Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is responsible for the transmission of raw data bits over a communica on
channel.

1. Guided Media

Guided media use physical cables for data transmission. Examples include:

 Twisted Pair Cable: Used in LANs and telephone networks.

 Coaxial Cable: Used in cable TV and broadband connec ons.

 Fiber Op c Cable: Uses light signals and is used in high-speed networks.

Example: A fiber op c cable is used to provide high-speed internet to a city.

2. Unguided Media

Unguided media use wireless transmission for communica on. Examples include:

 Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi and mobile networks.

 Microwaves: Used in satellite and long-distance telephone communica on.

 Infrared: Used in TV remotes and short-range communica on.

Example: A Wi-Fi router uses radio waves to connect devices.

3. Wireless Transmission: Electromagne c Spectrum

Wireless communica on uses different frequencies of the electromagne c spectrum:

 Low Frequency (LF): AM radio.

 High Frequency (HF): Shortwave radio.

 Very High Frequency (VHF): FM radio, TV signals.

 Ultra High Frequency (UHF): Mobile phones, GPS.

 Microwave & Infrared: Satellite, remote controls.

Example: Mobile phones use UHF for voice and data transmission.

Switching

Switching determines how data is transferred across networks.

1. Circuit-Switched Networks
  A dedicated communica on path is established between sender and receiver.

 Used in telephone networks.

 Connec on remains open for the en re session.

Example: A tradi onal phone call uses circuit switching.

2. Packet Switching

 Data is divided into small packets and sent independently.

 Used in the Internet (TCP/IP networks).

 Packets may take different paths and reassemble at the des na on.

Example: Sending an email using the Internet.

3. Structure of a Switch

A network switch forwards data between devices in a LAN.

 Components: Input ports, output ports, control logic, buffer memory.

 Types: Layer 2 switches (based on MAC addresses), Layer 3 switches (based on IP

Example: A switch in an office network connects computers to share resources.

Data Link Layer (DLL) Design Issues

The Data Link Layer ensures reliable communica on between devices.

1. Services

 Framing: Organizes data into frames for transmission.

 Error Control: Detects and corrects errors in transmission.

 Flow Control: Ensures sender does not overload receiver.

Example: A network adapter handles error detec on at the DLL.

2. Error Detec on and Correc on

Errors can occur due to noise, interference, or signal degrada on.

a) Hamming Code

 Uses extra bits to detect and correct errors.

 Can correct single-bit errors.

b) Parity Bit

 A single extra bit (even or odd) detects errors.

Example: Used in serial communica on.

c) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 Uses polynomial division to detect errors.

 Used in Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

Example: Ethernet frames use CRC to check data integrity.

d) Checksum

 Sum of data segments is calculated and sent for verifica on.

Example: Used in TCP/IP networks.

Elementary Data Link Protocols

1. Stop and Wait

 Sender waits for acknowledgment before sending the next frame.

 Simple but slow.

Example: File transfer with acknowledgment.

2. Sliding Window Protocols

 Sender can send mul ple frames before needing acknowledgment.

a) Go-Back-N

 Sender retransmits all frames a er an error.

b) Selec ve Repeat

 Only the incorrect frame is retransmi ed.

Example: Used in TCP for reliable data transfer.

3. Piggybacking

 Acknowledgment is sent with data instead of separately.

Example: Improves efficiency in bidirec onal communica on.

4. HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)

 Used in point-to-point and mul point links.

Example: Used in WAN connec ons.

Medium Access Protocols

1. Random Access

 Devices transmit whenever they want.

 Examples: ALOHA, CSMA/CD (Ethernet), CSMA/CA (Wi-Fi).

Example: Wi-Fi networks use CSMA/CA to avoid collisions.

2. Controlled Access

 Devices take turns to transmit.

 Examples: Polling, Token Passing.

Example: Token Ring networks use controlled access.

3. Channeliza on

 Mul ple devices share the channel using different techniques.

 FDMA: Frequency division.

 TDMA: Time division.

 CDMA: Code division.

Example: Mobile networks use CDMA and TDMA.

Ethernet Protocol

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology.

1. Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

 Uses coaxial cables (old) or twisted pair cables.

Example: Early office networks.

2. Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

 Requires Category 5 (Cat5) twisted pair cables.

Example: Used in small offices and homes.

 Used for high-speed networking.

 Requires fiber-op c or Cat6 cables.

Example: Used in modern data centers.

4. 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)

 Used in large-scale enterprise networks.

Example: Backbone networks of ISPs.

Conclusion

Understanding networking fundamentals helps in designing efficient communica on