝜇 𝑖 sin ∅
B = 4𝜋0 × 2𝜋𝑎
𝑟2
𝜇0 iasin ∅
B= [5]
2𝑟 2

From triangle COP

𝑂𝐶
sin ∅ =
𝐶𝑃
𝑎
sin ∅ = [6]
𝑟
Substitute [6] in [5]
𝜇0 ia 𝑎
B= ×
2𝑟 2 𝑟
𝜇0 i 𝑎 2
B= [7]
2𝑟 3

From triangle COP

𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2
1
𝑟 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑎 2 )2
 8

1 ×3
3 2 2) 2
𝑟 = (𝑥 + 𝑎
3
3 2 2 )2
𝑟 = (𝑥 + 𝑎 [8]
Substitute [8] in [7]
𝜇0 i 𝑎 2
B= 3
2(𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

For ‘n’ turns

𝜇0 ni 𝑎2
B= 3
2(𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

Special cases:
1. At the centre of the circular loop (x=0) when x=0

𝜇0 i 𝑎 2
B= 3
2(𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

𝜇0 i 𝑎 2
B= 3
2(𝑎2 )2

𝜇0 i 𝑎 2
B= 2𝑎3

𝝁𝟎 𝐢
B= 𝟐𝒂

Variation of magnetic field along the axis of a coil

 9

Graphical representation

Magnetic field has maximum value at the centre and decreases

exponentially

Cyclotron

Cyclotron is a device developed by Lawrence and Livingston

in 1930.
 10

Aim
1. It is used to accelerate positively charged particles (
Protons, deuterons)
2. It is used to accelerate heavy particles.
Principle
Cyclotron is based on the principle that when a charged particle
entering into a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of magnetic field, it will experience a magnetic
Lorentz Force.
F = Bqvsinθ
F = Bqv …………. (1)
As a result of this, it describes a circular path between the semi-
circular plates. Therefore, it acquires a centripetal force.
𝑀 𝑉2
I.e., F = ………… (2)
𝑟2

The centripetal force is balanced by magnetic Lorentz Force.

𝑀 𝑉2
Bqv = 𝑟2
𝑀𝑉
Bq = 𝑟
𝑀𝑉
r= 𝐵𝑞

As the radius of the circular path increases, the particle will get
more acceleration.
 11

Apparatus
It consists of two semi-circular plates D1 and D2. Together
they are called ‘dees’. A positive ion is placed at the midpoint
of the dees. The dees are connected to radio frequency
oscillator. So that a high frequency alternating Potential of
several megahertz (MHz) exist between dees. The accelerated
ion can be deflected out of the dees through a target. The whole
apparatus is enclosed in a metallic box or glass windows with
gas at low pressure (N2).
Working and Theory
The positive ion to be accelerated is produced by the ion
source. Suppose D1 is at negative potential and. D2 is at
positive Potential. On entering D1, it describes a semi-circular
path. Time taken to describe the semi-circular path is
𝑑
𝑣=
𝑇
𝑑
𝑇=
𝑉
𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑉
But
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
𝑚𝑣
𝑇=𝜋
𝐵𝑞𝑉
 12

𝜋𝑚
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
When the polarity of the dees is reversed, D2 becomes negative
and D1 becomes positive. It describes a circular path of larger
radius. The accelerated ion can be deflected out of the dees
through a target.
Uses:
1. It is used to accelerate positively charged particles
(Protons, deuterons)
2. It is used to accelerate heavy particles.
Limitations
• Electrons cannot be accelerated by cyclotrons.
• It cannot accelerate uncharged particles (Neutrons)
• If the positive ion is accelerated to a very high speed
comparable to the speed of light, its mass varies according
to the relation,

𝑚0
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
Where,
m0 is the rest mass of the ion
v is the velocity of the ion
c is the velocity of light.
So, the ion cannot be accelerated beyond a certain limit.
 13

Expression for maximum velocity (𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 )

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐵𝑞𝑣 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝐵𝑞 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐵𝑞 =
𝑟
𝐵𝑞𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚

Maximum Energy (𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 )

1
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2

1 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚×
2 𝑚2

1 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
2 𝑚

1 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
2 2𝑚
 14

Expression for Time period and frequency

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
𝑚𝑣
2𝜋 × 𝐵𝑞
𝑇=
𝑣
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇=
𝐵𝑞
Frequency (F)

Reciprocal of time period is called frequency

1
𝑓=
𝑇

𝐵𝑞
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑚
 15

Moving Coil Galvanometer

Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect feeble current.

The commonly used galvanometer is the moving coil
Galvanometer which was first introduced by Kelvin and later
modified by D Arsonoval. Moving coil Galvanometer can be
classified in to two,

1) Suspension type (Hanged)

2) Pivoted Type (Fixed)
Suspension type is more sensitive and reliable to detect electric
current.
 16

Aim: - The aim of the galvanometer is to detect deflection of a

coil carrying current placed in a uniform magnetic field which
is proportional to current
Principle: (Same as Aim)
Apparatus: T1 and T2 are two terminals. Current enters
through T1 and leaves through T2. Torsion head is used to
rotate the fibre (Phosphor bronze fibre). Mirror strip is used to
detect the deflection. Soft iron cylinder is used to concentrate
the magnetic field. The coil is used to cut off the excess
magnetic lines of force. Current leaves through T2 with the
help of hair spring. The whole apparatus is enclosed in a glass
window provided with levelling screws.
Working and Theory
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a torque.

τ = niAB ............(1)
Where n is the no of turns, 'i' is the current, 'A' is the area of
cross section of the coil and B is the magnetic field.
The coil rotates and twisting the fibre. Therefore, a torque is
developed.
𝜏 = 𝑐𝜃............(2)
Where 'c' is the couple per unit twist and θ is the angle of
deflection.
 17

Equating (1) and (2)

niAB = cθ
𝑐𝜃
i = 𝑛𝐴𝐵
𝑐
i = (𝑛𝐴𝐵) θ
𝑐
=k
𝑛𝐴𝐵

i = kθ
Where k is a constant known as galvanometer constant.

Sensitivity of a Galvanometer
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive, if it produces a large
deflection for small values of 'θ'
𝜃
Sensitivity, S = 𝑖
𝑐
But, i = (𝑛𝐴𝐵)θ

𝜃 𝑛𝐴𝐵
=
𝑖 𝑐

𝒏𝑨𝑩
S= 𝒄

Thus, sensitivity can be increased by increasing the number of

turns (n), area of coil (A), Magnetic field (B) and decreasing
couple per unit twist (c).
 18

Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting

a low resistance parallel to it. This resistance is called shunt
resistance. 'G' be the Galvanometer resistance, Ig be the
galvanometer current and I - Ig be the current send through S
Since G and S are parallel,
Potential difference across G = Potential difference across S
Ig G = (I - Ig) S
Ig G = IS - IgS
Ig G - IgS = IS
Ig (G+S) = IS
𝑰𝑺
Ig = 𝑮+𝑺

Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter

 19

To convert a Galvanometer into Voltmeter, a high resistance is

connected in series. Let R be the resistance connected series to
a galvanometer, Ig is the galvanometer current. The total
resistance of the device is G + R
V = Ig (G+R)
𝑉
=G+R
𝐼𝑔

𝑽
R= -G
𝑰𝒈

1. A galvanometer will have a resistance of 12Ω and the

meter show full scale deflection for a current of 3mA.
How will you convert this meter into a voltmeter of range
0 to 18V?

Given,
V = 18V
G = 12Ω
 20

Ig = 3mA = 3 x 10−3 A
𝑉
R= -G
𝐼𝑔
18
R= - 12
3 x 10−3

R = 6 x 103 − 12
R = 6000 - 12
R = 5988 Ω

2. A galvanometer has a resistance of 15Ω and the meter

will show full scale deflection on a Current of 4mA. How
will you convert the meter into an ammeter of range 0 -
6A?

Given,
G = 15Ω,
Ig = 4mA = 4 x 10−3 A
I = 6A
IgG = (I – Ig) S
𝑰𝒈𝑮
S = 𝑰−𝑰𝒈
4 x 10−3 ×15
S= 𝟔−4 x 10−3
 21

4 x 10−3 ×15
S= 𝟐 x 10−3
𝟎.𝟎𝟔
S = 𝟓.𝟗𝟗𝟔
S =0.01 Ω

Ampere's Circuital Theorem

Ampere's circuital theorem states that the line integral of the

magnetic field around any closed path in space is equal to μ0
times the total current enclosed by the path.
Consider a closed path of any shape around a current carrying
conductor. Let 'dl' be the small length and θ is the angle
between dl and B. Then according to ampere's Circuital
theorem,
∲B. dl = μ0 i
Where ‘I’ is the total current
 22

Applications of Ampere's Circuital theorem

1) Magnetic Field due to a long straight conductor

Consider a long straight conductor XY carrying a current 'i'.

Let 'P' be any point near the conductor at a distance 'r' from the
conductor. In order to find the magnetic field at 'P', Imagine a
closed circular path,
Applying Ampere's Circuital theorem,

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 cos 0
 23

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

i.e., 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑖
𝝁𝟎 𝒊
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓

2) Magnetic field due to a Toroid

Toroid: - Toroid is an endless solenoid in the form of a ring.

Consider a toroid of radius 'r' carrying a current 'i'. Let 'P' be

any point on the axis of toroid.
According to Ampere's circuital theorem,
 24

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 cos 0
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

i.e., 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝑁𝑖

𝜇0 𝑁𝑖
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Where ‘N’ is the total no. of turns
𝑁
But, =𝑛
2𝜋𝑟

𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝒊
Where ‘n’ is the no. of turns

2) Magnetic field due to a long solenoid

 25

Consider a long solenoid of Length 'l' and number of turns 'n'

per unit length carrying a current 'i'. In order to calculate
magnetic field at O, consider a small rectangular path PQRS,

According to Ampere's Circuital theorem,

𝑄

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝜇0 𝑖
𝑝
𝑄
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑝 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 cos 0
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙

∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖

𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖
 26

𝐵𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖
But , 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖𝑙
𝐵𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖𝑙
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖

Application Questions

1. Define Tesla
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞𝑉 sin 𝜃
𝐹
𝐵=
𝑞𝑉 sin 𝜃

If F = 1N, q = 1C, V=1 m/s, 𝜃 = 90, B = 1T

Magnetic field is said to be one tesla, if a charge of 1C moving
at right angles with a velocity of 1m/s experiences a force of
1N.

2. Is there a magnetic force exerted by a magnetic field on a

stationary electric charge?

No, because force exerted by a magnetic field on a charge 'q'

is given by
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑉 ⃗ ×𝐵⃗)
 27

Since v = 0
𝐹=0

3. In what respect does a wire carrying current differ from

a wire which carries no current?

A current carrying wire produces magnetic field. This is

because when current flows through a wire electron move
inside the wire along a definite direction. On the other hand, a
wire which carries no current, electrons are in random motion
such a wire doesn't produce any magnetic field.
4. Describe the nature of magnetic field as connected with
the nature of current?

A straight conductor: current produces a circular magnetic

field
A circular conductor: current produces a straight magnetic
field

5. What is the function of horse shoe magnet?

It provides a uniform magnetic field
6. What is meant by cyclotron frequency?
Cyclotron frequency is the frequency of rotation of charged
particles in their circular path inside the dees. It is given by,
 28

𝐵𝑞
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑚

7. Which of these has a higher resistance, an ammeter or a

milliammeter why?
A milliammeter has higher resistance than an ammeter because
a small current is passed through a milliammeter compared to
an ammeter.
8. What is meant by dead beat galvanometer?
The galvanometer which will comes to rest at once after the
passage of current is called dead beat galvanometer. Dead beat
means non-oscillating.
9. How is an ammeter connected in an electric circuit?
An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit.
10. How is a voltmeter connected in an electric circuit?
A voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit.
11. Why an electron cannot be accelerated by
cyclotron?
Electrons cannot be accelerated by cyclotron because electrons
are extremely light particles. So that they attain realistic
velocity at which mass changes with velocity.
12. What is a solenoid?
A solenoid is a tightly wound helical coil from an insulated
wire. Magnetic field inside a solenoid can be determined by,
 29

B = μ0ni

Problems or Numericals

13. A long straight wire carries a current of 35A. What

is the magnitude of magnetic field at a point 20cm from
the wire?

i = 35A
x = 20 cm = 20 x 10−2 𝑚
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁𝐴−2
𝜇0 2𝑙
𝐵= ×
4𝜋 𝑥

4𝜋 × 10−7 2 × 35
𝐵= ×
4𝜋 20 x 10−2

= 3.5 × 10−7 × 102

= 3.5 × 10−5 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
 30

14. A horizontal power line carries a current of 90A in

a east to west direction. What is the magnitude and
direction of magnetic field due to the current 1.5m below
the line?

i = 90A
x = 1.5𝑚
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑁𝐴−2
𝜇0 2𝑙
𝐵= ×
4𝜋 𝑥

4𝜋 × 10−7 2 × 90
𝐵= ×
4𝜋 1.5

= 1.2 × 105 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

Direction is towards south

Direction of current Direction of magnetic field

East to west South direction
West to east North direction
North to south East direction
South to North West direction
 31

Circular loop

15. Consider a tightly wound 100 turn coil of radius

10cm carrying a current of 1A. What is the magnitude of
the magnetic field at the centre of the coil?

i = 1A
a = 10 c𝑚 = 10 × 10−2 𝑚
n = 100
𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐵=
2𝑎

4𝜋 × 10−7 × 100 × 1
𝐵=
2 × (10 × 10−2 )

2𝜋 × 10−5 × 10 × 1
=
10−2

= 2 × 3.14 × 105 × 10
= 6.28 × 10−4 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

16. A circular coil of 120 turns has a radius 18cm and carry
a current of 3A. What is the magnetic field?
 32

a) At the centre of coil

b) At a point on the axis of the coil?
Given
i = 3A
a = 18 c𝑚 = 18 × 10−2 𝑚
n = 120
𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐵=
2𝑎

4𝜋 × 10−7 × 120 × 3
𝐵=
2 × (18 × 10−2 )

= 0.001256 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

= 1.256 × 10−3 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

b.
𝜇0 𝑛𝑖𝑎2
𝐵= 3
2(𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2
4𝜋×10−7 ×120×(0.18)2
𝐵= 3
2((0.18)2 +(0.18)2 )2
 33

4𝜋 × 10−7 × 120 × (0.18)2

𝐵= 1 ×3
2((0.18)2 + 2
(0.18) ) 2

1.46 × 10−5
𝐵=
0.0303

𝐵 = 4.8 × 10−4 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

Ampere's Circuital theorem (Problems)

17. A solenoid of length 0.50m has 4 layers of winding

350 turns each. radius of low layer is 1.4cm and carries a
current of 6A. estimate the magnetic field B
a. Near the centre of the solenoid
b. Near the ends
c. Outsides the solenoid

Given
i = 6A
l = 0.50 𝑚 = 18 × 10−2 𝑚
N = 350 × 4 = 1400
𝑁
𝑛=
𝑙
 34

1400
=
0.50

= 2800
a.

𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐵 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 2800 × 6
= 2.1 × 10−2 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
b.
𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐵=
2

2.1 × 10−2
=
2
= 1.05 × 10−2 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
C.
Outside the solenoid B = 0

18. Cyclotron oscillator had frequency of 10

megaHz.what is the operating magnetic field for
accelerating proton, radius of dees is 60cm.what is the
K.E of the proton produced by the accelerator?
 35

e = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
e = 1.27 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
f = 10MHz = 10 × 106 𝐻𝑧

2𝜋𝑚𝑓
𝐵=
𝑞

4𝜋 × 10 × 106 × 1.27 × 10−27

𝐵=
1.6 × 10−19

𝐵 = 0.49 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

1 𝐵2 𝑞 2 𝑟 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾. 𝐸 = ×
2 2𝑚

1 (0.49)2 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2 × (60 × 10−2 )2

𝐾. 𝐸 = ×
2 2 × 1.27 × 10−27

𝐾. 𝐸 = 1.4 × 10−12 𝐽

1.4 × 10−12
𝐾. 𝐸 =
1.6 × 10−19

𝐾. 𝐸 = 9368750𝑐𝑣
 36

19. A rectangular coil of area 5× 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 m and 60 turns is

pivoted about one of its vertical sides. The coil is in a
radial horizontal field of 90 gausses. What is the torsional
constant (couple/unit twist) of hair spring connected to
the coil, if the current of 0.20 milliampere produces an
angular deflection of 18?

A = 5 × 10−4 𝑚2
n = 60 turns
B = 90 gauss

(1 Gauss = 1 × 10−4 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎)

B = 90 × 10−4 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

i = 0.20 × 10−3 𝐴
𝜃 = 18
niAB = c 𝜃
𝑛𝑖𝐴𝐵
𝑐=
𝜃

60 × 0.20 × 10−3 × 5 × 10−4 × 90 × 10−4

𝑐=
18

= 3 × 10−9 𝑁𝑚/𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
 37

Lorentz force
Lorentz force is the sum of electric and magnetic force act on
a charged particle.
The force due to electric field:
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗

The force due to magnetic field:

⃗ ×𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑉 ⃗)
Total force
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞(𝑉
⃗ ×𝐵
⃗)

⃗⃗⃗⃗ + (𝑉
𝐹 = 𝑞[𝐸 ⃗ ×𝐵
⃗ )]

Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor (Force per

unit length)
 38

When a conductor of length 'l' carrying a current 'i' is placed

inclined at an angle 'θ' with the direction of magnetic field, it
will experience a force.
⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑙 × 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Case-1
When the conductor is placed perpendicular to the direction of
magnetic field (θ= 90 degree)
⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑙 × 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛90
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙

Case-2
When the conductor is parallel to the magnetic field (θ=
0degree)
⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑙 × 𝐵
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 39

𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛0
𝐹=0

Force between two parallel conductors carrying current

P and Q are two parallel conductors separated by a distance 'r'.
Let i1 and i2 be the current through these conductors in the
same direction. each conductor is situated in the magnetic field
due to the other. Hence, they experience a force

Magnetic field at a point distance ‘r’ from the conductor P is

given by
𝜇0 2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝐵= × [1]
4𝜋 𝑟
Magnetic field at a point ‘Q’ Force per unit length is given by
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [2]
Sub (1) in (2)
 40

𝜇0 2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝐹= × ×1
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇0 2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝐹= ×
4𝜋 𝑟
Ampere
𝜇0 2𝑖1 𝑖2
𝐹= ×
4𝜋 𝑟
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 1𝐴
r = 1m
𝜇0
𝐹= ×2
4𝜋
4𝜋 × 10−7
𝐹= ×2
4𝜋
𝐹 = 2 × 10−7

Ampere is the constant current maintained in 2 straight parallel

conductors of infinite length placed 1m apart in vaccum will
produce a force of 2 × 10−7 𝑁
 1

GIRISH'S PRIVATE TUTION FOR PHYSICS

Mob:- 9447015114, 9496466364
CHAPTER - 5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
Magnet
Magnet is the strongest attractive substance. Magnets are
basically classified into two :
1. Natural magnets
2. Artificial magnets

1. Natural magnets :
Naturally occurring magnets are called natural magnets.
Eg : Earth is a perfect magnet.

2. Artificial magnets :
Man - made magnets are called artificial magnets.
Eg : Bar magnet, U - shaped magnet, horse shoe magnet
etc.

Properties of a magnet :

1. Attractive Property :
A magnet can attract certain substances like Nickel, Iron,
Cobalt, Steel etc (NICS) and these substances are called
magnetic substances. Power of attraction is maximum at the
poles and maximum at the centre.

2. Directive Property :
When a magnet is freely suspended, it oscillates for
sometime and comes to rest in the geographical north to south
direction. This property is called directive property.
 2

3. Isolated poles do not exist but unlike poles exist.

4. Like poles repel each other but unlike poles attract each
other.

Magnetic Length (𝟐𝒍)

The distance between poles of a magnet is known as magnetic

strength.
Magnetic dipole
A pair of equal and opposite poles separated by a small vector
distance is known as magnetic dipole. It is a sector quantity.
Magnetic moment (𝒎)
It is defined as the product of pole strength and distance
between the poles.
If 𝑃 is the pole strength and 2𝑙 is the distance between the
poles, magnetic moment is given by

𝑚 = 2𝑙𝑝
Magnetic moment is a vector quantity whose direction is
from south pole to north pole of a magnet.

Force on a pole placed in a magnetic field :

A magnetic pole of strength 𝑃 placed in a magnetic field 𝐵
experiences a force is given by,
𝐹 = 𝑃𝐵
 3

Force between magnetic poles (Inverse square law in

magnetism)
The force of attraction or repulsion between magnetic
poles is directly proportional to product of the pole strength and
inversely proportional to square of the distance between them.
If ′𝑃1 ′ and ′𝑃2 ′ are the pole strength and ′𝑟′ is the distance
between poles, the force is given by,
1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑃1 𝑃2 ×
𝑟2
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑃1 𝑃2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
𝜇0
where 𝑘 =
4𝜋
𝜇0 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝐹=
4𝜋 𝑟 2

where 𝜇0 is known as permeability of free space.

Force and Torque on a magnetic dipole placed in a

uniform magnetic field :
 4

Consider a magnetic dipole 𝑁𝑆 of pole strength P and

dipole length 2𝑙, placed in a uniform magnetic field P inclined
at an angle 𝜃 with the direction of the field.
Force acting on the northpole is PB
Force acting on the south pole is -PB
So the net force acting on the dipole is given by
F = PB + -PB
F=0
The torque acting on the dipole is given by
𝜏 = One of the forces × perpendicular distance
𝜏 = PB × SA
From ∆𝑁𝑆𝐴,
𝑆𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑁𝑆
𝑆𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2𝑙

𝑆𝐴 = 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐵 × 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜏 = 2𝑙 𝑃𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
But, 𝑚 = 2𝑙𝑝

𝜏⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
When 𝜃 = 90° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 1 𝑇
∴ 𝜏=𝑚
Or
𝑚=𝜏
 5

Thus, magnetic moment is numerically equal to the torque

when it is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field of unit
magnetic field strength.
𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
When 𝜃 = 0
𝜏=0
ie, when the dipole is placed parallel to the direction of
magnetic field. This is the reason why a freely suspended
magnet always comes to rest in the geographical north to south
direction.

Gauss Theorem in Magnetism :

The surface integral of the magnetic flux over a closed

surface is zero.
Consider a small area ds and a magnetic flux B, then
according to gauss theorem,
⃗⃗. 𝑑⃗𝑠 = 0
∮𝐵
 6

Magnetic Lines of Force :

Magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field indicates the

direction along which the magnetic force acts. It is a continuous
curve in a magnetic field such that tangent at any point gives the
direction of magnetic field at that point.

Characteristics of Magnetic lines of force:

1. Magnetic field lines will never intersect each other.
2. The tangent to the line of force at any point gives the direction
of magnetic field.
3. Magnetic lines of force are always closed.
4. In a uniform magnetic field, lines of force are parallel to each
other.
5. The no. of lines of force passing through the unit area is the
intensity of magnetic field.

Earth's magnetic field :

Earth's magnetic field consist of two meridians.
 7

1. Geographic meridian
It is the vertical plane passing through earth's axis of rotation.
2. Magnetic meridian
It is the vertical plane passing through the axis of a freely
suspended magnet.

Magnetic elements on the Earth :

Magnetic elements on the earth are classified into three :
1.Magnetic declination
2. Dip or inclination
3. Horizontal intensity
1. Magnetic declination :

The angle between magnetic meridian and geographic

meridian is called magnetic declination.
2. Dip or Inclination :
 8

The angle between B and 𝐵𝐻 is called dip or inclination.

Earth's magnetic field can be resolved into two
components:
1. Horizontal component (𝐵𝐻 )
2. Vertical component (𝐵𝑉 )

If 𝜃 is the dip at a place, then

𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (1)
𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (2)
eqn (2) ÷ eqn (1)

𝐵𝑉 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝐵𝐻 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐵𝑉
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝐵𝐻
𝐵𝑉
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐵𝐻
𝐵
𝜃= tan−1 ( 𝑉 )
𝐵𝐻
3. Horizontal Intensity :

It is the horizontal component of the total intensity of

the earth's magnetic field at the place.

Magnetic Properties of Materials :

Magnetic properties are classified into three:
1. Magnetic field (H)
2. Permeability (𝜇)
3. Susceptability (𝜒)
 9

1. Magnetic field (H) :

When a magnetic substance is placed in a magnetic
field it becomes magnetised. The ability of the applied
magnetic field to magnetise the substance is called
magnetising field.
The magnetising field along the axis of a long
solenoid of no of turns per unit length (n) carrying current
(I) is given by
𝐻=𝑛𝐼

2. Permeability
The ratio of magnetic flux density (B) to the
magnetising field (H) is known as permeability
𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻

𝐵=𝜇𝐻
In free space, 𝜇 = 𝜇0
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻
3. Susceptability (𝝌)
It is defined as the ratio of intensity of
magnetisation (M) to the magnetising field (H).
𝑀
𝜒=
𝐻

Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic and Diamagnetic

substances :
On the basis of magnetic behavior, magnetic substances
are classified into three :
 10

1. Paramagnetic substances
2.Ferromagnetic substances
3. Diamagnetic substances
1. Paramagnetic substances :

These substances are those which when placed in a

magnetic field is feabily magnetised in the direction of
magnetic field.
Eg : Manganese, Aluminium, Sodium, Chromium etc
(MASC)
Properties of Paramagnetic substances :
1. The atoms of paramagnetic substances have small
magnetic moments.
2. When a paramagnetic substance is suspended freely in a
uniform magnetic field, its length is parallel to the magnetic
field.
3. The relative permeability of paramagnetic substance is
slightly greater than one.
4. Susceptibility is small but has positive value.

2. Ferromagnetic substances :

These substances are those which when placed in a

magnetic field are strongly magnetised in the direction of
the magnetic field.
 11

Eg : Nickel, Iron, Cobalt, Steel (NICS)

Properties of Ferromagnetic substances :

1. Atoms of ferromagnetic substance have small magnetic
moment.
2. When a ferromagnetic substance is suspended freely in a
uniform magnetic field, its length is parallel to the magnetic
field.
3. The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic substance is
greater than a paramagnetic substance.
4. Susceptibility is large and has positive value.

3. Diamagnetic substances :

These substances are those which when placed in a

magnetic field are feabily magnetised in the direction
opposite to the magnetic field.
Eg : Bismath, silver, Mercury, Water, Zinc (BISIMEWZ)
 12

Properties of Diamagnetic substances :

1. The atoms of a diamagnetic substance have no magnetic
moment.
2. When a diamagnetic substance is suspended freely in a
uniform magnetic field whose length is perpendicular (right
angle) to the magnetic field.
3. Relative permeability of a diamagnetic substance is less
than 1.
4. Susceptibility is small and has negative value.

Magnetic Hysteresis Curve :

Let an iron bar is magnetised slowly. When the

magnetising field (H) gradually increases, magnetic flux
density (B) increases along OA. At A, the magnetic flux density
reaches a saturation value.
Let the magnetic field (H) now decreases B also
decreases. It is represented by OC. The value of the magnetic
flux density won when the magnetising field is reduced to zero
is called retentivity.
 13

If H is increased in the reverse direction, the value of B

decreases and become zero. This is represented by OD. The
value of the reverse magnetising field required to demagnetise
the substance is called coercivity.
When H is increased, B also increases. It is found that
magnetic flux density always lags behind the magnetising field.
The lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis. The closed curve
ACDEFGA is called magnetic hysteresis curve. The area of the
hysteresis curve represent the energy loss of magnetisation of
the substance.

Permanent Magnets and Electro magnets :

PERMANENT MAGNETS
Substance which retain their magnetism at room
temperature for a long period are called permanent magnets.
The substance making for permanent magnets should have
high retentivity, high coercivity and high permeability.
Usually alloy such as alnico (An alloy of aluminium, nickel,
cobalt, iron and copper and cobalt steel (an alloy of Co, Fe, W
and C)
ELECTROMAGNETS
The property of magnetism is achieved by passing
current through a coil wound around a piece of iron. These are
magnets where magnetism is completely lost, when current
through the solenoid is switched off.
The material should have high retentivity, high
permeability and low coercivity. Electromagnets are used in
electric bells, loud speakers, telephone diaphragms etc and
also electromagnets are used in lifting heavy machines in
factories.
 14

Curie's Law :
Susceptibility is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature.
1
𝜒∝
𝑇

This is known as Curie's law.

Dynamo effect :
There is a thick core of radius of about 3500 km inside
the earth. The core is in a molten state. It contains melted iron,
nickel and other minerals which easily conduct electric current.
With the rotation of the earth about its axis, the core also rotates.
This produces a circulating surface current which produces the
earth's magnetism. This effect is called dynamo effect.

APPLICATION QUESTIONS :
1. Steel is preferred for permanent magnets whereas soft iron
preferred for making electromagnets. Give its reason

Permanent magnets should have high value of

retentivity, coercivity and permeability. Therefore, steel is
preferred as a permanent magnet.
Electromagnets should have high retentivity, high
permeability and low coercivity. Therefore, soft iron is
preferred as an electromagnet.

2. The vertical component of earth's magnetic field is

√3 times the horizontal component. What is the value of dip
at this place?

𝐵𝑉 = √3 𝐵𝐻
 15

𝐵
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 𝑉 )
𝐵𝐻
√3 𝐵𝐻
𝜃= tan−1 ( )
𝐵𝐻
−1
𝜃 = tan √3
𝜃 = 60°

3. The permeability of BISMTH is 0.9983

(a) To which class of a magnetic material does BISMATH
belongs.
(b) Obtain a relation between relative permeability and
absolute permeability.

(a) Diamagnetic substance

(b) 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟

4. The value of intensity of magnetisation is small but positive

for a specimen.

(a) It is diamagnetic, ferromagnetic or paramagnetic?

(b) Give some examples
(c) Mention some properties of it.

(a) Paramagnetic substance

(b) Mn, Al, Na, Cr
(c) Properties (Refer note)

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 1

Chapter 6
Electromagnetic Induction

Experiment no: - 1
Coil-Magnet Experiment

Magnet pushed into the coil Magnet pulled out of the coil

A loop of wire or a coil is connected to a galvanometer. A

magnet is moved into or withdrawn from the coil, the following
phenomenon are observed:
1. When a magnet is introduced into the coil, the
galvanometer shows a deflection in one direction.
2. When the magnet is withdrawn, the deflection is reversed
3. When the magnet is moved faster, the deflection is found
to be greater
4. When the magnet is kept stationary, outside or inside the
coil, no deflection is observed.
5. When the coil is moved relative to the magnet, the same
effects are observed.
1
 2

Experiment no: - 2
Coil -Coil Experiment

Circuit 1 Circuit 2
The apparatus consists of two coils, one of the coils is
connected in series with a battery and a switch S. The other unit
is connected to a galvanometer, the following results are
observed:
1. When switch in circuit 1 is closed, the needle in the
galvanometer in circuit 2 deflects in one direction.
2. When switch in circuit 1 is opened, the galvanometer in
circuit 2 shows a deflection in the opposite direction.
3. Once the current in the circuit 1 become steady, the
galvanometer in circuit 2 reads zero.

Electromagnetic Induction
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a conductor changes,
an emf is induced in the conductor. This phenomenon is called
electromagnetic induction.
2
 3

The emf developed is called induced emf. The current

developed is called induced current. The induced emf lasts as
long as the flux changes.

Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

1) Faraday’s Law
The magnitude of the induced emf of the circuit is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
𝑑∅
e = 𝑑𝑡

2) Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced emf is always oppose to the change
of magnetic flux.
𝑑∅
e=- 𝑑𝑡

The -ve sign shows that induced emf opposes the change of
magnetic flux.
Lenz’s law in accordance with law of conservation of
energy
It is the mechanical energy spent by the external energy which
is converted into electrical energy stored into the coil. This
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Therefore, Lenz’s law is in accordance with law of
conservation of energy.
3
 4

Eddy Current ( Foucault Current)

Electromagnetic induction takes place not only in circuits but

also in metal pieces like metal blocks, metal sheets, metal
sphere etc. Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a piece of
metal changes, an induced current is developed. This induced
current circulates inside it and is called Eddy current.
Since the resistance of the metal is small, eddy current is large.
It heats the metal and it is a wastage of electrical energy. Eddy
current can be minimized by increasing the resistance of the
metal. This can be done by laminating the solid core. It is used
in transformers, generators, motors etc.

Practical uses of eddy current

1) Electromagnetic damping
2) Induction furnace
3) Electric power meters
4) Magnetic braking in trains
5) Induction motors
6) Electric brakes

4
 5

Self induction

Consider a coil connected in series with a cell and a switch

(key). When the key is closed, the current in the coil increases
from zero to a maximum value. So, the magnetic flux linked
with the coil changes from zero to maximum. So, a current is
induced in the circuit. The induced current opposes the growth
of current in the circuit.
When the key is opened, the current in the circuit changes from
maximum to zero. So, a current is induced in the circuit. The
induced current opposes the decay of current.
Therefore, self-induction is property of the circuit by virtue of
which opposes the growth and decay of current

Coefficient of Self Induction (Self Induction)

Magnetic flux linked with a circuit is directly proportional to
the current in the circuit
Φ∝i
Φ=Li
5
 6

Where L is called coefficient of self induction or self

inductance.
When i = 1 A
Φ=L
Or
L=Φ
L=Φ
Therefore, self inductance is defined as the magnetic flux
linked with the circuit when unit current is passed through it.

1. that, Self-Inductance is numerically equal to the

induced emf in the circuit when unit rate of change of
current is passed through it?
From Lenz’s Law,
𝑑∅
e=- 𝑑𝑡

But, Φ = Li
𝑑(𝐿𝑖)
e=- 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
e = -L 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Since, 𝑑𝑡 = 1

e = -L
Or
e = L (Numerically)

6
 7

Mutual Induction

Mutual Induction is the property of the circuit by virtue of

which a change of current in one of them induces an
instantaneous emf in the another.

Coefficient of mutual Induction (mutual inductance)

Φ∝i
Φ = Mi
When i = 1A
Φ=M
Or
M= Φ
Mutual Inductance is defined as the magnetic flux linked with
one of the circuits when unit current is passed through it.

7
 8

Q) Show that mutual inductance is numerically equal to the

induced emf when unit rate of change of current is passed
through it.?
From the Lenz’s law,
𝑑∅
e=- 𝑑𝑡

But Φ= Mi
𝑑(𝑀𝑖)
e=- 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
e = -M
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Since, 𝑑𝑡 = 1

e = -M
Or
e = M (Numerically)

Self inductance of a Solenoid

Consider a solenoid of area of cross section A and total number
of turns N. When the current i is flowing through the solenoid,
the magnetic field produced. It is given by,
B = μ0ni………. (1)
Magnetic flux through total number of turns is given by,
Φ = BA
Φ = BAN …………. (2)

8
 9

Substituting (1) in (2)

Φ = = μ0niAN ………. (3)
Φ = Li ………... (4)
Equating (3) and (4)
Li = μ0niAN
LL==μμ0nAN
0nAN

Energy stored in an Inductor

Let i be the current through the inductor. Self inductance
through the circuit is given by,
Φ = Li ………. (1)
From Lenz’s law,
𝑑∅
e=- ……... (2)
𝑑𝑡

Dropping the -ve sign,

𝑑∅
e= ……… (3)
𝑑𝑡

Substituting (1) in (3)

𝑑(𝐿𝑖)
e= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
e=L ……… (4)
𝑑𝑡

Power P = Work/time
W=Pxt
Since Power, P= VI
9
 10

W = VIt
On Differentiating,
dw = Vidt
dw = eidt ……... (5) [V= e]
Substituting (4) in (5)
𝑑𝑖
dw = L x i x dt
𝑑𝑡

dw = Lidi ……. (6)

Integrating on both sides,
𝑖0
∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖
0
𝑖0
𝑊 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑑𝑖
0
𝑖
𝑖2 0
𝑊 = 𝐿[ ]
2 0

𝑖0 2 02
𝑊 = 𝐿[ − ]
2 2
𝑖0 2
𝑊=𝐿
2
Work done = energy stored
W=U
𝟏
𝑼𝑼== 𝟏𝑳𝒊 𝟎
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝑳𝒊𝟎

10
 11

Motional Emf
Induced emf between the ends of a straight conductor moving

in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.

Consider a straight conductor PQ of length ‘l’ moving with a

velocity V perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B. The free electrons in the conductor experience a
force along the conductor and is given by magnetic Lorentz
force.
F = BqVsinθ
F= BqV ………. (1) [when θ=90o sin90o =1]
Under the influence of this force, the electrons will move
towards the end Q and accumulate there. Therefore, a force is
accumulated at the end Q.
F = qE ………. (2)
Equating (1) and (2)
11
 12

BqV = qE

BV = E

E = BV ………. (3)

Balancing the two Forces, charge stops flowing. If V is the

potential difference between the ends of the conductor,
𝑽
E=𝒅

𝑽
E = 𝑰 ………. (4)

Equating (3) and (4)

𝑽
BV = 𝑰

V = BVl

e = BlV [V= e] e = BlV

Application Questions

1) What is the basic cause of an induced emf?

The basic cause of induced emf is the change of magnetic

flux linked with a circuit.

12
 13

2) A wire passes through a magnetic flux of 0.2x10-2Wb

in 0.12 Sec. what is the emf induced in the wire?

Φ = 0.2 x 10-2 Wb
t = 0.12Sec

𝑑∅
e= 𝑑𝑡

(0.2x10−2)
= 0.12

= 0.0167 V

3) How do you detect the presence of magnetic field on an

unknown planet?
Take a closed coil connected to a sensitive galvanometer
and rotate the coil. If the galvanometer shows a deflection,
a magnetic field us present on the planet otherwise not.

4) Why do birds fly off a high-tension wire when the

current is switched on?
When a high-tension current is switched on induced
current are set up in the body system of the bird, the nerve
and the circulatory system being conducting, the bird
experience a repulse and flies off.

13
 14

5) How can an AC generator be converted into a dc

generator?

By replacing slip rings by split rings

6) What is the unit of mutual inductance?

Henry

14
 1

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CHAPTER - 7
ALTERNATING CURRENT

Direct Current and Alternating Current

Direct Current

The steady current which does not vary with time is called direct
current (DC).
Alternating Current (AC)

The dimension of electric current produced by the movement of

magnet in opposite direction continuously changes. The current which
 2
changes its direction at regular intervals is called alternating current
(AC).
AC Generator
PRINCIPLE

Consider a flat coil of area A consist of N turns moving with

uniform angular velocity about an axis XY perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field of strength B.
The magnetic flux of the coil is given by,
𝜙 𝜃
𝐵= 𝜔=
𝐴 𝑡

𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 𝜃=𝜔𝑡
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 3

𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑁 cos 𝜔 𝑡
The instantaneous EMF is given by,
−𝑑𝜙
𝐸=
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑
𝐸= (𝐵𝐴𝑁 cos 𝜔 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐸 = −𝐵𝐴𝑁 (cos 𝜔 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝐸 = −𝐵𝐴𝑁 × −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 × 𝜔
𝐸 = 𝐵𝐴𝑁 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡
But 𝐵𝐴𝑁 𝜔 = 𝐸0
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡
Where 𝐸0 is called maximum emf or peak emf.

WORKING
Case 1
When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 (𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 0∘ )
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 sin 0 = 0, sin 90 = 1
𝐸= 0 sin 180 = 0, sin 270 = −1
sin 360 = 0

Case 2
When the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 (𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 0∘ )
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 90
 4

𝐸 = 𝐸0
where 𝐸0 is called maximum emf or peak emf.
Case 3
When the plane of the coil is again perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 (𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 180∘ )
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 180∘
𝐸=0
Case 4
When the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 (𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 270∘ )
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 270∘
𝐸 = −𝐸0
The emf is again maximum with opposite polarity.
Case 5
When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 (𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 = 360∘ )
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 360∘
𝐸=0
Thus, the emf is alternating ie, emf just varies like sine curve. The coil
has completed one rotation and the AC has completed one cycle. The
AC voltage is graphically represented as
 5

The instantaneous current is given by,

𝑉
𝐼= (𝑉 = 𝐸)
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅

𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼 = ( 0 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Where 𝐼0 is called maximum current or peak current
AC is graphically represented as,
 6

Root mean square values of Alternating current (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 )and

emf (𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) ∶
It is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous values of current or emf taken over a complete circuit.
𝐼0
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

𝐸0
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Phasor diagram

Inorder to show a phase relationship (vector relationship)

between voltage and current in an AC circuit, phasor diagrams are used.
AC CIRCUIT
1. AC Circuit containing resistor only
 7

Graphical representation
Consider an AC circuit with a resistor of resistance R only.
The instantaneous emf of the circuit is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (1)
Let I be the current in the circuit,
𝑉
𝐼= (𝑉 = 𝐸)
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼=𝑅
But 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
𝑅
𝐸
𝐼 = ( 0 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝐸0 𝐼0
But =
𝑅 𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (2)
From equations (1) & (2), it is clear that current is in phase with
the emf. Thus means that both have zero at the same instant and both
have maximum value at the same instant.
 8
2. AC circuit containing inductor only

Consider an AC circuit with an inductor of inductance 'L'

only. The instantaneous emf of the circuit is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (1)
The induced emf in the inductor is given by,
−𝑑𝜙
𝑒=
𝑑𝑡

But 𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼
−𝑑
𝑒= (𝐿𝐼)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑒 = −𝐿 (2)
𝑑𝑡
 9
To maintain the alternating current (AC) in the circuit, induced
emf is equal and opposite to the applied voltage (instantaneous emf).
𝑑𝐼
𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝐿 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (3)
𝑑𝑡
Integrating on both sides,
𝑑𝐼
∫ 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = sin(90 − 𝜃)
𝑑𝐼
𝐿∫ = 𝐸0 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = sin(𝜃 − 90)
𝑑𝑡
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝐿𝐼 = 𝐸0 ×
𝜔
sin(𝜔𝑡−𝜋⁄2)
𝐿𝐼 = 𝐸0 ×
𝜔
𝐸0 sin(𝜔𝑡−𝜋⁄2)
𝐼=
𝐿𝜔
𝐸0
𝐼=( ) sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2)
𝐿𝜔
𝐸0
But = 𝐼0
𝐿𝜔

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋⁄2) (4)

From eqns (1) & (4), it is clear that emf leads the current by a phase
𝜋⁄ or in other words the current lags the emf by a phase 𝜋⁄
2 2
𝐸0
= 𝐼0
𝐿𝜔
𝐸0
= 𝐿𝜔
𝐼0
 10
But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐸0
= 𝐿 × 2𝜋𝑓
𝐼0
𝐸0
= 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿
𝐼0

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
Where 𝑋𝐿 is known as inductive reactance.
3. AC circuit containing capacitor only

Consider an AC circuit with a capacitor of capacitance C.

The instantaneous emf of the circuit is given by,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (1)
If 'V' is the voltage across the capacitor,
 11
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞
𝑉= (V = E)
𝐶
𝑞
∴ 𝐸= (2)
𝐶
Equating (1) & (2)
𝑞
𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 =
𝐶

𝑞 = 𝐶𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (3)

Let 'I' be the instantaneous value of current,
𝑑𝑞
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐼= (𝐶𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐶𝐸0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝐼 = 𝐶𝐸0 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 × 𝜔
𝐼 = 𝐶𝐸0 𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝐸0
𝐼 = (1 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
⁄𝐶𝜔
𝐸0
But 1 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = sin(90 − 𝜃)
⁄𝐶𝜔

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = sin(𝜃 + 90)

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋⁄2)

From eqns (1) & (4) it is clear that current leads the emf by a phase
𝜋⁄ or the emf lags the current by a phase 𝜋⁄
2 2
𝐸0
1⁄ = 𝐼0
𝐶𝜔
 12
𝐸0
= 1⁄𝐶𝜔
𝐼0
But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐸0 1
= = 𝑋𝑐
𝐼0 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
∴ 𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

where 𝑋𝑐 is known as capacitance reactance

LCR circuit (series LCR circuit)
 13
Consider an AC circuit with an inductor of inductance L, capacitor
of capacitance C and resistor of resistance R. Let I be the current in the
circuit. If V is the resultant potential of the LCR
circuit.
𝑑𝐼 𝑞
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 + = 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝐼 𝑞
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 + = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑑2𝑞
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 +𝑅 + = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑞
= 𝑞0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) × 𝜔
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
= 𝜔𝑞0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
𝐼= = 𝜔𝑞0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡

𝐼 = 𝜔𝑞0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos (𝜔𝑡 − + 𝜙)
2

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) if 𝑋𝑐 > 𝑋𝐿

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) if 𝑋𝑐 < 𝑋𝐿
Generally,
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)
 14

Transformer :

Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

Transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance

(electromagnetic induction).
A transformer is a device used to change the voltage of an AC. The
transformer which converts low voltage to high voltage is called step-
up transformer. The transformer which converts high voltage to low
voltage is called step-down transformer.
In a step-up transformer, the no of turns in the secondary is greater
than in the primary coil. In step-down transformer, the no of turns in
the primary coil is greater than the secondary coil. In step-up
transformer, thick wire is used in primary coil and thin wire is used in
secondary coil. In step-down transformer, thick wire is used in
secondary coil and thin wire is used in primary coil.
The ratio of change of magnetic flux depends on the no of turns in
it. The voltage in primary and secondary is directly proportional to the
no of turns.
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

𝑉𝑠 - voltage in secondary
𝑉𝑝 - voltage in primary
 15

𝑁𝑠 - no. of turns in secondary

𝑁𝑝 - no. of turns in primary
Losses of a Transformer :
Transformer suffer from a no. of losses
1. Copper loss
2. Iron loss
3. Magnetic flux leakage
4. Hysteresis loss

1. Copper loss :

As the current flows through the primary and secondary coils

which generally consist of copper wires which have high
conductivity and low resistivity, heat is produced. The heat
produced brings a loss of energy. This loss is known as copper
loss.
Copper loss can be minimised by using thick wires instead
of thin wires.

2. Iron loss :
Eddy current has produced on the iron core of the
transformer and heat is produced. This loss is known as iron loss.
Iron loss can be minimised by laminating the iron core.

3. Magnetic flux leakage :

The magnetic flux produced by the primary coil does not
link with secondary coil. A lot of energy is wasted due to this
process. This loss is known as magnetic flux leakage.
 16
It can be minimised by winding primary and secondary
coils one over the other.

4. Hysteresis loss :
When the iron core undergoes a cycle of magnetisation,
the core gets heated due to hysteresis. This loss is known as
hysteresis loss.
It can be minimised by using a material of low hysteresis loss.

1. Why the LCR circuit is known as the acceptor circuit?

If the applied frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the
circuit, maximum current pass through it. Therefore, LCR circuit
is known as acceptor circuit.
2. Why LCR circuit is known as selector circuit?
LCR circuit is a selector circuit because it select appropriate
1
frequencies. The condition is satisfied (𝑓 = ) by varying the
2𝜋√𝑙𝐶
value of c with a variable capacitor.
Sharpness of Resonance :

The sharpness of the resonance peak depends on the resistance of

the circuit. If the resistance is low, the peak is high.
 17

Q - factor ( Quality factor ):

The sharpness of resonance of a circuit is described by Q -
factor or quality factor. Q - factor can be calculated as
𝜔0 𝐿
𝑄=
𝑅

Q - factor can be increased by increasing the inductance and

decreasing the resistance.
Choke coil :
Choke coil is also an inductor. It is required to reduce
current in a given circuit with a minimum wastage of energy.
Power factor (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓) :
Power factor is defined as the cosine of the phase angle
between current and voltage in an AC circuit.
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 × 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑃 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑃 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 [sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙]
𝑃 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙]
2𝜔𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙]
2
Average power
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡
〈𝑃 〉 = 〈𝑉0 𝐼0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙]〉
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
〈𝑃 〉 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 〉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉
2
 18

But, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 = 1⁄2

sin 2𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑉0 𝐼0
〈𝑃 〉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
2
𝑉0 𝐼0
〈𝑃 〉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
√2 √2

〈𝑃 〉 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Impedence (z) and impedence triangle :

Impedence is the effective resistance offered by the circuit

against the flow of AC through it.
Impedence through the circuit can be calculated as
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2
Impedence Triangle :
ABC is an impedence triangle. AB represents ohmic resistance
(R), BC represents reactance (X) and AC represents the impedence
(z) of the circuit.
Impedence triangle helps to find :
 19
1. Impedence of the AC circuit.
2. Power of factor (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
𝑍
3. Phase relationship between current and emf of the circuit.

Expression for Impedence :

[𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅]

𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 = √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2

𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐶 − 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2

𝑉 = 𝐼√(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑉
=𝑍
𝐼

𝑍 = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
 20

Wattless current :
The current in an AC circuit is wattless f average power
consumed in the circuit is zero. The current in such a circuit perform
any useful work. So this current is called wattless current
* Power factor is maximum for a resistive circuit.
𝑖𝑒, powerfactor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 1
* The minimum value of powerfactor is for an inductive circuit.
Powerfactor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 0
* The powerfactor of an LCR circuit at resonance is,
At resonance, Z = R
𝑅
Powerfactor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
𝑍
𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
𝑅

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 1

APPLICATION QUESTIONS :
1. What is known as admittance of an AC circuit?
The reciprocal of impedence of an AC circuit is called
admittance.

2. What is an alternating current? Write an expression for its

instantaneous value.
An alternating current is that current which changes
continuously in magnitude and periodically in direction.

The value of AC at any instant is given by,

𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 21

3. What is the frequency of direct circuit (DC)?

The frequency of DC is zero.

4. What is the average value of AC over a cycle and why?

Zero because AC is +ve during one half and equally -ve during
another half cycle.
5. An instantaneous current from an AC source I = sin 314𝑡. What is
the rms value of current?

𝐼0 = 5𝐴
𝐼
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0⁄
√2
= 5⁄
√2
= 3.535𝐴

6. A series LCR circuit with 𝐿 = 0.12𝐻, 𝐶 = 4.8 × 10−7 𝐹,𝑅 = 23𝛺

is connected to a variable frequency supply. At what frequency is
the current maximum?

1
𝑓=
2𝜋 √𝑙𝐶
1
=
2𝜋√0.12×4.8×10−7
= 663 𝐻𝑧
The circuit will be maximum at resonant frequency.

GIRISH'S PRIVATE TUITION FOR PHYSICS

Contact : 9447015114, 9496466364
 1

Chapter 8
Electromagnetic Waves

Introduction
Maxwell found from his theoretical study about the effects of changing
electrical field and magnetic field. Changing electric field can produce
magnetic field. Changing magnetic field can produce electric field.
This idea deals Maxwell to conclude that, the variation of electric and
magnetic field leads to the production of electromagnetic disturbance
in space. These disturbances having the properties of wave and are
called electromagnetic waves.
The speed of electromagnetic waves is similar to the speed of light, i.e.,
3 x 108 m/s. Therefore, light is an electromagnetic wave.

Sources of electromagnetic waves

Sources of electromagnetic waves are oscillating charges and
accelerating charges.

Properties of electromagnetic waves

▪ The speed of electromagnetic waves is similar to the speed of
light. i.e., 3 x 108 m/s
▪ Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature
▪ Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges and
oscillating charges.
▪ The energy of the electromagnetic wave is equally divided
between electric field and magnetic field.
▪ Electric field is responsible for the optical effect, and is called a
‘light vector'
 2

Displacement current
The current carried by the conductor due to the flow of charges is called
conduction current.
The current due to the changing electric field is called displacement
current.

Properties of displacement current

1. The displacement current is a current only in the sense that it
produces magnetic field.
2. Displacement current has the purpose to make the total current
continuous across the discontinuity in the conduction current.

Equation for the displacement current

The general expression for the displacement current is,
𝑑∅𝐸
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 ( ) Where ΦE is the electric flux
𝑑𝑡

Show that conduction current flowing through the Connecting wire of

a capacitor is equal to the displacement current
From gauss theorem,
𝜎
𝐸= … … … … … (1)
𝜀0

For a parallel plate capacitor,

q=σA
𝑞
σ= …………………. (2)
𝐴
Substituting (2) in (1)
𝑞
𝐴
𝐸=
𝜀0
 3

𝑞
E=
𝜀0 𝐴

q = 𝜀0 𝐴𝐸

Conduction current is given by,

𝑑𝑞
𝑖𝑐 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝜀0 𝐴𝐸)
𝑖𝑐 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐴𝐸)
𝑖𝑐 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡

AE = ΦE, So
𝑑∅𝐸
𝑖𝑐 = 𝜀0 ( )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅𝐸
But 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 ( )
𝑑𝑡

Therefore 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑐

Electromagnetic Spectrum
The whole range of electromagnetic waves arranged in the order of
increasing frequency or decreasing wavelength is termed as
electromagnetic spectrum.
 4

The members of electromagnetic spectrum are,

1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infra-red radiation
4. Visible rays
5. UV rays
6. X rays
7. Gamma(γ) rays

1) Radio waves
They are produced by oscillating circuits. They are used for radio
communication and television.

2) Micro waves
They are produced by special vacuum tubes. They are used for the
transmission of RADAR and satellite communication. Microwave
ovens are widely used for household purposes.

3) Infra-red radiation
It is produced by the excitation of atoms and molecules. In medical
field they are used in the treatment of paralysis and skin diseases etc.

4) Visible light
They are produced by the excitation of atoms and molecules. They
produce the sensation of vision.
 5

5) UV ray
They are produced by the bodies of extremely High temperature. They
produce photoelectric effect. They produce fluorescence and
phosphorescence. They are used to sterilise air and water because they
kill very minute bacteria.

6) X ray
They are produced by bombarding of very high energy electrons. X-
rays find more applications in science, technology and medicine. X-
rays are used for studying crystal structure.

7) Gamma(γ) ray
They are produced in nuclear reactions. This is the most harmful ray.
In cosmic rays γ rays are present. It is used in the treatment of cancer.

Equation for traveling electromagnetic wave

Consider an electromagnetic wave propagate along Z axis, electric field
along x axis and magnetic field along y axis.
Ex = E0 sin (Kz - ωt)

By = B0 sin (Kz - ωt)

E0 = Amplitude
K = Wave vector or Wave number
ω = Angular frequency
λ = Wavelength
 6

𝟐𝝅
λ= 𝒌

ω = 2πf
𝑬
C = 𝑩𝟎
𝟎

Questions
1. The electromagnetic field in a plane electromagnetic waves is
given by, By = 2x10-7 Sin (0.5*103x + 1.5*1011t) T
2. What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
3. Write an expression for the electric field?

Ans

𝐵0 = 2 × 10−7 𝑇

𝐾 = 0.5 × 103

𝜔 = 1.5 × 1011 𝐻𝑧
2.

𝟐𝝅
λ= 𝒌
𝟐×3.14
=
0.5×103

= 12.56 × 10−3 𝑚
 7

ω = 2πf
𝛚
f=
𝟐𝛑
𝟏.𝟓×1011
=
2×3.14

= 2.386 × 1010 𝐻𝑧

3.

𝐸𝑍 = sin(0.5 × 103 + 1.5 × 1011 𝑡 )v/m

𝑬
C = 𝑩𝟎
𝟎

𝐸0 = 𝑐 × 𝐵0
= 3 × 108 × 2 × 10−7
= 60

𝑬𝒁 = 𝟔𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙 + 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒕 )v/m

 8

Greenhouse gas effect

A phenomenon in which the atmosphere of a planet traps the radiation

emitted by the sun caused by gases such as CO2, methane (CH4), Water
vapour etc. that allow the incoming sunlight to pass through but return
heat radiated back from the planet surface.
 1

Chapter-9
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Refraction

When light rays travel from denser medium into rarer

medium, a change of direction takes place. This bending of light
is known as refraction.
Laws of refraction
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to surface
of separation lies in the same plane.
 Snell's law: The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
sin 𝑖
ie, = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖
=𝑛
sin 𝑟
where n is called the refractive index of the medium.
 2

Factors depends upon the refractive index of medium

i. Nature of medium.
ii.Wavelength of light.
iii. Colour of light
Real depth and Apparent depth
When an object is situated in dense medium and viewed from
a rarer medium, the position of the object appears to be raised.
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(𝑛) =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
When an object situated in a rarer medium and viewed from
denser medium, its position appear to be shifted away from the
normal.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(𝑛) =
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Shift can be calculated as;
1
𝑆 = 𝑡(1 − )
𝑛

where t is the depth and n is the refractive index.

Absolute Refractive Index
The ratio of velocity of light in rarer medium to the velocity
of light in denser medium is called absolute refractive index.
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑛 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
 3

Critical Angle

When light rays travel from denser medium into rarer

medium, the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle
of incidence. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of
refraction also increases. For a particular value of angle of
incidence the refracted ray grazes the surface of separation.
This angle is called critical angle.
The angle of incidence in which the angle of refraction is 90°
is known as critical angle.
Refractive index related to critical angle is given by,
1
𝑛=
sin 𝐶
where 'n' is the refractive index and 'C' is the critical angle.
Total Internal Reflection
When light travels from denser medium into rarer medium,
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle. The entire
 4

light is reflected back into the medium obeying the laws of

reflection. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Conditions for total internal reflection
(1) Light must travel from denser medium into rarer medium.
(2) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical
angle.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection
1) Mirage: It is due to total internal reflection. On still hot
sunny days, there may be a layer of hot expanded air in
contact with the heated ground. Light travels faster in rarer
hot air than in denser cold air. Mirage on a small scale are
observed on tared highways and deserts.

2) Brilliance of diamond: It is due to total internal reflection.

The critical angle of diamond is small (approximately 23°)
and refractive index is large. The diamond can be cut into a
no.of faces. So light entering it through one face gets totally
reflects from the other face. So the faces through which the
light emerges appear brillantly.

3) Optical fibres: It is due to total internal reflection. It consist

of many thousand of glass or Quartz fibres. It has very low
refractive index. Light entering on one side after total internal
reflection emerges through the other side.
Uses:
• It is used in tele communication.
• It is used as 'light pipe' in optical and medical examinations.
• It is used for the transmission of pictures.
 5

4) Prism binocular: It is essentially a pair of telescope

mounded side-by-side one for each eye. Image produced after
2 reflection will be erect.

5) Bicycle Reflector: It consist of a red glass plate. Light

emerges on it is entirely reflected back, it appears as red. Thus
the presence of bicycle can be noticed by approaching
vehicles.

Refraction through a Prism

ABC is the principle section of prism with faces AB and

AC and BC is the base. SP is the incident ray incident at the
face at an angle of incidence 'i' and refracted at an angle of
refraction 𝑟1 Then according to Snell's law;
sin 𝑖1
𝑛= (1)
sin 𝑟1
 6

Another ray PQ incident at the face AC at an angle of

incidence 𝑟2 and refracted at an angle of refraction 𝑖2
Then according to Snell's law,
sin 𝑖2
𝑛= (2)
sin 𝑟2
From the Quadrilateral APNQ
< 𝐴+ < 𝑁 = 180° (3)
From ∆ 𝑃𝑁𝑄
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 +< 𝑁 = 180°
< 𝑁 = 180° − 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 (4)
Sub (4) in (3)
< 𝐴 + 180° − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) = 180°
< 𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 (5)
The angle b/w the direction of incident ray and refracted ray is
called angle of deviation (d).
< 𝑑 = 𝑖1 − 𝑟1 + 𝑖2 − 𝑟2
< 𝑑 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
But 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 𝐴
< 𝑑 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝐴
𝑑 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝐴
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝐴 + 𝑑 (6)
 7

𝑖 − 𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ

As the angle of incidence increases Angle of deviation

decreases and reaches a minimum value and then increases.
The minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of
minimum deviation.
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟
𝑑=𝐷
From eq : (5)
𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝐴 =𝑟+𝑟 =2𝑟
𝐴
𝑟= (7)
2
From eq : (6)
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝐴 + 𝑑
𝑖+𝑖 =𝐴+𝑑
2𝑖 =𝐴+𝑑
 8

𝐴+𝑑
𝑖= 2
(8)

From Snell’s law,

sin 𝑖
𝑛 = sin 𝑟
𝐴+𝐷
sin( )
2
𝑛= 𝐴
sin
2

Small angled Prism

Since the angle of prism is small ie, 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 are small
Hence these angle are approximately equal to the sines,
sin 𝑖
𝑛 = sin 𝑟1
1
𝑖
𝑛 = 𝑟1
1

𝑖1 = 𝑛 𝑟1 (1)
sin 𝑖2
𝑛=
sin 𝑟2
𝑖2
𝑛=
𝑟2

𝑖2 = 𝑛 𝑟2 (2)
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝐴 + 𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝐴 (3)
 9

Sub values of (1) & (2) in (3)

𝑑 = 𝑛𝑟1 + 𝑛𝑟2 − 𝐴
𝑑 = 𝑛(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) − 𝐴
𝑑 = 𝑛𝐴 − 𝐴
𝑑 = 𝐴(𝑛 − 1)
𝑑 = (𝑛 − 1)𝐴
Reflection:

Laws of reflection

a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the
reflecting surface are in the same plane.
b) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
<𝑖 =<𝑟
 10

Lenses

 Centre of curvature: It is the entire of the sphere in which

lenses forms a part.
 Optic centre: The mid point of the lens is called optic centre
(pole).
 Principle axis: The straight line joining the centre of
curvature and optic centre is called principle axis.
 Radius of curvature: It is the radius of the sphere which the
lens forms a part.
 Focal length: The distance between principle focus and pole
is called focal length.
Power of a Lens
The reciprocal of focal length is called power of a lens.
1
𝑃=
𝑓

Unit of power of lens is Dioptre (D)

Power of a lens is positive for a convex lens and negative for
concave lens.
Magnification (M)
It is defined as the ratio of height of the image (ℎ𝑖 ) to the
height of the object (ℎ𝑜 )
 11

It is defined as the ratio of linear size of the image to linear

size of the object.
𝑣
𝑀= 𝑢
It magnification is -ve, image is real and inverted.
If magnification is +ve, image is virtual and erect.

Relation b/w 𝒖, 𝒗 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹

Consider an object 'O' is placed at a distance 'u' from the lens

XY. After refraction an image is formed at I at a distance 'V'
from N. Let 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 be the refractive indices of air and lens
respectively.
From ∆ 𝑂𝑃𝑁
𝑖 = 𝛼+𝛽 (1) [Exterior angle = Sum of interior angles]
From ∆ 𝐼𝑃𝑁
𝛽 = 𝑟+𝛾 (2)
 12

From Snell's law:

sin 𝑖
=𝑛
sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖 𝑛
sin 𝑟
= 𝑛2
1

For small values of 'i' and 'r'

𝑖 𝑛2
=
𝑟 𝑛1
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 (3)
Putting (1) and (2) in (3)
𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 − 𝛾)
𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛1 𝛽 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛2 𝛾
𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛1 𝛽
𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝛽(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
𝛽 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) = 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 (4)
From ∆ 𝑂𝑀𝑁,
𝑀𝑁
𝛼= 𝑢
(5)

From ∆ 𝑀𝑁𝑃,
𝑀𝑁
𝛽= (6)
𝑅
From ∆ 𝑀𝑁𝐼,
𝑀𝑁
𝛾= 𝑣
(7)
 13

Sub (5),(6),(7) in (4)

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) = 𝑛1 ( ) + 𝑛2 ( )
𝑅 𝑢 𝑣
𝑛2 −𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑀𝑁 ( ) = 𝑀𝑁 ( + )
𝑅 𝑢 𝑣
Applying sign convention,
𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2
[𝑢 = −𝑢, 𝑣 = +𝑣]
𝑅
=− 𝑢
+ 𝑣
𝑛2 −𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1
= −
𝑅 𝑣 𝑢
Lens Makers Formula

Consider a thin lens bounded with two surface ABC and ADC.
Let 𝑛1 be the refractive index of the medium (air) and 𝑛2 be
the refractive index of the lens. Let an object O is placed at a
distance 'u' from the centre of the lens. The ray from 'O' after
refraction forms a virtual image at 'I' at a distance 'V' from the
centre of the lens.
 14

Considering the face ABC,

𝑛2 𝑛1 1
𝑣′
− = 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 × (1)
𝑢 𝑅1
where 𝑅1 is the radius of curvature of the face ABC
Considering face ADC,
𝑛2 𝑛1 1
𝑣′
− = 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 × (2)
𝑣 𝑅2
where 𝑅2 is the radius of curvature of the face ADC
𝑛2 𝑛1 1
−( − ) = −(𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) ×
𝑣′ 𝑣 𝑅2
𝑛2 𝑛1 1
− + = −(𝑛 2 − 𝑛1 ) ×
𝑣′ 𝑣 𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛2 1
− = −(𝑛 2 − 𝑛1 ) × (3)
𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑅2

Adding (1) and (3)

𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 1 1
− + − = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) × − (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) ×
𝑣′ 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣′ 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ − ]
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2

Dividing throughout by 𝑛1
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 1 1
𝑣⁄ −𝑢 =( − )[ − ]
𝑛1 ⁄𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 𝑛 1 1
𝑣
− 𝑢 = (𝑛2 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ]
1 1 2

If 𝑛1 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 𝑛
 15

1 1 1 1
𝑣
− 𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] (5)
1 2

When object is placed at infinity (𝑢 = ∞) then the image will

be formed at principle focus (v = f)
1 1 1 1
− = (𝑛 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ]
𝑓 ∞ 1 2

1
=0
∞
1 1 1
∴
𝑓
= (𝑛 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] (6)
1 2

Equating (5) and (6)

1 1 1
−𝑢=𝑓
𝑣

Magnification in terms of 'u' and 'f'

From lens maker's formula,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
multiplying throughout by u,
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 𝑣
− = 𝑚=𝑢
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
𝑢 𝑢 1 𝑢
−1= =
𝑣 𝑓 𝑚 𝑣
1 𝑢
−1=
𝑚 𝑓
 16

1 𝑢+𝑓
=
𝑚 𝑓
𝑓
𝑚 = 𝑢+𝑓

Magnification in terms of v and f

From lens maker's formula,
1 1 1
−𝑢 =𝑓
𝑣
Multiplying throughout by 'v',
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
−𝑢 =𝑓
𝑣
𝑣
1−𝑚 =𝑓
𝑣
−𝑚 = − 1
𝑓
𝑣
𝑚=1−𝑓
𝑓−𝑣
𝑚= 𝑓

Law of Distances
 17

Relation between 𝒖, 𝒗 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇

OA is an object placed at a distance u from the centre of a

convex lens. A ray OB after refraction passes through the
principle focus. Another ray OC passing through the optic
centre without any deviation. These 2 rays converge at a point
I. Hence, IM is the real image of OA.

∆𝐶𝑂𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐶𝐼𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟

𝑂𝐴 𝐶𝐴
= (1)
𝐼𝑀 𝐶𝑀
∆𝐹𝐶𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐹𝐼𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝐶
𝐼𝑀
= 𝐹𝑀
(2)
But 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 𝐹𝐶
𝐼𝑀
= 𝐹𝑀
(3)
Equating (1) and (2)
𝐶𝐴 𝐹𝐶
𝐶𝑀
= 𝐹𝑀
 18

𝐶𝐴 = 𝑢
𝐶𝑀 = 𝑣
𝐹𝐶 = 𝑓
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑣 − 𝑓
𝑢 𝑓
∴ =
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓
𝑢(𝑣 − 𝑓 ) = 𝑣𝑓
𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓
Divide throughout by 𝑢𝑣𝑓,
𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑓 𝑣𝑓
− =
𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓
1 1 1
−𝑣 =𝑢
𝑓
Applying sign convention,
𝑢 = −𝑢, 𝑣 = +𝑣, 𝑓 = +𝑓
1 1 1
𝑓
= −𝑢 +𝑣
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
 19

Mirror Equation- Law of Distances for Spherical Mirrors

OB is an object placed in front of a concave mirror. A

ray BP incident at pole and is reflected along PM. Another ray
BD incident normally on the mirror and is reflected back along
same line. The two reflected rays at M.IM is the real image of
OB.
∆𝑃𝑂𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑃𝐼𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑂𝐵 𝑃𝑂
= (1)
𝐼𝑀 𝑃𝐼
∆𝐶𝑂𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐶𝐼𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑂𝐵 𝐶𝑂
𝐼𝑀
= 𝐶𝐼
(2)
Equating (1) and (2),
𝑃𝑂 𝐶𝑂
𝑃𝐼
= 𝐶𝐼
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑢
𝑃𝐼 = 𝑣
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑟
 20

𝐶𝑂 = 𝑢 − 𝑟
𝐶𝐼 = 𝑟 − 𝑣
𝑢 𝑢−𝑟
=
𝑣 𝑟−𝑣
𝑢(𝑟 − 𝑣 ) = 𝑣(𝑢 − 𝑟)
𝑢𝑟 − 𝑢𝑣 = 𝑣𝑢 − 𝑣𝑟
𝑢𝑟 − 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣𝑢 + 𝑣𝑟 = 0
𝑢𝑟 − 2 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑟𝑣 = 0
Divide throughout by 𝑢𝑣𝑟,
1 2 1
−𝑟+𝑢 = 0
𝑣
Apply sign convention,
𝑢 = −𝑢, 𝑣 = +𝑣, 𝑟 = −𝑟
1 2 1
−𝑣 +𝑟 −𝑢 = 0
1 1 2
−𝑣 − 𝑢 = −𝑟
1 1 2
− (𝑣 + 𝑢) = −𝑟
1 1 2
+𝑢 =𝑟
𝑣
But 𝑟 = 2𝑓
1 1 2
𝑣
+ 𝑢 = 2𝑓
 21

1 1 1
+ =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

Two Thin Lenses in Contact

Consider two Thin Lenses A and B of focal length 𝑓1 and
𝑓2 placed in contact with each other.

For the image formed by the lens A,

1 1 1
− = (1)
𝑣′ 𝑢 𝑓1
For the image formed by the lens B,
1 1 1
− 𝑣′ = 𝑓 (2)
𝑣 2
Adding (1) and (2),
1 1 1 1 1 1
− 𝑢 + 𝑣 − 𝑣′ = 𝑓 + 𝑓
𝑣′ 1 2
1 1 1 1
− = + (3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2
 22

1 1 1
− = (4)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
Equating (3) and (4),
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

1 1 1 1
𝑖𝑒, 𝑓
= 𝑓1
+𝑓 +𝑓 +⋯
2 3

Their corresponding powers are :

1
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ 𝑃=
𝑓

Human Eye
The eye act in a very similar manner as a camera. Ciliary
muscles change the curvature of the eye lens thereby reducing
the focal length. The ability of the eye to adjust the focal length
of eye lens is called power of accommodation. It has certain
limits. The point upto which an object can be clearly seen is
called near point. The point beyond which a distant object
cannot be seen is called far point. For a normal eye, near point
is nearly 25 cm and is called least distance of distinct vision.
And far point for a normal eye is infinity. The range of vision
is from 25 cm to infinity.

Optical Defects of Eye

1. Short sight (Myopia): A short sighted person cannot see
distant object. These arises when the focal length of the eye
 23

lens is too short. This can be corrected by using concave

lens.

2. Long sight (Hypermetropia): A long sighted person cannot

see near objects. This arises when the focal length of the eye
lens is too large. This can be corrected by using a convex
lens.

3. Astigmatism: An eye is said to be have astigmatism when

it cannot see simultaneously horizontal and vertical lines at
the same distance. This defect can be corrected by using
cylindrical lenses.

4. Presbyopia: For a normal eye, the least distance of distinct

vision is 25cm.This distance increases with age. The near
point may be close to 7 to 8cm for a child of 10 yrs old. Due
to aging, this may increase upto 200cm at the age of 60. This
defect is called Presbyopia.
Dispersion
 24

When a narrow beam of white light is passed through a

Prism. It splits into different colours. The splitting of colours is
called dispersion. The colours is called spectrum.
Red has longer wavelength and violet has shorter
wavelength. Violet deviated the most and red the least.
Angular dispersion
The difference between deviation produced for 2 colours is
called angular dispersion.
If 𝑑𝑣 and 𝑑𝑟 are the deviations produced for violet and red
respectively.
Angular dispersion = 𝑑𝑣 − 𝑑𝑟
Dispersive power
The ratio of angular dispersion to the mean deviation is
called dispersive power.
𝑑𝑣 −𝑑𝑟
𝜔= 𝑑
Dispersive power in terms of refractive index;
𝑑 = (𝑛 − 1)𝐴
𝑑𝑣 = (𝑛𝑣 − 1)𝐴
𝑑𝑟 = (𝑛𝑟 − 1)𝐴
𝑑𝑣 −𝑑𝑟
𝜔= 𝑑
(𝑛𝑣 −1)𝐴−(𝑛𝑟 −1)𝐴
𝜔= (𝑛−1)𝐴
 25

𝐴(𝑛𝑣 −1−(𝑛𝑟 −1))

𝜔= 𝐴(𝑛−1)
𝑛𝑣 −1−𝑛𝑟 +1
𝜔= (𝑛−1)
𝑛𝑣 −𝑛𝑟
𝜔=
𝑛−1

Rayleigh's Law of Scattering

According to Rayleigh's law of Scattering intensity of
scattered light is inversely proportional to power of
wavelength.
1
𝐼∝
𝜆4

where I is the intensity of scattered light and 𝜆 is the

wavelength.
Application of Scattered Light
Blue colour of the sky or blue colour of the sea
Blue colour of the sky is due to the scattering of atmospheric
molecules it obeys Rayleigh's law of Scattering. Thus shorter
wavelength scattered more compared to other wavelengths. Of
these colours blue is the predominant colour for scattering.
Similarly, blue colour of se is due to the scattering of water
molecules.
Whiteness of cloud
Large no.of water molecules and dust particles etc are
contained in cloud. So all radiations scattered equally.
Because of this, cloud appears as white.
 26

Darkness of sky
Since there is no atmosphere scattering at outer space the
sky appears to be dark.

Reddish colour of sunset and sunrise

During the time of sunset and sunrise sun is at very large
distance from the observer. So all the shorter wavelength
scattered away and longer wavelength like red reaches the
earth. So we see the reddish (crimson) colour at sunset and
sunrise.
Rainbow
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of sunlight by water
drops in the atmosphere. Rainbow is the combined effect of
dispersion, refraction and reflection.
Rainbow can be classified into 2:
1) Primary rainbow
2) Secondary rainbow
Primary rainbow Secondary rainbow
 It is more brighter.  It is fainter

 It has 2 refraction and 1  It has 2 refractions and 2

reflection. reflections

 Outer arc is red and inner  Outer arc is violet and

arc is violet. inner arc is red
 27

 Red makes an angle of 42°  Red makes an angle of

and violet makes an angle 50° and violet makes an
of 40°. angle of 53°.

Optical Instruments
Human eye has certain limitations. In order to overcome
these limitations. Optical Instruments are used.
Optical Instruments are mainly classified into:
1) Microscope
2) Telescope
Microscope
The term 'micro' means very minute particles of order 10−6 and
scope means instrument to see. Therefore, microscope is an
instrument to see very minute particles in order of 10−6
Microscope are mainly classified into 2:
Simple microscope

A simple microscope is simple in the sense that only

single convex lens of short focal length (5-10cm) act as a
 28

microscope. When a small object is placed in b/w optic centre

and principle focus the image is formed on the same side of the
lens. The nature of the image is virtual and erect.

Angular Magnification
It is defined as the ratio of angle subtended at the lens by the
image at the near point to the angle subtended at the lens by the
object at the near point.
From lens maker's formula,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
Multiplying throughout by v,
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣 𝑣
−𝑢 = [𝑢 = 𝑚]
𝑣 𝑓
𝑣
1−𝑚=
𝑓
𝑣
𝑚 = 1− 𝑓

When the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision

𝑣 = −𝐷
𝐷
𝑚 = 1+ (near point)
𝑓
 29

When the image is formed at infinity

𝐷
𝑚= (for point)
𝑓

Limitations:
1) Magnifying power is low
2) It suffers from lens defect
Uses:
1) Watch makers and jewellers use a simple microscope for
getting a magnified image.
2) Magnifying glasses are used in laboratories to take reading
in the vernier.
3) Astrologers make use of the magnifying glasses for the
enlarge view of the palms
Compound Microscope

In order to overcome the limitations of a simple

microscope, a compound microscope is used. It consist of 2
convex lens. One is called objective and other is called eye
 30

piece. Near the object, it is called objective and near the eye it
is called eye piece. Objective has very short focal length and
eye piece has moderate focal length. When the object is placed
in b/w f and 2f, the image is formed in b/w objective and
eyepiece. The nature of the image is magnified, virtual and
inverted.

Angular Magnification (M)

It is the product of Magnification of objective and eye
piece.
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑒
𝑉
𝑀𝑜 = 𝑢𝑜
𝑜
𝐷
𝑀𝑒 = 1 +
𝑓𝑒
𝑉𝑜 𝐷
𝑀𝑒 = [1 + ]
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒

𝑉𝑜 = L distance b/w objective and eyepiece

𝑢𝑜 = 𝑓𝑜 (focal length)
𝐿 𝐷
𝑀= [1 + ] (𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

When the image is at infinity,

𝐿 𝐷
𝑀=
𝑓𝑜
× 𝑓𝑒
 31

Advantages
1) Magnifying power is high.
2) It is free from lens defect.

Difference between Simple Microscope and

Compound Microscope

Simple Microscope Compound Microscope

 It consist of one convex  It consist of two convex

lens lens

 Magnifying power is  Magnifying power is

low high

 The nature of image is  The nature of image is

magnified, virtual and magnified, virtual and
erect. inverted.

 It suffers from lens  It is free from lens defect

defect

Telescope
The term 'tele' means very far away and scope means
instrument to see. Therefore telescope is an instrument used to
see very far away objects. They are of two types:
 32

1) Refracting Telescope (Astronomical Telescope)

2) Reflecting Telescope ( Cassegrain Telescope)

Refracting Telescope

It is used to see astronomical objects like stars, planets,

satellite etc. It consist of 2 convex lenses. One is called
objective and the other is called eye piece. A convex lens of
large focal length (nearly 100cm) act as an objective and a
convex lens of shorter focal length (nearly 5cm) act as an eye
piece.
Rays from distant object entering through the objective
from the image at focal plane. If the image formed by the
objective is adjusted to the focal plane of the eye piece, the final
image formed will be at infinity. This arrangement is known as
normal adjustment. The nature of the image is real, inverted and
diminished.
 33

Angular Magnification (M)

It is defined as the ratio of angle subtended at the eye piece
to the angle subtended at the objective.
𝛽
𝑀=
𝛼
From ∆ 𝐼𝐶𝑀,
𝐼𝑀
tan 𝛼 = (1)
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝑀
tan 𝛽 = (2)
𝐼𝐶 ′
For small values of 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽
𝐼𝑀
𝛼 = (3)
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝑀
𝛽 = (4)
𝐼𝐶 ′
𝛽
𝑀=
𝛼
𝐼𝑀
𝐼𝐶′
𝑀= 𝐼𝑀
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐶
𝑀=
𝐼𝐶 ′

But 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑓𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐶 ′ = 𝑓𝑒
𝑓𝑜
𝑀=
𝑓𝑒

Length of the telescope is given by:

𝐿 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒
 34

Limitations:
1) It suffers from lens defect.
2) Resolving power is low.

Reflecting Telescope

It consists of an objective, eye piece and a secondary

mirror. Objective is concave mirror and secondary mirror is a
convex mirror. Concave mirror is used to minimise lens defect.
Advantages:
 It is easy to construct
 Easy to handle
 Bright image is formed
 Resolving power is high
Resolving Power
When 2 objects or their images are very close to each other.
It is not possible for the eye to see them separately. The ability
of an optical instrument to see them as separate is called
resolving power.
 35

The reciprocal of resolving power is called limit of

resolution.
Limit of Resolution and Resolving power of a
microscope
Limit of resolution of a microscope
𝜆
𝑑=
2 𝑛 sin 𝜃

where 𝜆 is the wavelength, n is the refractive index and 𝜃 is

the angle.
1
Resolving Power =
𝑑
2 𝑛 sin 𝜃
=
𝜆
2 𝑛 sin 𝜃
𝑖𝑒, Resolving Power = 𝜆

Limit of resolution and resolving power of a telescope

Limit of resolution of a telescope is given by
1.22 𝜆
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎

where 𝜆 is the wavelength

a is the diameter of the object
1 𝑎
Resolving power = =
𝑑 1.22 𝜆
𝑎
Resolving Power =
1.22 𝜆
 UNIT 10
WAVE OPTICS

Polarization
The phenomenon of interference and diffraction are explained
by wave theory of light. But these effects give no information
about the wave nature. I.e., light waves are transverse or
longitudinal.
The phenomenon of polarisation proves that light waves are
transverse in nature.
Plane polarized light
If the vibrations are restricted to a single plane, it is called plane
polarized light.
Plane of vibration and plane of polarization
The plane containing the incident ray, direction of vibration is
known as plane of vibration. The plane perpendicular to the
plane of vibration is known as plane of polarization.

Representation of polarized light and unpolarized light

1
Polarizer and Analyser
A crystal is said to be a polarizer, if it produces plane polarized
light. A crystal is said to be analyser whether it analyses the
light is plane polarized or not.

Law of Malus

When a beam of plane polarized light is incident on an analyser,

the intensity of emergent light from it is directly proportional
to the square of the cosine of the angle between the polarizing
directions of polarizer and Analyser.

2
If ‘I’ is the intensity of emergent light and θ is the angle
between polarizer and Analyser, then

I ∝ Cos2θ

I = ImCos2θ
Where Im is known as maximum intensity of emergent light.
When θ = 0,

I = Im

Brewster’s Law
The law states that the tangent of angle of polarization is equal
to the refractive index of the medium.
If ‘P’ is the angle of polarization and ‘n’ is the refractive index,
then according to Brewster’s law,

tanp = n

Q) To show that the polarizing angle, the reflected and refracted

rays are mutually perpendicular.
Or
P + r = 90O?

3
Answer

PQ is an incident ray falling on a transparent medium of angle

of incidence ‘i’. It is reflected along QR at an angle of reflection
‘P’. It is reflected along QS at an angle of refraction ‘r’
According to Brewster’s law,
tanp = n
n = tanp
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝
n= ………………. (1)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝

From Snell’s law

sin 𝑖
n=
cos 𝑟
But i = p
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝
Therefore, n = ………………(2)
sin 𝑟

4
Equating eqn (1) and (2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝 sin 𝑟

Cosp = sinr
Sin(90-p) = sinr
90-p = r
P+r = 90o

Thus, the reflected and refracted rays are mutually

perpendicular.
Uses of polarized light
1. Polarized light suggest that the light waves are transverse
in nature.
2. The size and shape of certain viruses can be determined
by polarized light.
3. Polarized light suggest that Saturn ring consists of ice
crystals
4. The structure of atoms and molecules are determined by
polarized light.

Double Refraction
When ordinary light passes through certain crystal-like calcite,
quartz etc, it splits up into two refracted rays. This phenomenon
is known as double Refraction.

5
One of the refracted rays obeys the ordinary laws of refraction
and is called ordinary ray. The other ray does not obey the
ordinary laws of refraction and is called extraordinary ray.

Difference between ordinary ray and extra ordinary ray

Ordinary Ray Extra Ordinary Ray
It obeys the ordinary law of It does not obey the ordinary
refraction law of refraction
Refractive index is a constant Refractive index is not a
constant

Dichroism
When a beam of unpolarized light falls on certain crystals, it is
divided into two components with vibrations parallel and
perpendicular to the optic axis. The vibrations perpendicular to
the optic axis are absorbed. Thus, light coming out of the crystal
has vibrations parallel to the optic axis. This selective
absorption is called dichroism.

Polaroids
It is used to produce plane polarized light in an extensive area.
It is based on the principle of dichroism.

Uses of Polaroids
1. It is used in sunglasses to cut off the intensity of light.

6
 2. It is used to view three dimensional pictures
3. It is used in wind screens of car to cut off the intensity of
light
4. It is used to control intensity of light entering trains,
aeroplanes etc.

Postive and negative crystals

If ne > no , it is known as +ve crystals.
Eg: - quartz
If ne < no ,it is known as -ve crystals
Eg: - calcite

Interference
The superposition of two or more waves is called interference.

Huygen’s principle of superstition

7
When two or more waves interfere in a medium the resultant
displacement of the wave is equal to the vector sum of the
individual waves.
If y1, y2, y3 …….yn are the displacements of the wave, the
resultant displacement of the wave is given by,

Y = y1 + y2+ y3+ ………. +yn

Wavefront

The locus of all points in the same phase of vibration is called

wavefront.
Eg: - Spherical wave front, cylindrical wave front etc.

8
Proof of snell’s law – Refraction by Huygen’s Principle

𝐵𝐷 − 𝐶1 𝑡 [1]
𝐴𝐶 − 𝐶2 𝑡 [2]
From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐷,
𝐵𝐷
sin 𝑖 =
𝐴𝐷
𝐶1 𝑡
sin 𝑖 = [3]
𝐴𝐷
From ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷,
𝐴𝐶
sin 𝑟 =
𝐴𝐷
𝐶2 𝑡
sin 𝑟 = [4]
𝐴𝐷
Equation [3] / [4]

9
 𝐶1 𝑡
sin 𝑖
= 𝐴𝐷
sin 𝑟 𝐶2 𝑡
𝐴𝐷

sin 𝑖 𝐶1
= =𝑛
sin 𝑟 𝐶2

Refractive index in terms of wavelength by Huygen’s

Principle

𝐶1
𝑛= 𝑉 = 𝑓ℵ
𝐶2
𝐶1 = 𝑓ℵ1
𝑓ℵ1
𝑛= 𝐶2 = 𝑓ℵ2
𝑓ℵ2
Frequency remains
constant

ℵ1 ℵ1
𝑛==
𝑛
ℵ2 ℵ 2

10
Prove the law of reflection of light using Huygen’s Principle

Considered the congruent triangles

∆ 𝐴𝐶𝐷 & ∆ 𝐴𝐵𝐷
< 𝐵𝐴𝐷 = < 𝐶𝐷𝐴
<𝑖 =<𝑟
<𝑖 =<𝑟

Hence proved

Relation between Intensity (I) and Amplitude (A) of a wave

Intensity is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the wave.
I ∝ A2

11
Constructive and Destructive Interference

When crust of one wave meets the crust of another wave or

trough of one wave meets with the trough of another wave, the
amplitude is maximum (A+A=2A). This interference is called
constructive interference.
When crust of one wave meets with the trough of another wave,
the resultant amplitude is minimum (A+A = 0). This
interference is called destructive interference.

Coherent sources
Two sources must be coherent, if they have same amplitude,
same wavelength and same phase.

12
Conditions for obtaining good Interference pattern on the
screen

1. The sources must be coherent. Ie, they have same

amplitude, same wavelength and same phase
2. The sources (slits) must be narrow and very close to each
other (d)
3. The source and the screen must be comparatively at a
larger distance (D).

Bandwidth (β)
The distance between two consecutive bright bands or
darkbands is called bandwidth (β).
Diffraction
The bending of light around the corners of an opaque
obstacle is called diffraction.

13
 Difference between Interference bands and diffraction
Bands.

Interference Band Diffraction Band

• Interference bands are • Diffraction bands are
produced by the produced by the
superposition of 2 superposition of
waves from 2 coherent secondary wavelets
sources
• In Interference band, • In Diffraction bands,
the intensity is same for intensity is not same for
all bright bands all bright bands
• The dark bands of • The intensity of dark
interference pattern are bands in diffraction
perfectly dark. Ie, band is not zero
Intensity = 0
• The band width is same • The band width is not
for interference band same for diffraction
band

Expression for bandwidth – Young’s Double slit

experiment

14
Let A and B are two parallel slits illuminated by
monochromatic source of wavelength 'λ’. A and B are
separated by a small distance from each other (d). c represents
the midpoint of AB.
A and B act as coherent sources. Let a screen is placed at a
distance ‘D’ from the slit AB. The waves from A and B have
travelled unequal paths in reaching P. Path difference between
the waves from A and B in reaching P is ‘BP-AP’
From ∆AQP,
AP2 = AQ2 + QP2
𝑑
AP2 = D2 + (x - )2
2
𝑑 𝑑2
AP = D + x – 2x +
2 2 2
2 4
𝑑2
AP2 = D2 + x2 – xd + …………………. (1)
4

15
From ∆BRP,
BP2 = BR2 + RP2
𝑑
BP2 = D2 + (x + )2
2

2 2 2 𝑑 𝑑2
BP = D + x + 2x +
2 4
𝑑2
BP2 = D2 + x2 + xd + …………………. (2)
4
𝑑2 𝑑2
BP - AP = D + x – xd +
2 2 2 2
– (D + x + xd +
2 2
)
4 4

BP2 - AP2 = 2xd

(BP + AP) (BP – AP) = 2xd
Since BP + AP = 2D,
2D (BP – AP) = 2xd
2𝑥𝑑
BP – AP =
2𝐷
𝑥𝑑
BP – AP =
𝐷
𝑥𝑑
Path difference; δ = 𝐷
……………. (3)

For Bright bands,

δ = mλ ……………….(4)
𝑥𝑑
δ= ………………...(3)
𝐷

16
 Equating (4) and (3)
𝑥𝑑
mλ =
𝐷
𝑚𝐷λ
x=
𝑑

Let xm and xm-1 be the distance of mth and m-1th bright bands.
𝑚𝐷λ
xm =
𝑑
(𝑚−1)𝐷λ
xm-1 =
𝑑

Bandwidth, β = xm - xm-1
𝑚𝐷λ (𝑚−1)𝐷λ
= -
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚𝐷λ 𝑚𝐷λ 𝐷λ
= -( - )
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑚𝐷λ 𝑚𝐷λ 𝐷λ
= - +
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝐷λ
=
𝑑
Similarly, for dark bands,
λ
δ = (2m-1) 2 , where m = 1,2, 3,………

therefore
𝐷λ
β= 𝑑

17
 Diffraction due to a single slit.

Consider a single slit AC having width ‘a’. A screen is placed

at a suitable distance from the slit. Let P is a point on the screen.
The path difference between the rays reaching at P is
CP - AP = CD…………(1)
From ∆ACD,
𝐶𝐷
Sinθ =
𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝐷
Sinθ =
𝑎

CD = a Sinθ

18
For small values of θ,
CD = aθ ………………(2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
CP – AP = aθ

Position of maximum intensity

The maximum intensity obtained at the screen is called central

maximum or principle maximum

Position of secondary maximum and secondary minimum

The condition for secondary maxima is,
1 𝜆
θ=(n+ )
2 𝑎

Where θ is the position or distance, λ is the path difference and

a is the width.

19
Condition for secondary minima is,
𝑛𝜆
θ= 𝑎

Graphical representation of a single slit

Application Questions
1. What is the main condition to produce interference of
light?

The sources of light must be coherent

2. What is the effect on the interference fringes (bands) in a

Young’s double slit experiment if the screen is moved
away from the plane of the slits?

20
 𝐷ℵ
As fringe width (bandwidth), β = 𝑑
So, as the screen is moved away from the slits (D
increases), fringe width increases

3. What will be the effect on interference fringes in Young’s

double slit Experiment, if the monochromatic source is
replaced by another monochromatic source of shorter
wavelength?

𝐷ℵ
Since β = i.e. β ∝ ℵ
𝑑
Their for-fringe width decreases

4. In Young’s double slit experiment, with monochromatic

light, how is the fringe width affected, if the screen is
moved closer to the slits?
𝐷ℵ
Bandwidth decreases because bandwidth β = 𝑑

5. In Young’s double slit Experiment, if the distance between

2 slits to halved and distance between the slit and screen
is doubled, then what will be the effect on fringe width?

Original band width,

𝐷ℵ
𝛽=
𝑑
New band width,
2𝐷ℵ
𝛽′ = 𝑑
2

21
 4𝐷ℵ
𝛽′ =
𝑑
𝛽 ′ = 4𝛽

6. Is the central fringe bright or dark in Young’s double slit

experiment?
The central fringe is bright in Young’s double slit
experiment.

7. What will be the effect on the fringes formed in Young’s

double slit experiment, if the apparatus immersed in
water?

The wavelength of water is less than that in air, therefore

the wavelength of water is minimum. Therefore
bandwidth decreases ( β ∝ A)

8. What two main changes in diffraction pattern of single

slit, will you observe when the monochrome source is
replaced by a source of white light.

1) In each diffraction order, the diffracted image of

the slit get dispersed into component colours of
white light.
2) In higher order spectra the dispersion is more and
it causes overlapping of different colours.

22
23
 1

Chapter-11
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

Work function (𝝋𝟎 )

The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the
metal surface is known as work function (𝜑0 ).The work
function is usually measured in electron volt (eV).
Platinum has the highest work function (5.6 eV) and Cesium
has the lowest work function (2.14 eV).
Work function depends upon:
1) Nature of the metals
2) Purity of the metals
3) Condition of the surface
Electron Emission
There are 4 methods of obtaining electron emission from
the surface of the metal.
1. Thermionic emission:
In this method, the metal is heated to a sufficient
temperature (about 2500°c) to enable the free electrons to
leave the metal surface. The higher the temperature, the
greater is the emission of electrons.
2. Field Emission:
In this method, a strong electric field of the order of
108 𝑉/𝑚 is supplied at the metal surface which eject the free
 2

electrons out of the metal. The stronger the electric field, the
greater is the electron emission.
3. Photo electric emission :
When an electromagnetic radiation of suitable
frequency falling on the metal surface it eject the free electrons
out of the metal. The greater the intensity of radiation, the
greater is the photo electric emission.
4. Secondary emission :
In this method, a high velocity beam of electrons strikes
the metal surface and ejects the free electrons out of the metal.
Photo electric Effect
It is the emission of electrons from the metals, when an
electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency falls on them.
The electrons emitted are called photo electrons. The
current that results from the flow of photo electrons is called
photoelectric current. The substance which emits photo
electrons is called photosensitive substance.
Experimental Observation - Hertz and Lenard's
experiment
 3

The experimental arrangement consists of an evacuated

glass bulb. There are two electrodes - cathode (C) and anode
(A). A window (W) is sealed on to the glass bulb, which
permits the light to pass through it. The potential difference
between the plates is measured using a voltmeter and the
current flowing through the circuit is measured using a micro
ammeter. This experimental arrangement can be used to
study the relation of photo electric current on the intensity
and frequency of the incident radiation.
1. Effect of Intensity (I) of radiation on photo
electric current (i)

It is found that the intensity of incident light is directly

proportional to photoelectric current.
𝐼∝𝑖
The graph connecting intensity of light and photoelectric
current is a straight line.
2. Effect of potential on photoelectric current

As the accelerating potential increases, the

photoelectric current increases and reaches a maximum
 4

value. The maximum value of current is called saturation

current.

When we apply an increasing negative (-ve) potential

(retarding potential), the photoelectric current decreases and
reaches a zero volt. This potential is called stopping
potential or cut off potential (𝑉0 ).
3. Effect of frequency of Radiation on kinetic
energy of photoelectron

A graph is plotted with frequency(𝜗0 ) along the x-

axis and stopping potential (along the y- axis, the graph is a
straight line. The minimum value of the frequency below
 5

which the photoelectric emission stops is called threshold

frequency.
Laws of photoelectric emission:
The number of photoelectrons emitted is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation.
The minimum value of frequency below which the
photoelectric emission stops is called threshold frequency.
Kinetic Energy depends upon the frequency of the incident
radiation.
Photoelectric emission is a spontaneous process.
Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
Consider a photon of frequency ′𝜗′ incident on a metal
surface of work function ′𝜑0 ′. If the energy '0' of the photon
is spent in two ways.
It is used to eject the electron (work function).
It is used to give kinetic energy of electrons.
ℎ𝜗 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
1
ℎ𝜗 = 𝜑0 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜑0 = ℎ𝜗0
1
∴ ℎ𝜗 = ℎ𝜗0 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2

where 𝜗0 is the frequency of the incident radiation.

Properties of photons
1. The energy of the photon, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
 6

2. From Einstein relativistic energy - momentum relation

𝐸 = √𝑐 2 𝑝2 + 𝑚0 𝑐 4
where 'c' is the velocity of light 'p' is the momentum
and ′𝑚0 ′ is the rest mass of the photon.
3. The moving mass of the photon is given by
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸
𝑚 = 𝑐 2 , but 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
ℎ𝜗
𝑚= 𝑐2
4. The photon is electrically neutral, so that they are not
deflected by electric and magnetic field.

Expression for de - Broglie Wave length

The energy of the photon is given by

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗
𝑐
But 𝜗=𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝐸= 𝜆
(1)
From Einstein's mass - energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (2)
Equating (1) & (2)
ℎ𝑐
𝜆
= 𝑚𝑐 2
 7

ℎ
𝜆
= 𝑚𝑐
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑐
where 'c' is the velocity of light.

If 'v' is the velocity of the particle, then the equation

becomes
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
But P = mv
ℎ
𝜆= 𝑃

de - Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerating

through a potential difference of 'v' volt
𝑊
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞 [𝑉 = ]
𝑞
Work done = kinetic energy
𝑊 = 𝐾. 𝐸
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑞
If an electron of charge 'e' is accelerating, then
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑉𝑒
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒 𝑉
2
𝑚𝑣 2 = 2𝑒 𝑉
 8

multiplying 'm' on both sides

𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
But P = mv
𝑃2 = 𝑚2 𝑣 2
𝑃2 = 2 𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑃 = √2 𝑚𝑒𝑉
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑃
ℎ
𝜆=
√2 𝑚𝑒𝑉
ℎ = 6.64 × 10−34
𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑐
1.227
∴ 𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
√𝑉

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. "It is
impossible to specify precisely and simultaneously the values
of both position and momentum of a fundamental particle.
If ′∆𝑥′ is the error in measuring the position and ′∆𝑝′ is
the error in measuring the momentum of particle.
ℎ
∴ ∆𝑥 × ∆𝑝 = 2𝜋
 9

Davisson and Germer Experimental

Davisson and Germer Experiment consists a Filament 'F'

which is connected to a low tension b. A high voltage is
applied between A and C. N is nickel crystal and D is an
electron detector.
The electron beam is produced by passing current
through Filament F. Electron beam is accelerated by
applying a high voltage in between A and C. The accelerated
electron beam is made full on the nickel crystal. The nickel
crystal scatter the electron beam to different angles. The
experiment was performed for various accelerated potentials
of 44V to 68V.
It is found that the peak begins to appear in the curve for
an accelerating potential 44V and it became maximum at
54V. The corresponding angle is 50°. At higher potentials,
the peak gradual disappears.
According to de - Broglie wavelength
1.227
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚 [𝑉 = 54 𝑉]
√𝑉
1.227
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚 = 𝜆 = 1.64 𝐴°
√54
 1

Chapter – 12 & 13
ATOMIC NUCLEUS

Isotopes
Isotope of an element which have same atomic
number but has different mass number.
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3
Eg : 1 ,1 ,1
Isobars
Isobars are atoms of different elements which have
some mass number but different atomic number.
22 22
Eg : 11𝑁𝑎 , 10𝑁𝑒
Isotones
Isotones have same number of neutrons.
37 39
Eg : 17𝐶𝑙 , 19𝐾

𝑁𝑜: 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜 − 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜

Isomers
Atoms have some atomic number and mass number
but differ in their radioactive property are called isomers.
Eg : Uranium

1
 2

Nuclear Force :
The nucleons in a nucleus are held together by a
strong attractive force is called nuclear force.
Properties of Nuclear Force :
1.Strongest interaction
It is the strongest interactive force in nature. It is about
1038 times stronger than gravitational force and 100 times
stronger than electrostatic force.

2.It is a short range force.

3. It does not depend on electric charge.

4.Nuclear force is same between a proton and a proton, neutron

and a neutron and between proton and a neutron.

5. Saturation effect
A neutron interact only with the nucleons in the
immediate neighbourhood, even though there may be
several nucleon surrounded it. This property is called
saturation effect.
Mass defect and Binding energy :
The difference between the rest mass of the nucleus
and sum of the masses of protons and neutrons in a nucleus
is known as mass effect.
The energy utilised to bind the nucleon in the nucleus is
called binding energy.

2
 3

Radioactivity
When the neutron - proton ratio is not in a certain
limit, the nucleus undergo decay and emitting energy. This
property is called radioactivity.

Experiment to determine radioactive radiation Or

Rutherford's experiment to demonstrate radioactive
radiation

Place a small piece of radium in a small pit of a lead

block. The radiations from the radium is affected by passing
electric field. The radioactive radiations split into 3
components. One part consist of positively charged particles
and are deflected towards negatively plate.
The second part consist of negatively charged particles
and are deflected towards the positively plate. The third plate

3
 4

consist of charge less particles and are deflected towards the

straight.
The radiations with positive charge are known as 𝛼-
rays. The radiations with negative charge are known as 𝛽-
rays. The radiations with no charge are known as 𝛾 - rays.

Alpha – 𝜶 Beta - 𝜷 Gamma – 𝜸

1. +vely charged -vely charged No change

particles particles
2. Similar Similar to Electromagnetic
to helium electrons radiations
nucleus

3. Velocity is Velocity is Velocity is

2 × 107 𝑚/𝑠 2 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
4. The ability to Ability is less Ability to ionise
ionise gases is than 𝛼 - rays gases is very low
very low

5. Penetrating low Penetrating Penetrating power

power is very power is higher is very high
low than 𝛼 - rays

6. They affect They affect They affect

photographic photographic photographic
plates plates plate

4
 5

7. They produce They produce They produce

fluorescence and fluorescence and fluorescence
phosphorescence phosphorescence

Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion

The splitting up of heavier nucleus into two or more
lighter nuclei is known as nuclear fission. High temperature
is not necessary in nuclear fission.
 The principle of atom bomb is based on nuclear fission. The
combining of two or more lighter nuclei to form heavier
nucleus is called nuclear fusion. High temperature is needed
for nuclear fusion and hence it is called thermonuclear
reaction.
 Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of nuclear fusion.

Chain reaction

When a uranium nucleus undergo fission, neutrons are

released. These neutrons split the surrounding uranium

5
 6

nuclei and releasing neutrons in each fission. This process is

continuous. It is called chain reaction (uncontrolled nuclear
fission).

Nuclear reactor

A device that is used for producing nuclear energy by

controlled nuclear reactor. The main parts of a nuclear
reactor are :
1. Moderator :
These are materials used to slow down neutrons.
Eg : Graphite, 𝐷2 𝑂 (Deuterium oxide).

2. Control rod :
By controlling the number of neutron in a
reactor, chain reaction can be controlled.
Eg : Cadmium rod, Boron rod etc

3. Coolants :
As a result of nuclear fission, a lot of heat is
generated. A device used to control the heat or
temperature are called coolants.
Eg : High pressure water, Liquid metals etc

4. Shield to protect radiation :

During nuclear fission, dangerous radiations
like gamma rays are formed. In order to protect living
things from radiations, some shield made of lead and
concrete are used around the reactor.

6
 7

𝟏⁄
Half life period (𝒕 𝟐)

The time required for a radioactive substance to

disintegrate half of its initial mass is known as half - life
period.
𝟏⁄ 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒕 𝟐 = 𝝀

where "𝜆" is the decay constant

Laws of radioactive disintegration

1. In all radioactive transformation, either an 𝛼 or 𝛽 particle

is emitted by the atom at a time. When an 𝛼 emission take
place, the mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number
decreases by 2.
4
𝑋𝑍𝐴 → 𝑋𝑍−2 𝐴−4
+ 2𝐻𝑒
When a 𝛽 emission takes place, the atomic no. increases
by one and mass no. does not change.
𝑋𝑍𝐴 → 𝑋𝑍+1 𝐴
+ 𝑒−
2. Law of radioactive decay :
The rate of disintegration is directly proportional to
the total no. of atoms present in it.
If ′𝑑𝑁′ is the disintegration and 'N' is the total no. of
atoms.
𝑑𝑁
∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡

7
 8

𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜆𝑁
where ' 𝜆 ' is known as decay constant.
The negative sign showing that the particle is decaying
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating on both sides,
𝑑𝑁
∫ 𝑁 = ∫ −𝜆 𝑑𝑡

log 𝑒 𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑡 + 𝑐 (1)
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑁 = 𝑁0

log 𝑒 𝑁0 = 𝑐 (2)
Sub (2) in (1)
log 𝑒 𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑡 + log𝑒 𝑁
0
log 𝑒 𝑁 − log 𝑒 𝑁0 = −𝜆 𝑡
𝑁
log 𝑒 ( ) = −𝜆 𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

8
 9

Geiger-Marsden Experimental Or Gold foil

experiment Or Alpha particle scattering experiment

The 𝛼 particles emitted by a radioactive source when

collimated into a fine beam by passing through a lead screen.
A gold foil (scattering foil) about 10−4 mm thick is placed
in the path of 𝛼 particle. The scattered 𝛼 particles were
observed through a particle detector consisting of a zinc
sulphide screen and a microscope. The scattered 𝛼 -particles
striking on the screen which could be observed and counted
at different angles from the direction of the incident ray.

Most of the 𝛼-particles emerged undeflected or showed

a little deflection. A few of them undergoes very large
deflection. In some cases, the deflection was even 180°.

9
 10

Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom

According to Rutherford, atom consist of positively

charged nucleus with electron revolving around the nucleus
in circular orbit. According to electromagnetic theory, there
electrons would revolve continuously radiate energy and fall
into the nucleus and the atom will collapse. Thus Rutherford
model could not explain the stability of the atom.
Bohr atom model
Postulates of Bohr atom model :
1. Bohr accepted Rutherford's concept of nuclear atom model
ie, all the positive particles are concentrated at a point
known as nucleus and the electrons are revolving round the
nucleus in a circular orbit.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons supply the necessary centripetal
force for the electrons to revolve round the nucleus.

2. Electron can move only in certain specified orbits, while

moving along this orbit round the nucleus an electron does
not radiate energy. These non - radiating orbits are called
stationary orbits or permitted orbits.

10
 11

The angular momentum of an electron is an integral

𝑛ℎ
multiple of ℎ⁄2𝜋 (𝐿 = )
2𝜋

3. Emission or absorption of energy takes place when an

electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another
Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the energy of an electron in an inner
orbit and an outer orbit. When the electrons jump from outer
orbit to inner orbit, it emits energy.

ℎ 𝜗 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝜗=
ℎ

This is Bohr frequency condition

11
de- Broglie’s explanation on bohr’s second postulate of
quantization

According to de – Broglie concept of matter waves. A circular

orbit is said to be stationary state if its circumference containing
an integral no of de Broglie wave length
If ‘r’ is the radius of the orbit and ‘ ℵ′ is the de-Broglie’s
wavelength
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛ℵ
ℎ
ℵ=
𝑚𝑣
𝑛ℎ
2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑚𝑣
2𝜋𝑟𝑚𝑣 = 𝑛ℎ
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = [1]
2𝜋

12
Angular momentum is given by
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑉
𝜔=
𝑟
𝑉
2
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑟 ×
𝑟
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 [2]

Equating [1] & [2]

𝑛ℎ
𝐿=
2𝜋

Expression for orbital radius (r) and Total Energy of an

electron

Orbital radius (r)

Electrostatics force of attraction between the revolving electrons
and the nucleus provides the necessary centripetal force to keep
them in their orbits.

13
 𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2

𝑒2
𝑟=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2

Total Energy

4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒 2
2
𝑒
𝑣2 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑟
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1 𝑒2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚 ×
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑟
𝑒2
𝐾. 𝐸 =
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

14
 −𝑒 2
𝑃. 𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑇. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸

𝑒2 −𝑒 2
𝑇. 𝐸 = +
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑒 2 − 2𝑒 2
𝑇. 𝐸 =
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

−𝑒 2
𝑇. 𝐸 =
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Atomic Spectrum
Each element has a characteristics spectrum. When a atomic gas
or vapour (hydrogen) is excited at low pressure and by passing an
electric current through it. The emitted radiations which contains
certain specific wavelength. A spectrum of this kind is termed as
emission spectrum which consist of bright lines on a dark
background.
When a white length passes through a gas. We find dark lines
in the spectrum. The dark lines correspond to certain wavelength
and is called absorption spectrum

15
Spectral series

Hydrogen is the simplest atom and it has the simplest spectrum.

The spacing between the lines of the hydrogen spectrum
decreases in a regular way. These sets are called a spectral series
The series was first discovered by Balmer and it is called Balmer
series. the line with the longest wavelength is called 𝐻∝
(656.3nm) and line with the shortest wave length is 𝐻∝ (364.6nm)
Barmer found an expression for wave length

1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
ℵ 2 𝑛

Where n =3,4,5, …
Where ′ℵ′is the wavelength and ‘R’ is the Rydberg constant the
value of R is 1.097×107 𝑚−1
Where n =3

16
 1 1 1
= 1.097 × 107 [ 2 − 2 ]
ℵ 2 3

ℵ = 656.3𝑛𝑚
Other series of spectra of hydrogen were also discovers

Lyman Series
1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
ℵ 1 𝑛
Where n=2,3,4….

Paschen Series

1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
ℵ 3 𝑛
Where n=4,5,6….

Bracket Series
1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
ℵ 4 𝑛
Where n=5,6,7….

17
Pfund series

1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
ℵ 5 𝑛
Where n=6,7,8….

Balmer series is found in visible region, Lyman series is found in

UV region, Paschen series, Bracket and Pfund series are found
in infrared region

Energy level of Hydrogen atom

18
Ground state.
Lower energy state is called ground state
Excited state
Higher energy state is celled excited state
Ionization energy
The minimum energy required to free the electron from the
ground state of Hydrogen atom is called ionization energy
Ionization energy can be calculated by the equation
−13.6
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣
𝑛2
Where n=1,
𝐸𝑚 = −13.6𝑒𝑣

Drawbacks of Bohr model

▪ It could not explain fine structure of Hydrogen atom
▪ It is applicable to hydrogenic atoms only
▪ Balmer formula in term of frequency of light

1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
ℵ 2 𝑛

19
 𝐶 = 𝜗ℵ
𝐶
ℵ=
𝜗
1 𝜗
=
ℵ 𝐶
𝜗 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝐶 2 𝑛

1 1
𝜗 = 𝑅𝐶 [ 2 − 2 ]
2 𝑛

Application Questions

Mass defect can be calculated as

∆𝒎 = 𝒁𝒎𝒑 + (𝑨 − 𝒁)𝒎𝒏 − 𝒎
▪ Z= atomic number
▪ 𝑚𝑝 = mass of the proton
▪ A= Mass number
▪ 𝑚𝑛 = mass of the neutron
▪ m = mass of nucleus

20
Binding energy can be calculated as

𝐵 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2

∆𝒎 = (𝒁𝒎𝒑 + (𝑨 − 𝒁)𝒎𝒏 − 𝒎) × 𝑪𝟐

Binding energy per nucleon

It is the binding energy of a nucleus divided by mass number

𝒎∆𝒄𝟐 𝒁𝒎𝒑 + (𝑨 − 𝒁)𝒎𝒏 − 𝒎

̅
𝑩= =( ) × 𝑪𝟐
𝑨 𝑨

Size of the nucleus

Radius of the nucleus is proportional to the cube root of the

mass number
𝟏
𝑹∝ 𝑨𝟑
𝟏
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 × 𝑨𝟑

Where 𝑹𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒎
𝑹𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒇𝒎

21
∝ −decay

It is the phenomenon of emission of a ‘ ∝ ′ particle from the

nucleus. When ∝ emission takes place, the mass no decreases by
4 and atomic number decreases by 2

𝑋𝑍𝐴 → 𝑋𝑍−2
𝐴−4
+ 𝐻𝑒24
𝜷 −decay
When a 𝛽 emission takes place, atomic number decreases by one
and mass no does not change.
𝑋𝑍𝐴 → 𝑋𝑍+1
𝐴
+ 𝑒10

Unit of Radioactivity
Unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)

1Bq=1decay/second

Practical unit of radioactivity

1. Curie (Ci)

𝟏𝒄𝒊 = 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝑩𝒒

2. Rutherford (Rd)
𝟏𝑹𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑩𝒒

22
Distance of closest approach

Let ‘m’ be the mass of the ∝ −particle and’v’ is its velocity which
is moving towards nucleus of charge ‘Ze’ as it approaches the
nucleus, the K. E decrease due to repulsive force. at a point
distance ‘ 𝑟0 ′ from the nucleus, it is at rest where its K. E is
completely converted into potential energy.
1 2
1 2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 = ×
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟0
1
But, 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝐸𝑘
Where ro is called distance of closest approach
Impact parameter( b )
The impact parameters is defined as the perpendicular distance of
the velocity vector of the particle from the centre of the nucleus
when it is far away from the atom for an particle directed towerds
the nucleus, b=0 and =180°

23
 1

Chapter-15
SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Energy Band

The range of energy possessed by an electron in a solid is

known as energy band. The range of energy possessed by 1st
orbital electron is called 1st energy band.
Important Energy Bands In solids
 2

Valence Band
Electrons in the outermost orbit is known as valence
electron. The range of energy possessed by valence electrons
in a solid is known as Valence Band.
Conduction Band
In a metal, the valence electrons are loosely packed.
Some of the valence electrons may get detached to become
free electrons. These free electrons are responsible for the
conduction of current in a conductor. So these electrons are
called conduction electrons. The range of energy possessed by
conduction electrons in a solid is known as Conduction Band.
Forbidden Energy Gap [𝑬𝒈 ]
The valence band and the conduction band may be
separated by an energy gap is called forbidden energy gap. For
Germanium, 𝐸𝑔 = 0.785 𝑒𝑉 . For silicon, 𝐸𝑔 = 1.21 𝑒𝑉
Classification of solids in terms of forbidden energy gap
On the basis of forbidden energy gap, solids are classified
into three:
1. Conductors:
 3

In all conductors, valence band overlap the conduction

band. Therefore, no energy is required to move an electron
from valence band to conduction band. Therefore,
conductivity is high in conductors.
2. Insulators:

In an insulator, the forbidden energy gap is very

large [𝐸𝑔 ≥ 5 𝑒𝑉] . Hence a large amount of energy has to
be supplied to a valence electron to enable it to move to the
conduction band. Therefore, insulator are very poor
conductors of electricity.
3. Semiconductors:
 4

In the case of semiconductors, the energy gap is small

[𝐸𝑔 ≈ 1 𝑒𝑉] . Many electrons in the valence band acquire
energy necessary to jump the narrow forbidden energy gap.
Therefore, conductivity is in between conductors and
Insulators.
Semiconductors
Substances which allow electricity partially through a
medium are known as semiconductor.
Eg : Germanium, Silicon
Properties of Semiconductors
1. The resistivity of semiconductors is less than that of
insulators and greater than that of conductor.

2. Semiconductors has -ve temperature co-efficient of

resistance. ie; the electrical resistance of a semiconductor
decreases with increase in temperature.

3. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor can be

increased by a large amount by the addition of suitable
impurities like Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Indium,
Gallium etc.

4. In a semiconductor, both the free electrons and the holes

are the charge carriers. But in conductors only free
electrons are the charge carriers.
 5

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

A pure semiconductor is called Intrinsic
Semiconductor. The conductivity of the intrinsic
semiconductor is increased by adding a small amount of
suitable impurities to it. It is called Extrinsic
semiconductors.
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is
called dopping.
n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors can be classified into two:
1. n-type semiconductor
The n - type semiconductor are obtained by dopping a
crystal having pentavalent impurities like Antimony,
Arsenic, Bismuth etc. In an n - type semiconductors
electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the
minority charge carriers.
2. p-type semiconductors
p- type semiconductors are obtained by dopping a
crystal having trivalent impurities like indium, gallium
etc. In a p - type semiconductor, holes are the majority
charge carriers and electrons are the minority charge
carriers.
p-n junction diode
 6

When a p-type semiconductor is joined to a n-type

semiconductor, a junction is formed. This junction is called
p-n junction and the device is called p - n junction diode.
p-n junction diode under forward bias

If the +ve terminal of the batteries connected to p-region and

-ve terminal of the battery is connected to n-region, p-n
junction is forward biased.
 7

Forward characteristics
1. The forward characteristics of a V-I graph is not a straight
line. This means that the diode does not obey ohm's law.

2. When the forward voltage is increased from zero, a small

current begins to flow at a particular value of forward
voltage. This voltage is called cut-in voltage or break point
voltage.

3. The potential at which the exponential line of current

occurs is called firing voltage or threshold voltage.
p-n junction under reverse bias
 8

When the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to the n-

region and the -ve terminal of the battery is connected to the
p -region, the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
Reverse characteristics:
1. The reverse characteristics of a V- I graph is not a straight
line. Therefore, it does not obey ohm's law.

2. When the reverse voltage is increased, the reverse current

remains constant upto a certain critical value. The reverse
current is called reverse saturation current or leakage
current.

3. The critical reverse voltage at which the p- n junction

breaks with a sudden rise in reverse current and is called
breakdown voltage.
Diffusion, Depletion Layer, Drift and Internal potential
barrier
 9

Diffusion
The n-region of a semiconductor has a large number of
free electrons and p region has a large number of holes. When
a p-n junction is formed, the free electrons and holes migrate
across the junction. This process is called diffusion.
Depletion Layer
The small region near the junction which is depleted of
free charge carriers and has only immobile ions is called
depletion layer
Drift
When an electric field is applied, an electron of the p-
side of the junction moves to the n-side and holes on the n-
side moves to the p-side. The motion of charge carriers due
to electric field is called drift.
Internal potential barrier
An internal potential difference is developed across
the junction. This potential difference is called internal
potential barrier.

Rectifier
The process in which an AC voltage is converted into
unidirectional DC voltage is known as rectification, and the
circuit used for this conversion is called a rectifier.
Principle:-
Junction diode conducts current when it is forward
biased and does not conducts when it is reverse biased.
 10

Rectifier can be classified into two:

1. Half Wave Rectifier
2. Full Wave Rectifier

1. Half Wave Rectifier

 11

A rectifier which rectifies only one half of the AC cycle

is called a half wave rectifier.
The AC to be rectified is applied to the primary of a
transformer. Induced AC voltage across the secondary is
applied to the crystal diode through a load resistance ′𝑅𝐿 ′. The
transformer has a function to step up or stem down the AC
input. If A is +ve with respect to B, the diode is forward
biased and current flows through the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
During the next half cycle, when A is -ve with respect to B
the diode is reverse biased and hence no current flows
through the circuit. Therefore no voltage is produced across
𝑅𝐿 .Thus we see that output is unidirectional.
Efficiency of a half wave rectifier is low. ie, 40.6%

2. Full Wave Rectifier

 12

A rectifier which rectifies both halves of an AC cycle is

called a full wave rectifier.
It consists of two identical diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 . It has a
centre tapped transformer in to maintain the zero potential.
During the half cycle of the AC input; when the diode D,
is forward biased, a current flows through the circuit. During
this time, the diode 𝐷2 is reverse biased, so it does not conduct
electric current. During the next half cycle, the diode 𝐷2 is
forward biased and 𝐷1 is reverse biased. Hence 𝐷2 conducts
current and 𝐷1 does not conduct current. The above process
is repeated in both halves of the AC cycle. Therefore, it is
clear that the current flows in one direction.
Maximum efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.
 24

Current Amplification Factor (𝜷) or (𝜶)

It is defined as the change in collector current (∆𝐼𝐶 ) to the
change is base current (∆𝐼𝐵 ) at a constant collector - emitter
voltage.
∆𝐼
𝛽 = (∆𝐼𝐶 )
𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Transistor as a device
Transistor can be used as
1. An amplifier
2. An oscillator
3. A switch

1. Transistor as an Amplifier
 25

Amplifier is an electronic device which amplifies weak

signal without any change in frequency and wave shape.
Amplifiers can be basically classified into two:
1. Power Amplifier
2. Voltage Amplifier
1. Power Amplifier
The amplifier which increases the power level of the
signal is called power amplifier.
2. Voltage Amplifier
An amplifier which increases the voltage level of
the signal is called voltage amplifier.
Transistor - Voltage Amplifier
The input signal 𝑉𝑖 is applied to the base of the transistor
through an input capacitor 𝐶𝑖 . The input capacitor offers
high impedence to DC and low impedence to AC. The
output the amplified signal is obtained between the collector
and the emitter through an output capacitor 𝐶𝑜
When the weak input signal is applied between the
base and the emitter, the base current changes. The small
changes in base current produces a large change in the
collector current. The change is collector current is given by,
𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽 × 𝐼𝐵
Since transistor 𝛽 is very large. i e; between 50 and 500,
the output 𝐼𝐶 is very large. Thus a weak signal applied to this
 26

base circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector

circuit.
2. Transistor as an Oscillator
Tank circuit

Damped Oscillation

Feed back Circuit

 27

Circuit Diagram

Graphical Representation

An oscillator is an electronic device which produce

oscillation of any observed frequency.
Essential parts of an oscillator:
1. Tank circuit [Oscillatory circuit ]
2. Feed back circuit
 28

3. Amplifier
1. Tank Circuit [ Oscillatory circuit ]
A parallel combination of inductor 'L' and capacitor
'C' can be an oscillatory circuit. It is also called tank circuit.
The frequency of oscillation is given by
1
𝑓 = 2𝜋
√𝐿𝐶

2. Feed back circuit

The portion of the output current is returned back
to the input in inphase with the starting power is called
feedback circuit.
Working
When the supply is switched on the collector current
changes. The collector current starts increasing and charges
the capacitor. Therefore, the current flows through the
inductance coil ′𝑇2 ′ which induces current ty to ′𝑇1 ′. The
process is continued till the collector current became
maximum when the switch is off, the emitter current
decreases, collector current also decreases. Therefore the
current flows through ′𝑇2 ′which induces the current to ′𝑇1 ′.
The frequency of the circuit is given by
1
𝑓 = 2𝜋
√𝐿𝐶
Varying the inductance and capacitance, the frequency can
be varied.
 29

3. Transistor as a switch

A circuit which can turn 'on' or 'off' current in an electrical

circuit is known as switching circuit. The output voltage can
be calculated as,
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐶 → Supply Voltage
𝐼𝐶 → Collector current
𝑅𝐶 → Load resistor
Eg :- 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5 𝑉, 𝐼𝐶 = 0, 𝑅𝐶 = 1𝛺
∴ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
= 5 − 0 × 1 = 5𝑉
When transistor is off, it is in the cut off region and switch is
on.
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5 𝑉, 𝐼𝐶 = 4, 𝑅𝐶 = 1𝛺
∴ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
 30

= 5 − 4 × 1 = 1𝑉
When transistor is on, it is in the saturation region and
switch is off.
When the transistor is used in the cut -off region or in
saturation region, it acts as a switch.
When the transistor is used as an amplifier, it has to operate
in the active region.

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. What is a hole? Which type of dopping creates a

hole?
A hole is a vacant state in the covalent bond of a semi -
conductor from which an electron has been removed. When
semiconductor is dopped with trivalent impurity atoms, holes
are created.

2. Why is Germanium preferred over silicon for

making semiconductor devices?
This is because, the energy gap of germanium (𝐸𝑔 =
0.7 𝑒𝑉), smaller than the energy gap for silicon (𝐸𝑔 =
1.2 𝑒𝑉).

3. Why does the width of the depletion layer of a p-n

junction increases in reverse bias?
 31

During reverse baising, the +ve terminal of the external

battery attracts electrons from the n-region and -ve terminal
attracts holes from the p-region. i.e, the majority charge
carriers move away from the junction. This increases the
width of the depletion layer.

4. How does the thickness of a depletion layer in a p-n

junction diode vary with the increase in reverse
bias?
The thickness of a depletions layer increases with
increase in reverse bias.

5. What is an ideal junction diode?

A junction diode which conducts current when
forward bias and does not conduct in reverse bias is called an
ideal diode.

6. Calculate the current gain 𝜷 of a transistor, if the

current gain, 𝜶 = 0.98.
𝛼
𝛽= 1−𝛼

0.98
𝛽 = 1−0.98

0.98 98
= = = 49
0.02 2
 32

7. For a transistor, the value of 𝜷 = 100. What is the

value of 𝜶 ?
𝛽
𝛼 = 1+𝛽
100 100
𝛼= = = 0.99
1+100 101

8. What is a +ve feedback ?

If feedback signal is in phase with the input signal, it is
called positive feedback.

9. What is the type of feedback required in an

oscillator?
Positive feedback

10. What is the transistor, pnp or npn is more useful

and why?
npn transistor is more useful than pnp. In n-p-n
transistor, electrons are the majority charge carriers while in
p-n-p transistor, holes are the majority charge carriers. But
electrons have higher mobility than holes. So n-p-n
transistors are more commonly used than p-n-p transistors.
 33

11. Why is a NOT Gate is known as an Inverter?

A NOT gate is always inverts the input. If the input is
low (0) the output is high (1) and vice versa. Hence NOT gate
is known as an Inverter.

12. What is the relation between emitter current(𝑰𝑬 ),

base current (𝑰𝑩 ) and collector current (𝑰𝑪 ) at any
instant in a properly biased common emitter
transistor circuit? Which one of the three has the
smallest magnitude?
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
The base current 𝐼𝐵 has the smallest magnitude.