Water Distribution System

Analysis and Design

Transmission and Distribution System

Transmission System
 Purpose of Distribution System/Pipeline Network
 The distribution system is that part of waterworks which receives water from pumping station or
elevated reservoirs and delivers it throughout the district to be served.

 Distribution network/pipe network is ordinarily designed to satisfy the water requirements for a
combined of domestic, commercial, industrial and fire-fighting purposes.

 The distribution system should be capable to deliver water to the demanded palaces at
satisfactory pressures.

 The part of the pipe which conveys bulk amount of water through a single pipe is called
transmission main.
 The part in which pipe are arranged to distribute the conveyed water to different consumers
points is called distribution system.
 The transmission and distribution systems include storage reservoir, pipes network,
valves, hydrants, house connections, stand posts, etc.
Main purposes of construction of water transmission and distribution networks:
 To make water available in close proximity to the consumers
 To supply water in adequate quantity according to the demand of the consumers
 To supply water with adequate pressure
 To regulate water supply as per requirement.
 General Requirements of Distribution System
 furnish water in adequate quantities and pressures to all parts of the district served
(include all demands for domestic, commercial, industrial use and for free fighting purposes)

 should be thoroughly reliable.

 Interconnecting all the water mains and controlling flow through sluice valves to ensure
an uninterrupted supply of water of all other sections
 Protecting the following the supply mains, values and other appurtenances.

 should be economical in design, layout and construction.

 considered as the costliest parts of the water supply scheme. It is estimated that the
ratio of the cost of the distribution system to the overall cost in case of a large scheme
is 50 to 75 percent and for a small scheme as much as 90 percent.
 Classification of Transmission and Distribution System
 Gravity flow system
 System with direct pumping
 System with pumping and storage reservoir.

Gravity System
 Water from the high leveled source is distributed to the customers at lower levels by the
action of gravity without any pumping.
 The difference of head between the source and localities must be sufficient enough to get
adequate pressure at the customer’s door-step.
 Most economic since no pumping is required. However, it needs a lake or a reservoir as a
source of supply.
 Necessitate the use of motor pumps to develop sufficient pressure during fire-fighting.
 System with Direct Pumping
 Treated water is directly pumped into distribution mains without storing water anywhere.

 High lift pumps are required in this system, which have to operate at variable speeds, so as to
meet the variable demand of water. Thus, a continuous attendance is needed at the pumping
station to ensure the desired flow in the distribution system.

 Power system must be continuous to operate the system and also for fire
fighting to avoid disaster.

 Least desirable, as failure in power supply causes breakdown of the system.

 Pressure in the mains vary with consumption, so under variable consumption,

several pumps may be required to conform the supply.
 System with Pumping and Storage
 Also called dual system. When the demand rate
exceeds pumping rate, the flow into the distribution
system is both from the pumping station and from
the elevated reservoir. When pumping is more than
the demand, excess water is stored into the
reservoir.
 This system is most economical and reliable.
 It provides a uniform rate of pumping. Pumps can
be operated at their rated capacities, resulting in
higher efficiency and economy of operation.
 Water stores at reservoir can use for fire demands
and during pump breakdowns.
 Advantages and disadvantages of distribution systems
System Advantages Disadvantages
Gravity-flow  Requires no energy to operate  Not applicable in flat countries
system as water is conveyed by gravity where an elevated source of
 No pump is required and there water supply is not available.
are very few moving parts  Water loss by leakage and
 Construction, operation and wastage is comparatively higher
maintenance are simple. as the system remains under
constant pressure.
 Advantages and disadvantages of distribution systems

Direct pumping  Water can be pumped  Direct pumping at a uniform rate is not able
system only when required. to meet varying water demand and maintain
 Low water loss due to required pressure under varying rates of
system leakage. consumption.
 A power failure means breakdown of the
system
 Maintenance and operation costs are high.
 Inflow of water through leaks may cause
water contamination during non-pumping
hours.
 Advantages and disadvantages of distribution systems

Pumping  More reliable and cope with fluctuation of water  Relative higher initial
with storage demand. cost.
system  The pumps can be operated at rated capacity,  Comparatively higher
resulting in higher efficiency and economy of loss due to leakage
operation. and wastage.
 Reasonable pressure can be maintained with varying
water demand and there is no possibility of inflow of
polluted water in the system
 Can supply certain amount of water from the storage
or service reservoir during power failure.
 Distribution Network
 Branched distribution network or dead-end system
 Looped distribution network

Branched distribution network or dead-end system

 One main supply pipe in this system, from which originates
a number of sub-mains generally at right angles.
 Each sub-main is then divided in several branch pipes
called laterals. From this laterals, service connections are
given to the consumers.
 Suitable for older towns, developed in a haphazard manner,
without properly planned roads.
 The water supply mains are taken along the main roads and
branches are taken off wherever needed, thus resulting in
the formation of dead ends.
 Advantages and disadvantages of branched network
Advantages Disadvantages
(a) Easy to calculate the discharge and (a) Water supply needs to be stopped
pressures at different points in the system. completely at the period of maintenance
(b) Lesser numbers of cut-off valves (slice or repairing any damage in the pipe line
valves) are required in this system. which causes great inconvenience to the
consumers.
(c) Needs shorter pipe lengths and is easy for
installation. (b) Numerous dead ends in this system
which prevents the free circulation of
(d) Cheap and can be expanded easily.
water. This stagnation of water may lead
(e) Suitable for developing areas with an to the degradation in its quality.
irregular pattern of development.
(c) Water supplies during fire-fighting cannot
be increased since the discharge reaches
a point from only one direction.
(d) Frequent blow-off or flushing is needed to
keep the system clean.
 Looped distribution network
 Distribution pipe networks mostly flow the road network or across roads.
 Suitable for a well planned developed area with a definite pattern of road network.

Advantages
 No stagnation of water, consumption of water at any point activates
flow in the whole network.
 Continuity of water supply anywhere in the system despite any
repair work to a main or sub-main.
 The system provides very good control over flow of water.

Disadvantages
 Relatively high initial cost.
 A large number of valves is needed, if control of flow in the system is desired.
 Looped networks are divided into three categories:
 Grid iron system
 Ring system
 Radial system

Grid iron system

 Also known as Interlaced system or Reticulation

system.

 More suitable for well planed towns and cities.

 Principle of grid-iron system can be applied to the

dead end system also, by closing the loop, and
thus removing the dead ends.
 Grid iron system
Advantages of this system are:
 Since the water reaches at different places through more than one route, the discharge to be
carries by each pipe, the friction loss and the size of the pipe, therefore get reduced.
 Because of different interconnections, the dead ends are completely eliminated and water
remains in continuous circulation and hence not liable to pollution due to stagnation.
 During fire, more water can be diverted towards the required points.

Disadvantages of the systems are:

 Requires more length of pipe lines and a larger number of sluice valves.
 Design is difficult and costlier and also costlier to construct.
 Ring system
 Also called Circular system.
 In this system, a closed ring either circular or rectangular, of
the main pipes, is formed around the area to be served.
 The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular
blocks, and the main water pipes are laid on periphery of
these blocks.
 Sometimes the system is used as “a looped feeder placed
centrally around a high demand area” along with the grid iron
system. In such a case, enhances the capacity of the grid
iron system, and will improve the pressures at various points.
 Advantages and disadvantages of this system: same as grid
iron system.
 Radial system
 When a city/town has a system of radial roads emerging
from different centers, this system is adopted by placing
the distribution reservoirs at the centers.
 In this system, water is therefore, taken from the water
mains, and pumped into the distribution reservoirs
placed at different centers.
 The water is then supplied through radially laid
distribution pipes.
 This method ensures high pressures and efficient water
distribution.
 Radial system:
Advantages of this system:
 Since the water reaches at different places through more than one route, the discharge to be
carried by each pipe, the friction loss and the size of the pipe therefore get reduced.
 In case of repairs, very small area will be devoid of complete supply, as at least, some supply will
be reaching at the point from some other route.
 Because of different inter-connections, the dead ends are completely eliminated, and, therefore,
water remains in continuous circulation and hence not liable to pollution due to stagnation.
 During fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected point from various directions by
closing and manipulating the various cut-off valves.
Disadvantages of this system:
 requires more length of pipe lines, and a larger number of sluice valves.
 Construction is costlier.
 Design is difficult and costlier needed experts with computers.
 Pipes in Transmission and Distribution Networks
Pipes
Circular in section and normally follow the profile of the ground surface closely.
 Gravity pipelines
 Pressure pipelines
Selection of pipe material and pipe design depends on the following factors:
 Internal pressure and external loads to which the pipe is subjected
 Quality of water
 Capital and maintenance costs
 Expected life and ease of repair and replacement
 Carrying capacity of pipe
 Stresses due to water hammer and change of direction and alignment, etc.
 Desirable Qualities of Pressured Pipes
Types of Pipes  Made of durable materials so that no leakage developed
 Cast iron pipe causing water wastage.
 Steel pipe  Be strong and of sufficient thickness to with stand both internal
 RCC pipe and external stresses.
 Inner surface should be very smooth so that the resistance to
 Pre-stress pipe
flow is minimum.
 Asbestos pipe
 Pipe materials should not impart any physical or chemical
 Iron-cement pipe
effects to water.
 Copper, brass and lead pipe  Pipes should be light so that transporting, handling and laying
 Plastic pipe the pipe under different conditions of topography, geology and
• LDPE (low density polyethylene) communication become easier.
• HDPE (high density polyethylene)  Low initial cost and maximum service period.
 PVC, uPVC pipe  Low annual maintenance cost.
 Pipe section should posses good hydraulic properties.
 Pipe Laying
Operation involved in laying of pipe lines:
 Preparation of detailed map of roads an streets
 Locating the proposed alignment on the ground
 Excavating the trends (width 12 -18 inch more) Requisites of a jointing materials:
 Preparation of the bottom of the trench o Impervious
excavated
o Elastic
 Lowering of pipes into the trench
o Strength
 Laying of pipes
o Durable
 Jointing of pipes (6, 10, 12, 15, 20 ft.)
o Adhesiveness
 Anchoring of pipes
o Availability
 Back filing
o Workability
 Pipe testing.
o Economy.
 Pipe Testing
 Hydraulic performance
After laying and backfilling, the pipeline is subjected to pressure
 Pressure testing
testing and hydraulic test to detect leakages.
 Leakage testing
Testing is a normal requirement for new construction.
 The length tested is generally • The specification of AWWA requires that no installation be
be less than 300 m. accepted unless the leakage is less than
 The pipe is filled with water
.
carefully to ensure that no air is
trapped in the section. L = allowable leakage, N = No. of joints in the length tested
 A pressure of 50% above the D = nominal pipe diameter, mm, P = average pressure during testing
normal operating pressure is C = constant = 32.6 (m3/h, mm, kPa)
applied and maintained for at =1850 (gal/h, inch, psi).
least 30 min.
 Disinfection of Pipe Network
 Contamination of new water mains is unavoidable because the pipes are stored in the open
and, when placed in trenches, they may be flooded during construction.
 Before disinfection, the pipe should be cleaned for dirt, tools, and other solid material which
may have been lift in the lines. Flushing at a velocity of at least 0.75 m/s will remove
sediments.
 The lines are then filled with water containing a free chlorine residual of at least 1.0 mg/L must
remain after 24h contact. Bacteriological analyses of the water should then be conducted to
ensure that the total bacterial count does not exceed 500/mL and that no coliform bacteria are
present. If either standard is not met, the line should be filled with water containing at least 50
mg/L available chlorine, which should not fall below 25 mg/L after 24h.
 Stresses in Pipe
Internal pressure (static pressure of water)

Where, r = radius of pipe, P = internal pressure, t = thickness of the pipe.

Water Hammer: resulting from the sudden stopping or slowing of flow in a pipe. The KE of
moving water is converted into PE stored in water. The water is compressed and the pipe
material is stretched.
.

Where, V = velocity of flow = Q/A, d = diameter of pipe, t = thickness of the pipe

K = bulk modulus of elasticity of water, E = modulus of elasticity of water and ρ =
mass density of water.
 Storage Reservoir
Capacity of Storage Reservoir: Mass Curve
 Storage reservoir is constructed in the distribution
system to provide storage to meet the fluctuation of
water demand, stabilize pressure and provide
storage for emergency requirements.

 The storage reservoir should be large enough to

accommodate the cumulative difference between
water supply and demand.

 For 24-hr pumping at constant rate, volume of water

reservoir is about 22% of the daily water demand.  The reservoir should be located at the
 For 12-hr pumping, volume of water reservoir is 28% center of distribution network or as close
to the distribution area as possible.
of the daily water demand.
 Design Criteria of Storage Reservoir
 Capacity of the reservoir
 Water level in the reservoir so as to permit gravity flow with adequate pressure.

Types
 RCC
 Steel tank
 Pre-stressed
Shape
 Square/rectangular
 Circular
 Cylindrical
 Cylindrical with conical shape
 Cylindrical with hemispheric shape.
 Supply Pressure
 Residential : Normal pressure = 40 psi
Minimum = 20 psi
 Business districts: pressure varies from 50-80 psi
 High rise building: 50-60 psi.

Factors to be considered in design of distribution system

Types of water supply
 Types of water supply: Intermittent or continuous
 Continuous: 24-hr supply
 Method of distribution: Gravity or pumping
 Intermittent: (5 AM-11 AM, 3 PM-9 PM)
 Probable future demand of water
 Design life
 Pressure and velocity in the distribution system.
Continues supply Intermittent Water Supply

Advantages Advantages
 People utilize water with care and attention
 Supply is available for 24-hr, people
 Technical repair can be done during no supply hrs, so
not store water
that regular supply will not be disturbed.
 Lesser pipe sizes are required  Supply can be adjusted to different zones with required
 Fire hazard can be met with time. pressure by adjusting the supply hrs.
Disadvantages: Disadvantages
• More water is required • People store water for use during non-supply hrs
• Negative pressure in pipe may occur during non-supply
• More water wastage due to lack of
hrs
civic sense.
• More water wastages as people keep open their taps
during non-supply hrs.
 Distribution System Maintenance
 Occasional cleaning
 Servicing of valves and hydrants
 Leak surveys
 Repair
 Disinfection of repaired sections
 Thawing of frozen lines.
 Design of Distribution System
 Design of a water distribution system: proportioning pipe size (diameter) so that the design flow
can be carried with head losses not exceeds the allowable limit (end pressure).
 The designed flow should be based on estimated future requirements, since a distribution
system is expected to provide effective service for many years (often as long as 100 years). A
sequence of evaluation, design and layout operations is as follows:
1. Review available data on the distribution system. These include maps, construction plans,
billing records, planning studies, zoning regulations, population figures, water use studies and
any other relevant data.
2. For existing water system, details information of pipes (diameter, length, age, etc.), supply
sources, pumping station locations and characteristics, storage tank locations and capacity
must be determined.
3. Prepared a detailed map of existing system or proposed system.
4) Forecast population at the end of design period (10 to 50 years). Water use is to be estimated on
population projections and anticipated trends in commercial and industrial activity.
5) Estimate the rate of demand for all purposes including the fire demands and determine the
quantity flowing in each section of the pipe length. Calculate also the peak flow.
6) Assume pipe sizes. The velocity of flow varies 3 to 4 ft/sec.
7) Find loss of head due to friction in the pipe length.
8) Determine the available terminal pressure heads. Starting from the service reservoir of the
pumping station where the total pressure head is known. The pressure head at the end of any line
would be determined by allowing for the frictional loss of head and any rise or fall due sloping of
the pipe line and the ground level.
9) In case of differences between the available terminal pressure head and the permissible pressure
head, revise the assumed pipe size.
 Water consumption in Bangladesh and Peak Factor

Areas Water Consumption (lpcd) Peak factor (recommended)

Rural areas 50 3
Upazila towns 100 2
Zilla towns 120 2
City Corporation 180 1.5
 Hydraulic Design of Distribution System
 The Hazen Williams equation is used for the hydraulic design of both branched or looped
networks of pipes. The Hazen Williams equation can be written as
. ⁄ .
𝑄 = 3.7𝑥10 𝐶𝐷

Where, Q = flows, lps

C = roughness coefficient (100-140 for rough to smooth pipes)
D = diameter, mm
H = head loss, m
L = Length of pipe, m

For a definite value of C, this equation can be written as

.
= 1.39𝑥10 . (m/m) for C = 130
.
= 1.59𝑥10 . (m/m) for C = 120
 Hydraulic Design of Distribution System
 The process involved in the design to make a pipe layout, assume the pipe size and then work
out the terminal pressure head which could be made available at the end of each pipe section
when discharging the peak flow.
 The available pressure heads are checked to see if they correspond to permissible residual
pressure heads.
 If not, the pipe size is changed and the system is reinvestigated until satisfactory conditions
are obtained.
 Branched Network
The following design procedure may be adopted for branched network:
i. Collect/prepare a map of the area to be served with roads, streets and other features and make a
layout of mains, sub-mains and branches including location of valves and other appurtenances.
ii. Estimate the peak flow at different points and determine the quantity of flowing through each section
of the pipe. Peak flow = average daily flow x peak factor.
iii. Assume pipe size of all pipes in the network (to calculate approximate pipe size, assume a velocity
= 1 m/sec)
iv. Calculate frictional head loss per unit length of the pipe and then multiply by pipe length to find the
total head loss.
v. Determine the terminal pressure head taking the change in the elevation of the pipe into account
vi. In case of a difference between the computed terminal pressure and the permissible pressure head,
revise the calculation with new diameter of pipe.
 Looped Network
 The determination of the probable flow in each pipe in a pipe network requires
complicated and tedious trail and errors solutions.
 In any looped pipe network, two conditions must be satisfied:
 The flow entering a junction must be equal the flow leaving it
 The algebraic sum of the head loss around any closed loop must be zero.

Equation of head loss for a particular pipe can be written as:

𝐻 = 𝑘𝑄

in which, k is the constant depending on the length, diameter and roughness of the pipe as
well as the fluid properties, x is equal to 1.85 for Hazen Williams equation and 2 for the
Manning equation.
For looped network, Hardy Cross method is widely used.
 Computer Methods
Several computer programming available for the analysis of pipe network.
 KYpipes
 Water JAM/Water CAD
 CyberNET
 EPANET
Looped Network